BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY (BOTANICAL SCIENCES)

EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES ON THE PATTERNS

OF PLANT COMMUNITY DISTRIBUTION IN THE AFRO- ALPINE
VEGETATION OF SIMIEN MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK,
NORTHWEST ETHIOPIA

By

Getahun Tassew Melese

November, 2016

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

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 Bahir Dar University

College of Science

Department of Biology

Effects of Environmental Variables on the Patterns of Plant Community

Distribution in the Afro- Alpine Vegetation of Simien Mountains National
Park, Northwest Ethiopia

By

Getahun Tassew Melese

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Biology for Requirement of

Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of Masters of Science in Biology
(Botanical Sciences)

Supervisor: Berhanu Abraha (PhD)

November, 2016

Dahir Dar, Ethiopia

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 DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declared that this MSc work is original and not presented in any
university for the fulfillment of any degree program or any purpose. All sources used in this
thesis are properly acknowledged.

Getahun Tassew Melese -------------------------------- ------------------------------

Candidate Signature Date

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ii
 DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my mother Alemitu Nadew Kidanu who was a key to the lock of
my success, my father Tassew Melese Michaelu and my brother Eshetu Tassew Melese for
their contribution.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My first thank goes to my supervisor Dr. Berhanu Abraha for his valuable recommendations,
directions and guidance. Above all, his friendly approach encouraged me to contact him
frequently and freely to discuss issues.

I want to thank Dr. Getinet Masresha, from University of Gondar, for his involvement while
formulating the title of the project and during the analysis including provision of some
helpful materials and sharing his experience, as he worked his PhD in the area.

I thank the Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP) staffs for their cooperation in
transportation as well as those young people from the local community and rangers assisted
me in the field while I was collecting data. Especially, local youngsters and rangers are
acknowledged though it is not possible to mention their names for space.

The final key element of the work was vested on high amount of budget for soil laboratory
work and it was possible due to the collaboration of Water and Land Resource Center
(WLRC). Dr. Gete Zeleke played a great role in allocating the money for the soil analysis
and Elisabeth facilitated the transfer of the budget to the soil laboratory.

Kenaw Abeje was very friendly and cooperative to develop the study area map. I thank
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) for allowing me to learn and the cost of
the field was covered by (SDPASE). Finally, I would like to thank my family members for
encouraging me; Nigist Tsegaye and Beletu Tsegay, my sisters, fill the gap of the budget I
need. Haimanot Zegeye assisted me in preparing field staffs. Thanks to Henos Getahun and
Yididya Getahun for their tolerance while I was far from them to learn and to collect data in
the field.

Getahun Tassew Melese

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. iv

LIST O F TABLES ............................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF APPENDICES ....................................................................................................... ix

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... x

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ xi

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2

1.2 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................ 3

1.2.1 General objective: ................................................................................................... 3

1.2.2 Specific objectives:.................................................................................................. 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 5

2.1 Environmental Variables ................................................................................................. 5

2.1.1 Topographic Variables........................................................................................... 6

2.1.2 Soil Variables .......................................................................................................... 7

2.2 The Ethiopian Vegetation................................................................................................ 8

2.2.1 The Ethiopian Afro-Alpine Vegetation .............................................................. 10

2.2.2 The SMNP Afro-Alpine Vegetation .................................................................... 11

2.3 Plant Community Structure and Species Distribution .................................................. 13

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................. 15

3.1 Description of the study area ......................................................................................... 15

3.2 Methods ......................................................................................................................... 17

3.2.1 Vegetation Sampling and Specimen Identification ........................................... 18

3.2.2 Soil Sampling and Laboratory Work ................................................................. 19

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 3.3 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 20

3.3.1 Plant community analysis .................................................................................... 20

3.3.2 Species diversity richness and evenness analysis ............................................... 21

3.3.3 Species composition similarity between Communities ...................................... 21

3.3.4 Ordination Analysis.............................................................................................. 21

3.3.5 Vegetation structure ............................................................................................. 22

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 23

4.1 Afro- Alpine Vegetation Compositions in SMNP ........................................................ 23

4.2 Afro- Alpine Plant Community Types .......................................................................... 26

4.2.1 Agrostis sclerophylla - Agrostis quinquesta Plant Community Type ................ 26

4.2.2 Festuca macrophylla - Alchemilla microbetula Plant Community Type .......... 27

4.2.3 Erica arborea - Festuca macrophylla Plant Community Type .......................... 27

4.3 The Afro- Alpines Plant Communities Richness, Diversity and Evenness .................. 32

4.4 Species Composition Similarities between Communities ............................................. 32

4.5 Vegetation and Environmental Factors Relationship .................................................... 33

4.6 Vegetation Structure ...................................................................................................... 45

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................... 49

5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 49

5.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 50

6. REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 51

7. APPENDICES................................................................................................................ 59

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 LIST O F TABLES

Table 3.1 Percent cover scales (1-9 modified Braun-Blanquet scale) .................................... 19

Table 4.1 Number of genera and species under the families .................................................. 23
Table 4.2 Sampling plots in each site ..................................................................................... 25
Table 4.3 Distribution of plots in the plant communities and average elevation ................... 26
Table 4.4 Synoptic cover abundance value............................................................................ 31
Table 4.5 Richness, Diversity and Evenness Comparison of the plant community types ...... 32
Table 4.6 Communities species composition Comparison .................................................... 33
Table 4.7 Measure of association between environmental variables and vegetation ............. 34
Table 4.8 Adonis Significance Test ........................................................................................ 35
Table 4.9 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the whole community ....................... 38
Table 4.10 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the first community ......................... 41
Table 4.11 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the second community .................... 43
Table 4.12 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the third community ....................... 44

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Study area and sampling site locations .................................................................. 15

Figure 3.2 Climate diagram for Chenek station . .................................................................... 16
Figure 4.1 Afro- alpine species accumulation curve ............................................................. 26
Figure 4.2 Dendrogram for afro- alpine plant community ................................................. 30
Figure 4. 3 Ordination of environmental variables to vegetation sites ................................... 37
Figure 4. 4 Ordination for plant community type one ............................................................ 40
Figure 4. 5 Ordination for plant community type two ........................................................... 42
Figure 4. 6 Ordination for plant community type three .......................................................... 44
Figure 4. 7 DBH and Height class distributions of E. arborea and H. revolutum ................. 46

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 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Afro-Alpine Plant species list of the study area .................................................. 59

Appendix 2 Synoptic Table of the plant community analysis ................................................ 62
Appendix 3 Correlation among environmental variables (The SAS System) ........................ 65
Appendix 4 Laboratory soil analysis result ........................................................................... 69
Appendix 5 Plates .................................................................................................................. 70

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 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADSWE – Amhara Design and Supervision Work Enterprise

ANOVA – Analysis of Variance

ANRS – Amhara national regional state

asl – above sea level

AWF – African Wildlife Foundation

BDU – Bahir Dar University

BMNP – Bale Mountains National Park

CCA – Canonical Correspondence Analysis

EARO – Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization

EPA – Environmental Protection Authority

EWCA – Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority

FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization

IBC – Institute of Biodiversity Conservation

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources

Lab – Laboratory

MEF – Ministry of Environment and Forest

PaDPA – Parks Development and Protection Authority

PCA – Principal Component Analysis

SDPASE – Sustainable Development of Protected Area Systems of Ethiopia

SMNP – Simien Mountains National Park

UNESCO – United Nation for Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UoV – University of Victoria

USAID – United States Agency for International Development

WLRC – Water and Land Resource Center

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 ABSTRACT

This study was conducted in the Simien Mountains National Park, Northerwest Ethiopia with
the objective of evaluating the effects of environmental factors on the patterns of plant
community formation and species distribution in the afro- alpine vegetation. The data were
collected from stratified mountains systematically from October to November 2015.
Vegetation was sampled from 62 and soil from 30 quadrats with the size of 20m X 20m and
five 1m X 1m small quadrats at each corner and one at middle. Specimens were collected and
identified. The parameters for soil analysis were pH, texture, organic matter, total nitrogen,
available phosphorus, cation exchange capacity, soil conductivity and available phosphorus.
The data were analyzed using SAS version 9.1 and R version 3.1.3. From the 86 plant species
90.7 % were herbs, 7% shrubs and 2.3 % trees. The plants belonged to 34 families and 63
genera. Asteraceae was the species richest whereas Poaceae was the most dominant. Three
plant community types were recognized from cluster analysis. Altitude was found to be the
most important environmental variable followed by pH that influenced plant community
formation and species distribution. Elevation was positively correlated with pH in the higher
areas and negatively correlated in the lower altitudes. Both topography and soil have effect
on the afro-alpine vegetation community formation and species distribution. Future research
directions and recommendations are suggested for the sustainable utilization of the
vegetation

Key words/ phrases: Afro- alpine vegetation, environmental variables, ordination, plant
community, R program, species diversity

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia is East African country rich in vegetation diversification due to high range of
altitudinal variation; ranging from 110 m below sea level at Dalol to 4543m above sea level
at Simien Mountains National Park. The country is the origin as well as center of
biodiversity and possesses six thousand to seven thousand vascular plants. In regard to this
different authors in different times came up with the evidence that varies (Fichtl and Admasu
Adi, 1994; Azene Bekele, 2007; USAID, 2008; Ensermu Kelbessa and Sebsebe Demissew,
2014). According to USAID (2008), the endemism reached to 19% which increased by 7%
from the former work of Fichtl and Admasu Adi in 1994. This shows us that the enumeration
of plant species and study of vegetation in the country is not yet completed.

Ethiopia is inhabited for long period of time and is considered as origin of human beings.
The population growth of the country has been increasing in an alarming rate (three percent
annual) depleting the natural resources (Bielli et al., 2001). There is high demand for farming
land, livestock and investment among others. All these were depleting the natural wealth of
the country without early measure of managing nature. Natural vegetation was the main part
to be highly affected by high growth of the population and related needs. The vegetation was
to be deforested for agricultural activities, timber production, fire wood collection, charcoal
distribution, urbanization, road construction and others. The natural vegetation cover was
reduced from 40 percent (in the beginning of 20th century) to 2.2 these days (Amare Sewnet,
2013). The problem was serious especially in the highlands of the country that led to sever
soil degradation. Highlands of Ethiopia are occupied by more than 88% of human, 60% of
the livestock populations and mixed farming is high which led to high deforestation rate in
the region (Bielli et al., 2001; Adugnaw Birhanu, 2014). In addition to population increment,
foreign investment was encouraged than the conservation of the vegetation resources
(Guillozet and Bliss, 2011).

These days, there is good trial (beginning) of managing nature in Ethiopia though still there
are problems in following-up (Badege Bishaw et al., 2003; Yitebitu Mogues et al., 2010).
This can be evidenced by establishment of ministry of forest and environment in recent

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years, mass mobilization for water and soil conservation, plantation of seedlings in millions
in different areas at different times, increasing the number of protected areas and widening
them (EPA, 2012). All such efforts require careful studies and proper attentions. According
to the second growth and transformation plan, the ministry of forest and environment
promised to cover about 20 percent of the country by vegetation.

As it is described by Zerihun Woldu (2012), the central goal of ecology is to explain the
distribution of species in terms of environmental variables presumed to the operative
constraints on the species. The relationship between plant community and environmental
factors were one of the ecological aspects of plant ecology. In different areas different
researchers got different results in relation to environmental factors and plant community
formation and species distribution (Tesfaye Awas et al., 2001; Guoquing et al., 2008;
Mehrjardi et al., 2009; Zare et al., 2011; Gholinejad et al., 2012; Mamo kebede et al., 2013).

Plant communities are mainly influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors (Chapin et al.,
2002). To this effect, understanding of topographic and soil variables is an important issue
for environmentalists, ecologists, policy makers and for conservation of nature. In Simien
Mountains National Park (SMNP), lots of studies have been made for more than four decades
as the site is one of the first established National parks in the country. Most of the studies
were on fauna when compared to flora. However, though there were extensive efforts on the
geological aspects, environmental factors especially soil related factors in relation to patterns
of plant community formation and species distribution in the afro alpine vegetation is not yet
done. So, the purpose of this work was to find out the effects of environmental variables on
the patterns of plant community formation and species distribution in the afro- alpine
vegetation areas of the Simien Mountains National Park.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Plant species distribution is affected by many environmental factors. This in turn affects the
distribution of animals, especially wildlife distribution since animals depend on their
vegetation preferences. Factors like altitudinal variation, temperature, light and others are
mostly considered to play great role in playing variation of community formation and species
distribution. Sometimes we observed that in the same environment viz. in similar climatic

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condition there is variation in species distribution and community formation. This could be
due to other factors related to soil variables and topographic features. Though that is so, soil
environmental variables were not commonly considered in some studies to make differences
in community formation and species distribution. Previously, especially, millennium
plantations did not exist in many of the sites. This is not only due to follow up problems but
before plantation the preferences of the plant species were not considered in relation to soil
test in advance and it was wastage of resources and time.

Simien Mountain National Park (SMNP) is one of the oldest protected areas in Ethiopia and
the oldest of being inscribed as natural world heritage and hence lots of researches by
foreigner and domestic researchers have been made so far. But environmental variables
especially soil parameters; in relation of plant community formation and species distribution
were not studied. This could be probably due to high cost of soil analysis, inaccessibility of
the site (ruggedness), temptation of the air condition (too cold) and less attention to the
impact of soil. These areas are centers of endemism both in flora and fauna that helped the
site to be natural world heritage site and source of water for so many lowland users including
big projects as that of Tekeze Dam and Wolkite Sugar Factory following Zerima River; and
hence it needs more research works. So, this study is intending to fill this gap as it was
recommended by other researcher (Getinet Masresha, 2014) and to assist the park
biodiversity management to sustain the park as it is world heritage site.

1.2 Research Objectives

1.2.1 General objective:

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of environmental variables on spatial
patterns of plant community formation and species distribution in the Simien Mountain’s afro
alpine vegetation.

1.2.2 Specific objectives:

 To determine the type of plant community formation and species distribution in the
area

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 To find out the more significant environmental variables in relation to plant
community formation and species distribution
 To assess plant species composition and woody species structure

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Environmental Variables

Environmental variables affect the natural vegetation in many ways (Desalegn Wana and
Zerihun Woldu, 2005). The influence of vegetation and environmental variables is vice
versa. Globally, Patterns of plant species diversity are influenced by latitudinal, altitudinal
and soil gradients (Chapin et al., 2002). Altitude is one of the most influencing
environmental factors that determine species diversity and distribution patterns. Species
diversity generally tends to decrease when the elevation becomes high (Desalegn Wana,
2002). The interacting role of climate, topography and soil are primary determinants of plant
distribution so that variables such as vegetation structure and productivity also exhibit
complex patterns along environmental gradient (Maarel, 2005). The presence of optimum
environmental factors such as altitude, slope and adequate nutrient and moisture helps for
high species diversity (Shambel Bantiwalu, 2010). According to Getinet Masresha (2014),
different environmental variables have different influences in in the four patches of the
afromontane vegetation of the SMNP. Getinet Masresha explained that Phosphorus, Organic
matter, total nitrogen, electrical conductivity and catoin exchange capacity strongly
influenced distribution of species in Adarmaz Forest. Whereas the effect of slope and altitude
were well illustrated with species distribution of Muchila Forest. The pH, slope, altitude and
K determined the distribution of species in Limalimo Forest. Altitude and Organic matter
strongly influenced species distribution pattern of Debir- Sankaber Forest. Getinet Masresha
(2014) and Schimitt et al. (2010) indicated that environmental factors, altitude in particular,
contributed significantly in explaining variations in the patterns of plant distribution and the
formation of the plant community types followed by organic matter.
In general, the distribution, abundance and diversity patterns of species can result from the
interaction between biotic and abiotic factors at different spatial and temporal scales (Chapin
et al., 2002). Variations in climate, temperature and rainfall distribution are generally
reflected in the variations of the species composition and structure of communities (Feyera
Abdena, 2010). The difference in communities might partly be explained by the variation in
altitude, slope and soil properties (Mekonnen Biru, 2003).

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 2.1.1 Topographic Variables

Topographical feature is one of the main influencing factors in which vegetation patterns are
highly affected either through landform positions or process that dictate the availability of
materials such as water and nutrients (Chapin et al., 2002). Topographic attributes of
landforms include aspect, slope and elevation. These are the main topographic attributes of
landform and they influence the pattern of vegetation in the landscape indirectly and that’s
why many researchers working on this area use these as main parameters (Desalegn Wana,
2002; Mekonnen Biru, 2003; Ephrem Haile, 2008; Getinet Masresha, 2014). For instance,
aspect (direction) is one of the factors that influence the availability of moisture or level of
temperature (Jin et al., 2008). It influences the solar radiation recipient and variations of such
energy on different parts of the mountains. Thus it results in variation of microclimatic
conditions and soil development that in turn affects the richness of species in different
exposure of a single mountain. According to Stage and Salas (2007) aspect, slope and
elevation have been demonstrated as useful alternates for the spatial and temporal
distribution of factors such as radiation, precipitation and temperature that influences plant
composition and productivity.
Topographic position and configuration is another important attribute of topography that
influences the distribution of vegetation type by varying essential plant nutrients and rainfall
availability (Wu and Archer, 2005). Vegetation types that cross a range of elevations are
exposed to a mixture of topographic conditions or potential habitats for plant colonization
and this may explain the higher species richness of widely distributed vegetation types
(Poulos et al., 2007); the redistribution of water after rain varies accordingly with the
variation in slope position and configuration. For instance, valley bottoms and ridge tops do
not receive equal amounts of moisture since valley bottoms collect moisture than ridge tops.
Such variation in moisture in the landscape influences vegetation patterns (Wu and Archer,
2005). In this regard Karami et al. (2015) indicated that slope position and steepness affect
the relative abundance of herbaceous species, where valley bottoms have relatively abundant
herbaceous species than ridge tops. Similarly slope configuration such as concave and
convex slopes influences the redistribution of moisture. Concave slopes collect moisture
while convex slopes disperse it and hence influence species composition and structure of
vegetation (Poulos et al., 2007). On the other way the distribution of mineral nutrients may
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vary accordingly within the landscape as ‘through flow’ and surface movement bring
materials to the lower slope position and to the valley bottom and concave slope hence
nutrients are presumed to be higher in this areas (Stage and Salas, 2007).
In Ethiopia, specifically in SMNP as discussed by Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa (2005),
altitude becomes an important factor in controlling the zonation of forests. But its effect as
indicated earlier is very complex since most of the factors such as temperature, precipitation
and topographic aspect and other landform parameters are indirectly controlled by altitude.
For instance, steep slopes experience faster movement of water and materials hence
resources available for plants in such slopes may be scarce.
Geomorphic processes may also influence the distribution and pattern of vegetation in a
given landscape (Poulos et al., 2007). The movement of sediments across the landscape may
facilitate the movement of seeds and affect germination apart from its direct impact on the
physical and chemical properties of soils (Desalegn Wana, 2002).

2.1.2 Soil Variables

Soil, on which plants grow up, is the basic need for all forms of life to sustain, as plants are
main food producers without which any life cannot survive. Vegetation type, (eg. Organic
matter) affects soil properties and soil type affect the vegetation type. There are different
types of soils that play a great role in relation to the vegetation formation and species
distribution by varying the water content availability. Soil physical and chemical properties
influence plant growth in many ways such as moisture availability, nutrient availability and
Cation Exchange Capacity (Mekonnen Biru, 2003). The differentiation of communities can
be partly explained by the variations of soil texture and chemical properties. There is
variation in soil physical and chemical properties among different plant communities
(Desalegn Wana, 2002). Changes in soil properties are strongly related to vegetation pattern.
According to Wang et al. (2013), there is different vegetation cover in different soil
properties. The probability distribution of soil properties and significant differences among
them under different vegetation types is observed. Soil texture content may be influenced by
the variation of topography which could result in different soil transport and deposit
dynamics (Wang et al., 2013), coarse sand at upper parts and clay deposited lower areas after
transported. Soil organic matter, bulk density, and porosity affect soil water contents. On the

7
other hand, Ponge et al. (2014) found out that, small organisms like worms and annelids have
great role in changing the properties of soil, water content and transportation, and hence
brings vegetation type pattern change.
As it is described by Hedberg (1964), most of soil parent material of afro alpine areas is the
result of volcanos and the character is, of course, strongly influenced by their humus
contents. The extent of humus accumulation seems to depend largely upon the degree of
moisture available, and upon temperature conditions. The moister a mountain is the more
humus is accumulated in its soils. Within the alpine belt the extent of humus accumulation
appears to decrease with increasing altitude (Hedberg, 1964; Ponge et al., 2014). The upper
parts of the afro-alpine soil is characterized by its coarse texture and getting down to the
bottom the fineness increases (Hedberg, 1964).

2.2 The Ethiopian Vegetation

Vegetation may be defined as an assemblage of plants growing together in a particular

location and may be characterized either by its component species or by the combination of
structural and functional characters that characterize the appearance, or physiognomy, of
vegetation (Kent, 2012). Vegetation is dynamic, that is, constantly changing. Reasons for the
changes can be ecological or evolutionary processes, climatic change, human land use, and
interaction between factors.
The vegetation cover of a given area has a definite structure and composition, which is
developed because of the long term interaction between biotic and abiotic factors. The
pattern of distribution and vertical stratification of vegetation fluctuate due to different
climatic zones, soil types, latitude and topography of the area. These in turn influence the
distribution and type of plants and animals in the forest (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg,
1974).
Ethiopia has one of the largest forest resources in the horn of Africa. The highland terrain
combined with its location in relation to Atlantic and Indian Oceans has made Ethiopia to
receive high moisture supply (Kruijs, 2009) and (MEF, 2014). As it is described by MEF
(2014), over 50% of Africa’s highlands are in Ethiopia making it one of the significant water
towers on the continent.

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A century ago, general surveys or descriptions of Ethiopian vegetation were mostly presented
by foreign travelers passing through the country on a mission other than floristic until
attempting of vegetation understanding and classification (Tamirat Bekele, 1993).
The vegetation of Ethiopia is complex. The complexity arises from the great variation in
altitude employing equally great spatial difference in moisture regime as well as temperature.
In most of the literatures, vegetation types in the country are being considered as ecosystems.
This is because ecosystems are classified based on the vegetation types. The vegetation of the
country falls into five recognized biomes: Sudanian, Congo- Guinean, Sahel arid zone,
Somali- Maasai, and Afro- tropical and montane (USAID, 2008).
Attempts were made by some scholars to classify the vegetation of Ethiopia into different
groups. Some of them were Friis (1986), USAID (2008), Breugel et al. (2011) and IBC
(2016). According to IBC (2016), the vegetation of Ethiopia is classified in to 10 types.
These are:
1. Afro- alpine and Sub- afro- alpine Vegetation. This zone consists of areas that are, on the
average, higher than 3,200 m. These are the slopes and tops of the highest mountains in the
country.
2. Montane dry forest and scrub
3. Montane moist forest
4. Montane grassland
5. Acacia-Commiphora woodland
6. Combretum – Terminalia (Broad-leaved deciduous) woodland
7. Lowland humid Forest
8. Semi-desert and Desert vegetation
9. Wetland
10. Aquatic
This is an indicator that Ethiopia is a country with diverse vegetation types which in turn
gifted the country with a diverse biological prosperity of plants, animals and microbial
species.

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 2.2.1 The Ethiopian Afro-Alpine Vegetation

Ethiopia has extensive area of uplands and contains the largest extent of afro-alpine
ecosystem in Africa. The most representative and well-studied afro-alpine areas of the
country are Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) and Simien Mountains National Park
(SMNP). Though the mineralogical composition of the parent material differs among the
mountains, soils and precipitation, which exceed 1000 mm, they show considerable
similarities and hence a vegetation similarity is visible (Wesche et al., 2000). This is
evidenced by the species family of Ericaceae which are common constituents of tropical
alpine vegetation in the world and forming the upper tree line ecotone that mediates between
upper montane forest and lower afro-alpine scrub (Hedberg, 1964; Wesche et al., 2000; Puff
and Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005). According to Wesche et al. (2000), these species are found in
the range of 2900-3900 m asl in case of SMNP and 3100-4200 m asl in case of BMNP.
Different authors wrote differently about the altitude of Afro-alpine vegetation. According to
ANRS (2009), it starts at 3700m. But most of the others mentioned that it starts at 3600m and
3500m Hedberg and Edwards (1995).
Mostly sub- afro- alpine areas are treated together with afro- alpine areas. The ecosystem
includes areas, which on the average are higher than 3200 m. The sub-afro-alpine areas
occur between 3200 and 3500 m, while the afro-alpine areas occur between 3500 m and 4543
m. This type of vegetation is hence highly adapted to resist the coldness of the area (Hedberg,
1964). Due to this and other related factors most of the species are endemics. The ecosystem
is characterized by the most conspicuous giant Lobelia, Lobelia rhynchopetalum, and
evergreen shrubs including the heather, Erica arborea and perennial herbs such as
Helichrysum species. These environments are peculiar in that there are no seasonal variations
in temperature, but rather pronounced diurnal variations with “summer every day and winter
every night” with strong insolation and outward radiation, frequent frost heaving on bare soil
all year round (Hedberg, 1964).

In long duration, man has altered large regions of the highlands for centuries, especially
through conversion to agriculture (Wesche et al., 2000). The rate of change is very alarming
resulting in the reduction of the original species richness. Thus the original afro-alpine and
sub-afro-alpine natural communities are now restricted to almost entirely too scattered and

10
not easily accessible areas, which are surrounded and isolated by agricultural areas. Because
of the increasing population pressure there are frequent encroachments by man that resulted
in widespread destruction of wildlife and their habitats (Busby et al., 2006). As a result of
intensive human pressure most of the faunal and floral resources are now at risk. Apart from
the Simien and Bale, most of the afro-alpine and sub-afro-alpine ecosystems in Ethiopia are
not effectively conserved. Now days there are some trials to conserve such areas though
effectiveness is still in question.

2.2.2 The SMNP Afro-Alpine Vegetation

The Simien is one of the highest mountain ranges in all of Africa, containing the fourth
highest mountain in Africa, Ras Dejen, which is 4543 m asl. Indeed 80% of all land in Africa
above 3000 masl occurs in Ethiopia, so it is not surprising that Ethiopia is sometimes
described as the ‘Roof of Africa’ (Busby et al., 2006).
The elevation range of the study site is from 1900m to 4543m and about 60% of the national
park is covered by afro-alpine vegetation which is above 3500m asl. The major vegetation
types of the Simien Mountains national park is two; afro-montane and afro-alpine (Puff and
Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005). On the other hand Getinet Masresha (2014) and ANRS (2009) put
some splitting on the middle that is sub afro alpine. Their main difference is variation in
altitude, the bottoms and uplands are separated by cliffs up to 1500 meter deep. There are
also other small patches of vegetation types, savanna being the smallest type in the site
(ANRS, 2009).
The afro-alpine ecosystem in SMNP is unique, rare and the only refuge for many of endemic
and endangered species both in fauna and flora (Busby et al., 2006; Puff and Sileshi
Nemomissa, 2005). According to Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa (2005), 12 taxa are strictly
confined to the SMNP only. On the other hand ANRS (2009) stated that there are three plant
species endemic to SMNP. These are: Festuca gilbertiana, Dianthus longiglumi and
Rusularia simiensis.
Most of the SMNP afro-alpine areas are grassy, with tree like magnificent Giant Lobelias
(Lobelia rhynchopetalum). The presence of most of the herbs is only obvious in the wet
season especially, richly represented are both annual and perennial clover species (Trifolium
spp., Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) (Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005).

11
The Simien Upland areas contain all five "typical" Afroalpine Life-Forms (as defined by
Hedberg, 1964), namely Giant Rosette Plants (Lobelia rhynchopetalum), Tussock Grasses
(and Sedges) (e.g. Festuca macrophylla, Poaceae, or Carex monostachya, Cyperaceae),
Acaulescent Rosette Plants (e.g. Haplosciadum abyssinicum, Apiaceae), Cushion Plants (like
Swertia lugardae, Gentianaceae), and Sclerophyllous (Dwarf) Shrubs (e.g. Helichrysum
citrispinum, Compositae).
According to Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa (2005), the number of flowering plants known
from the SMNP, are about 550. They are distributed over 101 families and 299 genera. Over
75 % of the flowering plants of the Simen area are Dicots; the remaininig are Monocots.
Gymnosperms, represented by a single indigenous species only (Juniperus procera), are
negilgable.
Erica species are the dominant woody plants occuring in the range of the altitude 2900-3900
m asl in SMNP and showed an uplift up to 120 m in the last 30 years. Hence the upper part is
thickening in the last 30 years probably due to rising in temperature or management
strengthening (Wesche et al., 2000).
In SMNP, sub-afro-alpine vegetation is not in the state of its natural condition. Frequent fire,
encroachment of barely cultivation and intensive grazing are disturbing the vegetation belt
(Wesche et al., 2000; Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005; Busby et al., 2006). Though the
conservation status of the SMNP is being improved time to time, there are some threats to the
afro alpine ecosystems due to human settlement in and around the park. SMNP has one of the
densest populations in Africa with the support of agricultural cultivation and livestock
rearing converting the afro- alpine habitat to agricultural land up to 3600m asl which resulted
in degradation of the area (Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005). Intensive grazing impacts the
plant negatively, this in turn harm the wildlife. As it was worked out by Busby et al. (2006),
grazing affected the Ethiopian wolves since rodents had been injured by grazing making the
soil compacted and exposure, loss of vegetation structure, reduce vegetative species
diversity, prevention of Lobelia regeneration and the likes. Fire is the other type of threat for
afro- alpine vegetation of SMNP that is changing Erica forest to grassland (Wesche et al.,
2000; Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005). Due to such and other threats (farming), erosion
becomes sever problem of the area. Thus both individual species and the afro-alpine
ecosystem in general, are particularly vulnerable to disturbance.

12
 2.3 Plant Community Structure and Species Distribution

As it is explained by Nicolson (2013), the concern of plant community was started early in
the eighteenth century by Alexander von Humbolt. A plant community is defined as the
collection of plant species growing together in particular location that show a definite
association or affinity with each other (Maarel, 2005; Kent, 2012). Furthermore, it is a
combination of plants that are dependent on their environment, influence one another, and
modify their own environment (Mueller - Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). A community
cannot be described simply by listing all the species present, rather it is characterized by
detailed studies of those species which most contribute to its unique structure (UoV, no year).
Major distinction among plant communities will be made on the bases of physiognomy or the
growth form of the vegetation. Plant communities are conceived as types of vegetation
recognized by their floristic composition. The species compositions of communities better
express their relationships to one another and environment than any other characteristic
(Maarel, 2005).
According to Mueller-Dombois and Elenberg (1974) floristic composition of vegetation
includes all species occurring within a plant community. However, most plant communities
consist of so many different species which are not unique to a given community. Hence, it is
common to use the dominant species in naming plant communities.
There were two schools of thought regarding structure of communities in the past. These are:
Clementesian and Gleasonian views. Clementesian view considers plant communities as
discrete units and Gleasonian view regarded plant communities as continuous entities
(Nicolso, 2013). Clementesian School, understands communities as super organisms that
have their own life and structure as well as their own temporal and spatial limits. The
temporal component is referred to as the developmental stages of the communities
(succession) while the spatial limits are due to the response of species to environmental
gradients. On the other hand Gleasonian view argues that plant communities change
gradually along complex environmental gradients (Kent, 2012; Nicolso, 2013), so that no
distinct associations of species can be identified. This is the Continuum community concept.
However, recently a “hierarchical continuum” concept of the community patterns is
proposed. This model was based on the assumption that the distribution of species at a

13
regional scale assumes poly modal curve rather than the normal distribution curve of the
continuum concept.
Species distribution issue is too related to the taxonomic part of plant study (Newman, 1982).
Knowledge of the spatial distribution of species and communities in ecosystems is an
essential prerequisite for the understanding of ecosystem functioning and processes as well as
conservation and spatial planning issues (Reiss et al., 2011).

14
 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the study area

The Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP), where the study was conducted, is located in
Northwest Ethiopia in Amhara National Regional State in North Gondar Administrative
Zone (Fig.3.1) being surrounded by five districts: Beyeda, Janamora, Debark, Adarkay and
Telemit with inclusion of fifteen, nine, seven, four and three kebeles to the park respectively.
Beyeda and Telemit districts are newly included parts of the park during the extension of the
site. The park was established in 1966 following the recommendation or report of United
Nation for Education, Science and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) mission sent to
Ethiopia in 1965 (ANRS, 2009). The SMNP is 850 km from capital city of the country,
Addis Ababa and 285 km from Bahir Dar. It is 120 km far from Gondar and 20 km from
where the head quarter of the office is based in Debark. To the Northwest of Debark the park
boundary is about five km, way to Axum through Limalimo which was wildlife reserve
before the park is extended to include the area in 2005.

Figure 3.1 study area and sampling site locations

15
The present SMNP extends from 37o51'26.36''E to 38o 29'27.59''E longitude and from
13o06'44.09 '' N to 13o23'07.85'' N latitude. The total area of the site is now about 412 km2.

The current altitudinal variation of SMNP is from 1900 m to 4543 m above sea level (ANRS,
2006). The former elevation range was 2600 m to 4400 m during the inscription of the site by
UNESCO (ANRS, 2009). Because of this high range of altitudinal variation temperature and
soil variations are also high.

The Climate of SMNP is characterized by a wet and dry season, with about 75% of annual
rainfall between June and September. The SMNP lies within similar rain fall of 1350-1600
mm annually. Annual average rainfall of the area at about an elevation of 3600 m asl at
Gitch and Cheneke stations is around 1500 mm (Fig. 3.2). Temperatures are relatively
constant throughout the year; however there is huge diurnal variation ranging from a
minimum of -2°C to -4 °C at night to a maximum of 11°C to 18°C during the day (ANRS,
2009).

Figure 3.2 Climate diagrams for Chenek station (Source: Getinet Masresha, 2014).

Soil types of the Simien Mountains National Park vary greatly, humic andosols being the
dominant of the area, due to the variation in altitude. In the range of altitude 2500-3500 m
asl, shallow andosols and lithosols are commonly found. Soil types that occur below 3000 m
a.s.l. are haplic phaeozems associated with cambisols and lithosols. Soils at steep slopes are
largely degraded by erosion (Hurni, 1986). On the other hand based on the study made by
FAO (1982; as cited in Tezera Chernet, 2015), characteristics soil types of the SMNP are
16
lithic leptosols (42%), Eutric cambisols (31%) and Dystric podzoluviso (26%) and Humic
nitosols (1%).

The park was extremely degraded during the Italian invasion, frequent attack from Eritrea
(Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005) and during civil war between the previous ruling party
“Derg” and the present party of the country until it was ended up in 1991. Latter, it became
world site endangered in 1996 (ANRS, 2009). The main reasons to be endangered were
declination of wildlife population due to poaching and restricted habitats. This can be
supported by census documents of the park that show declination of the number of Walia
ibex (Capra ibex walie). The number of this endemic mammal was dropped to 150 and this
number was left due to inaccessibility of some habitats (ANRS, 2009). Other reasons were
encroachment, infrastructure development and related pressures.

Recently light power is started passing through the park following the road to Mekane-
Birhan; this makes another distraction of the park resources especially on bird life. This can
be evidenced by Gelada baboon (Theoropethicus gelada) electrification and bearded vulture
trafficking. The road is under construction aligned outside of the national park from Debark
to Mekane- Birhan; this is paving another way to realign the power light to the newly
construction of the road in the near future.
To reduce the pressure imposed to the national park by the local community, resettlement is
being done. In regard to this, two villages called Arquaziye and Gitch were relocated out of
the national park so far.

3.2 Methods

Both vegetation and soil samples were taken from the afro-alpine areas of the park above
3500 m asl as mentioned in Hedberg and Edwards (1995) and USAID (2008). These areas
were Gitch, Ambaras, Chenek, Sebat minch, Silky, Kidus Yared and Ras Dejen. To take
samples that represent the whole afro-alpine areas of SMNP, stratification was made
depending on the topographic nature of the study area. Then systematic sampling was
designed to be used in such a way that every 100 m elevation for vegetation and every 200 m
elevation for soil.

17
 3.2.1 Vegetation Sampling and Specimen Identification

Vegetation sampling was made during flowering time (mid- October – mid- November,
2015) for ease of identification and to get herbs that disappear during dry season. Taking
samples was started being at the top of each stratified mountains in eight directions (North,
Northeast, East, Southeast, South, Southwest, West and Northwest). But due to topographical
ruggedness it was not possible to access all the directions of a mountain. Therefore, aspects
(directions) those were not accessed in one mountain were taken from the other mountains so
that all the eight directions of the park were considered. For this reason having those seven
sites resolve the problem of impossibility from one mountain. Data was collected from 20m
X 20m quadrat up to the bottom of the hill by recording slope, aspect and elevation using
Silva Clinometer, Rectal compass and Garmin 60 global positioning system respectively, at
the centers of each plot. Five small quadrats were formed at each corner of the main quadrat
and in the middle with the size of 1m X 1m for herbaceous plants. Aspect was coded as
specified by Zerihun Woldu et al. (1989; as cited in Mekonnen Biru, 2003) follows, N=0,
NE=1, E=2, SE=3, S=4, SW=3.3, W=2.5, NW=1.3 and Ridge top=4. In the lower altitude
(3800 m asl) where trees found, circumferences at 1.3 meter height were taken for trees
greater than 5 cm later to convert to Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), and height greater
than 2 m were measured using normal tape meter and clinometer respectively.
A total of 62 plots were laid and percent cover of all species was estimated and latter
converted 1-9 modified Braun-Blanquet scale (Table 3.1) which is widely accepted scale
because of better accuracy. This is used by many of vegetation researchers (Desalegn Wana,
2002; Birhanu Kebede, 2010; Shambel Bantiwalu, 2010; Getinet Masresha, 2014).

18
Table 3.1 Percent cover scales (1-9 modified Braun-Blanquet scale)

Value Scale
1 Rare, generally one individual with less than 5% cover of the total plot area
2 Sporadic, with less than 5% cover of the total plot area
3 Abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total plat area
4 Very abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total plot area
5 5-12% covers of the total plot area
6 12-25% covers of the total plot area
7 25-50% covers of the total plot area
8 50-75 covers of the total plot area
9 75-100% covers of the total plot area

Specimen identification was made at field level. Those plants which were not identified in
the field were recorded by their vernacular names, collected and pressed for latter
identification by comparison using Honeybee Flora (Fichtl and Admasu Adi, 1994), Flora of
Ethiopia and Eritrea (Hedberg and Edwards, 1989; Hedberg and Edwards, 1995; Edwards et
al., 1997; Edwards et al., 2000; Hedberg et al., 2003; Mesfin Tadesse, 2004; Hedberg et al.,
2006) and Plants of Simen (Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa, 2005). Some species were taken to
National Herbarium in Addis Ababa University for identification.

3.2.2 Soil Sampling and Laboratory Work

Soil samples were taken during vegetation collection (October- November, 2015) at every
200 m elevation. Soil samples were taken at four corners of 20m X 20m quadrats and one at
the center from depth of 0-30 cm with 1m X 1m sub-quadrats; then was homogenized
together to have composite soil sample for the main plot with aspect, elevation and slope
taken from the center. A total of 30 (0.5 – 1kg each) soil samples were collected by avoiding
impurities using plastic bags with leveling. The samples were transported in sac to BDU
botany lab for drying. The samples were analyzed in the soil laboratory of Amhara Design
and Supervision Work Enterprise (ADSWE). Soil pH, soil texture, organic matter, total
nitrogen, available phosphorus cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil conductivity and

19
available potassium were analyzed. The method of soil laboratory work was based on EARO
(2000), though the standard procedures were derived from Allen (1989) as cited in many
places in this manual. The samples were checked for well dried and passed through 2 mm
mesh.

Soil samples were analyzed for eight parameters. These parameters were not fully enough to
make the relationship of the vegetation but could play great role in making patterns of plant
community formation and species distribution. This limitation was due to the high analysis
cost for all soil parameters.

Texture: was done by Bouycous Hydrometer method, Total Nitrogen (TN): was
determined by Kjeldhal method, Cat ion Exchange Capacity (CEC): determined on the
basis of NH4CH3CO2 (Ammonium acetate) method, PH: determined by petentio method,
using PH meter at 1:2.5 soil: distilled water suspension, Available Phosphorus (Avail P):
determined by Olsen method, Available Potassium (Avail K): determined on the basis of
Sodium acetate method, Organic Matter (OM): determined by Walkley and Black titration
method and Soil (Electrical) Conductivity (EC): determined by 1 : 5 soil : water suspension
(EARO, 2000).

3.3 Data analysis

3.3.1 Plant community analysis

All the analysis procedures were multivariate. Classification of phytosociology is based on

similar floristic composition (Kent, 2012). Cluster analysis is a tool that target at sorting
different objects into groups in such a way that composition of the group varies more
between and varies least within the groups (Zerihun Woldu, 2012). Plant community type
classification was determined by polythetic hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis using
similarity ratio by ward method of R version 3.1.3. ‘Vegan’ and ‘cluster’ packages were
important for this analysis. As a result, dendrogram was produced. Following this synoptic
table was produced based on the mean cover abundance of the vegetation data from cluster
ID that helped to identify distribution of plots in each community.

20
 3.3.2 Species diversity richness and evenness analysis

Species richness, diversity and evenness were analyzed using Shannon-Wiener indices.
Diversity and evenness were determined based on Shannon-Wiener index formula:

Where H’ = Shannon diversity index, S = the number of species, Pi = the proportion of

individuals or the abundance of the ith species expressed as a proportion of total cover and ln
= log base n. The value of Shannon – Wiener index usually lies between 1.5 and 3.5 with
some exceptional cases exceeding 4.5 (Kent, 2012).
The evenness is calculated as: 𝐸 = 𝐻 ′ /𝐻 ′ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 where 𝐸 = evenness, with the value between
0 and 1; the higher the value the species being the more evenly distributed in the quadrats. In
the entire cases R program was used.

3.3.3 Species composition similarity between Communities

Similarity of species composition among afro- alpine plant community was assessed by the
help of Sorensen’s similarity index which was computed from the formula of Ss =
2a/2a+b+c, where Ss = Sorensen’s coefficient (index), a = number of species shared between
communities, b = number of species found in the first community and c = number of species
found in the second community.

3.3.4 Ordination Analysis

Direct gradient analysis was used for ordination of environmental variables and vegetation.
Significance of environmental variables was tested by function Adonis test to identify the
more significant variables. The relationship between environmental factors and vegetation
species composition was analyzed by canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) using R
software version 3.1.3. Canonical correspondence analysis was found to be more appropriate
to find out the influence of environmental variables on the vegetation community formation
and species distribution. This is because CCA has correlation and regression parts (Borcard
et at., 2011; Kent, 2012). According to Legendre et al. (2005), test of significance is less
powerful than test of canonical ordination. This indicates that canonical correspondence

21
analysis is better than the other tests. As described by Zerihun Woldu (2012) miss ordination
might result in direct use of the environmental variables that could lead to misinterpretation.
Therefore, Variance Information Factor (vif), AKaike Information Criterion (AIC) and
ANOVA of CCA were used to test the dataset prior to ordination. Though there were slight
differences the best was ANOVA of CCA and Adonis function that eliminates the less
important variables. Both authors, Legendre et al. and Zerihun Woldu support that CCA
ordination is the best of the multivariate analysis.

According to Zerihun Woldu (2012), vif helps to eliminate collinear variables and leaves
only the variable that contains unique information. The variable having vif value greater than
5 was considered as it was collinear. Therefore, organic matter (OM) was to be eliminated
which was collinear with total nitrogen (TN).

3.3.5 Vegetation structure

Vegetation composition and structure are measured on the basis of plant community (Maarel,
2005). The vegetation structure of the plant community was therefore on the basis of the
lower altitude of the afro-alpine plant community, plant community type three was with
woody species. Tree DBH, height, density and frequency were used in the analysis of
vegetation structure.

DBH was calculated from circumference of woody species measured by normal tape meter at
height of 1.3 meter and converted to DBH by D = C/π, where D = Diameter, C =
circumference and π = constant = 3.14. Then it was categorized in to six classes (cm). Tree
height was calculated in such a way that H = D * tan θ + h1, where H = tree height, D =
distance from tree to an individual who is measuring the tree top by a clinometer (observer),
θ = angle from the observer to tree top and h1 = the height of tree equal to the eyes of the
observer. Then it was categorized in to five classes (m). Density was measured by count of
woody species per 400m2 then extrapolated to hectare (ha). Frequency was measured by
species occurrence in each plot. Composition and structure of woody species were
summarized using Excel (2010).

22
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Afro- Alpine Vegetation Compositions in SMNP

The floristic analyses of the study area yielded 86 plant species (Appendix 1) belonging to
34 families and 63 genera; Asteraceae with the highest species members (21) under 16
genera followed by Poaceae with seven genera and 11 plant species (Table 4.1). Though
Asteraceae had the highest number of species the afro-alpine areas were found to be more
dominated by grasses, more of which were Festuca species. This finding was in line with
Haile Yineger et al. (2008), Abdi (2013) and Getinet Masresha (2014), that Asteraceae has
highest number of species in the afromontane and afro-alpine areas of Bale Mountains
National Park, Eastern African and SMNP respectively. This could be due to the ability to
adapt the harsh environment, timing of flower and pollination as well as seed dispersal. The
third and fourth rich families in this area were found to be Scrophulariaceae and Lamiceae.
Abdi (2013) found that Asteraceae, Poaceae, Caryophyllaceae and Lamiaceae were the
richest families in decreasing order in the afro- alpines of East Africa. Caryophyllaceae was
the fifth in this study whereas Scrophulariaceae was the fifth in Adbi’s work, because of
other East African afro-alpines. This result was again in line with the findings of Puff and
Sileshi Nemomissa (2005) in terms of dominance that Poaceae was the dominant species in
the uplands of the SMNP. The presence of high number of species in Asteraceae family
could be due to the presence of favorable conditions and change in environmental conditions
natural as that of global warming or manmade helped the family to become adapted, or due
to attractive flowers to be effective in fertilization by insects and dispersal ability.

Table 4.1 Number of genera and species under the families

Family Number of Genera Number of Species

Aizoaceae 1 1
Anthericaeae 1 1
Apiaceae 1 1
Asphodelaceae 1 1
Aspleniaceae 1 2

23
Asteraceae 16 21
Boraginaceae 1 1
Caryophylaceae 2 3
Commelinaceae 1 1
Crassulaceae 1 1
Cyperaceae 2 2
Dipsacaceae 1 1
Ephorbiaceae 1 1
Ericaceae 1 2
Fabaceae 1 3
Gentianaceae 1 3
Geraniaceae 2 2
Hypericaceae 1 1
Juncaceae 1 1
Lamiaceae 3 5
Lobeliaceae 1 1
Malvaceae 1 1
Onagraceae 1 1
Oxalidaceae 1 1
Poaceae 7 11
Plantaginaceae 1 1
Polygalaceae 1 1
Polygonaceae 1 1
Primulaceae 1 1
Ranunculaceae 1 1
Rosaceae 1 3
Rubiaceae 1 2
Saxifragaceae 1 1
Scrophulariaceae 4 6
Total 63 86

24
The afro alpine vegetation was found to be dominated by herbs, which constituted of about
90.7% followed by shrubs with percentage of seven, the rest, tree species were represented
by only two (2.3%) species, Erica arborea and Hypericum revolutum. This shows that the
number of herbs increase when going up in the altitude range if not too high to be frequently
frosted. When compared to the work of Haile Yineger et al. (2008); herbs were 79%, shrubs
11% and trees 2.6% in the BMNP dry afromontane in the altitude range of 3010-3410 m asl
and Khan et al. (2011) found that increment in herbaceous was positively correlated with
altitude in Pakistan. The Herbs mainly belong to Poaceae and Asteraceae families. This
indicates that the two families are the most cold and hence dry tolerant and adapting the afro-
alpine environments.

The distribution and number of plots in each sampling area is important for clarity of ideas
especially to refer the site symbols in the ordination diagrams (Table 4.2). Quadrat number
43 in St. Yared area was found to be 100% rock and the total plot number became 62 though
the last plot number was coded as p63.

Table 4.2 Sampling plots in each site

Sites Sebat- Bwahit/ Ambaras Gitch Ras St. Yared Silky

Minch Chenek Dejen
Plots p1 – p6 p7 – p23 p55 - p59 p60 - p63 p24 – p34 p35 - p46 p47 - p54

The rate of getting new species was higher in the beginning of recording and became less as
sampling sites increased (Fig. 4.1). This figure shows that the total number of the species at
each site. As sampling sites increased there were new species encountered till it attained
stabilization. Though the chance of getting new species became less as sampling sites
increased, the total number of the species became high as sites increased due to the addition
of the new species. Hence at the end of the sampling site (the last plot) the total number of
the species was 86, therefore, the curve was cumulative.

Getinet Masresha (2014) sampled from 89 plots and got 116 species though the altitude range
was broader than the present work and two sampling sites were included in the present work.
As it is indicated in Fig. 4.1, still there was probability of getting new species.

25
 80
60
exact

40
20
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Sites

Figure 4.1 Afro- alpine species accumulation curve

4.2 Afro- Alpine Plant Community Types

Three plant community types were determined (Fig. 4.2) from 86 plant species. The name of
the community was assigned after two dominant species with highest mean cover abundance
that represents the community types (Table 4.4). Mean cover abundance greater than one
including one was bolded for ease of looking up by sorting cluster column. The provision of
this table is for most dominant species and for details it is attached in appendix 2. The
formulation of ClusterID helped to know the distribution of plots in each community type
(Table 4.3).

Table 4.3 Distribution of plots in the plant communities and average elevation

Communities Average Alt. Plots in each community No of plots

1 4214 1-12,15-17 15
2 4138 13,14,18,19,24-45,47-53,55,56 and 62 36
3 3655.5 20-23,46,54,57-61 11

4.2.1 Agrostis sclerophylla - Agrostis quinquesta Plant Community Type

The lowest species distribution is found in this community type which is about 39 species
(Table 4.5) and is the second in number of plots 15 (Table 4.3). This community type is

26
found in the altitudinal range 3990 – 4438 m asl with an elevation difference of 448 m, which
is moderate in relation to the other two. This community type was distributed in moderate
slopes and alpine meadows.

Some of the dominant plant species in this community were Trifolium cryptopodium,
Helichrysum citrispinum, Alchemilla microbetula, Dianthoseris schimperi, Satureja simensis,
Cerastium octandrum, Andropogon lima and Satureja abyssinica. Antherica sp and Salvia
merjamie were rare in this community. This plant community type and community type 3
were not connected rather separated by type 2 in the middle (Plates 1, 2 and 3).

4.2.2 Festuca macrophylla - Alchemilla microbetula Plant Community Type

This community type contains the highest number of plots 36 (58.06%) and is found in the
altitudinal range 3724 – 4552 m asl. The elevation difference is very high relatively from the
others, which is about 828m and hence the number of species is very high in this community
which is about 57, has extra seven species from the next community type. This community is
overlapped to some extent with the first plant community type in elevation and hence shared
some species with the first and a little bit with the third plant community types. This shows
that the plant community change was continuum as described by Smith and Young (1987).

The most representative plant species in this community type were Helichrysum citrispinum
which was dominant shrub in the study area, and Dianthoseris schimpri, Cerastium
octandrum, Agrostis quinquesta, Trifolium cryptopodium, Lobelia rhynchopetalum and
Trifolium accaule which were herbs found in a considerable number that make this plant
community type. Polygala abyssinica and Erodium moschatum were few of the rare species
found in this community. This community type did not show clear transitional shift from type
one since the elevation range was shared.

4.2.3 Erica arborea - Festuca macrophylla Plant Community Type

This type of plant community is found in the altitudinal range 3508 – 3803 m asl with an
elevation difference of 295 m. The elevation range is narrowest of all the others and favored
to Northwest directions. This plant community type is distributed in the lowest altitudinal
patter of the afro-alpine vegetation and comprised of the least number of plots 11 (17.75%)

27
(Table 4.3) and second number of species next to the second plant community type (Table
4.5). This plant community type showed clear transition from type 2 (Plate 2).

The upper strata of this plant community types was covered by the tree species of Erica
arborea and by few individuals of Hypericum revolutum. The most dominant plant species
that compose this community are Trifolium accaule, Lobelia rhynchopetalum, Thymus
schimperi, Alchemilla pedata, Andropogon lima, Satureja simensis, Alchemilla abyssinica,
Hypericum revolutum, Agrostis quinquesta, Trifolium cryptopodium, Helichrysum
citrispinum, Alchemilla microbetula and Thymus serulatus. Plantago lanceolatum and
Hedbergia abyssinica were some of uncommon species in this plant community.

Afro- alpine plant community types of SMNP were classified by Getinet Masresha (2014) for
the first time though he did not consider soil parameters. His community classification was
not, however, similar with this work. This is because this study was conducted in the afro-
alpine, just above 3500m asl; whereas Getinet Masresha included the sub afro-alpine above
3100 m asl and there was difference in sampling sites. In this study two afro-alpine areas
were included Silky and Ambaras, which were not considered in the work by Getinet
Masresha. The difference in elevation and sampling sites brought the difference in plant
community types though not extreme differences happened. For example, the plant
community type at the lower altitude in this study was Erica arborea – Festuca macrophyla
whereas in case of the previous work it was Erica arborea – Alchemilla abyssinica. This is
because the distribution of Alchemilla abyssinica increases down the elevation range.
Though plant community types show small differences the dominant plant species are almost
similar.

In different areas different plant community formations were observed due to mainly by the
difference in altitude and other environmental factors. The work by Zewde Achiso (2014)
showed that Erica arborea – Hypericum quatrinianum was a plant community type in Choke
in the range of elevation 3506 – 3906 m asl. But in the case of SMNP, the habitat of H.
quatrinianum is below 3500 m asl. On the other hand Getinet Masresha got that Erica
arborea – Hypericum revolutum was another plant community type in the afromotane
vegetation in the altitudinal range of 3171 – 3305 m asl in SMNP. Another work by Khan et
al. (2011) in Pakistan showed extremely different from Ethiopian plant community formation

28
in the elevation range 3700- 4100 m asl, which was Aster falconeri-Iris hookeriana plant
community.

29
 2.5 Agglomerative Hierarchical Classification

1
2.0

2
1.5
Height

3
1.0
0.5
0.0

p1
p17
p8
p9
p10
p16
p15
p7
p2
p3
p4
p5
p6
p11
p12
p13
p14
p18
p19
p48
p38
p50
p53
p36
p37
p45
p52
p25
p51
p29
p30
p39
p49
p41
p31
p42
p40
p44
p27
p28
p24
p34
p35
p54
p56
p57
p63
p26
p32
p33
p46
p20
p21
p22
p47
p58
p59
p23
p61
p62
p55
p60
Sites

Figure 4.2 Dendrogram for afro- alpine plant community from Hierarchical Cluster analysis (each community is bordered in
respective order of 1, 2 and 3 left to write)

30
Table 4.4 Synoptic cover abundance value, bold with dominants greater than the value of 1

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3

Agrostis sclerophylla 6.40 0.22 0.00
Agrostis quinquesta 3.27 2.33 1.36
Trifolium cryptopodium 2.67 1.97 2.45
Helichrysum citrispinum 2.27 2.67 1.27
Alchemilla microbetula 1.53 3.36 1.82
Dianthoseris schimperi 1.13 2.19 0.27
Satureja simensis 1.13 0.36 2.91
Cerastium octandrum 1.00 1.42 0.64
Andropogon lima 1.00 0.44 2.64
Satureja abyssinica 1.00 0.36 0.00
Sagina afroalpina 0.87 0.67 0.09
Festuca macrophylla 0.73 5.97 5.64
Helichrysum splendidum 0.67 0.33 0.55
Ranunculus oreophytes 0.60 0.17 0.00
Agrostis diffusa 0.47 0.53 0.45
Lobelia rhynchopetalum 0.40 1.86 3.27
Cotula abyssinica 0.40 0.31 0.18
Festuca abyssinica 0.33 0.33 0.00
Hypericum revolutum 0.33 0.00 1.00
Thymus schimperi 0.27 0.17 2.36
Trifolium.acaule 0.20 1.67 3.36
Senecio.nanus 0.20 0.56 0.00
Swertia.lugardae 0.20 0.31 0.18
Alchemilla.pedata 0.13 0.56 1.73
Crassula.schimperi 0.13 0.00 0.00
Saxifraga.sp 0.13 0.00 0.00
Bartsia.longiflora 0.07 0.42 0.09
Salvia.merjamie 0.07 0.33 0.09

31
 Swertia.abyssinicca 0.07 0.33 0.09
Erica.arborea 0.07 0.19 6.45

4.3 The Afro- Alpines Plant Communities Richness, Diversity and Evenness

The richness, diversity and evenness of the plant communities in the study area were
analyzed using Shannon - Wiener indices (Table 4.5). The second plant community type was
the richest followed by the third plant community type. The third plant community was
greatest in evenness of all the others whereas the least richness, diversity and evenness were
recorded in the plant community type one.

Table 4.5 Richness, Diversity and Evenness Comparison of the plant community types

Shannon
Communities Richness H’ Evenness

1 39 2.852 0.778

2 57 3.155 0.780

3 50 3.128 0.799

Species diversity was high in the second plant community type due to wide elevation range
in the study area and when altitude increases the species composition became poor as it is
seen in the plant community type one. This type of species distribution was also found in the
work by Khan et al. (2011) in the elevation range 2450-4100 m asl in Pakistan.

4.4 Species Composition Similarities between Communities

Comparison between two communities was done at a time based on Sorensen’s similarity
coefficients. Similarity coefficients indicated that the first plant community type and the
second plant community type were the most similar among all the communities 0.59 (59%)
(Table 4.6). There were 31 species shared between these communities and a combined
difference of 43 species. The more shared and the less combined difference in species

32
presence in these communities could be due to the more shared in altitudinal range. This was
again evidenced by the first and the third plant community type in which the least similarity
(highest dissimilarity) was observed. In these plant communities there were 21 shared species
and a combined difference of 38 species.

Table 4.6 Communities species composition Comparison based on Sorensen’s similarity

index

C1 C2 C3
C1 1.00 0.59 0.53
C2 1.00 0.56
C3 1.00
C = community

Jaccard’s and Sorensen’s similarity coefficients are the most widely used indexes for
classifications of vegetation data. These coefficients are computed from presence/ absence
data and follows almost similar formula to calculate (Kent, 2012; Zerihun Woldu, 2012).

4.5 Vegetation and Environmental Factors Relationship

Among eleven environmental variables, three were topographical variables and eight were
soil variables. Soil texture was split into three components so that total soil variables were ten
and all the environmental variables were 13. The soil texture determination was followed by
classification of the class of the texture. The afro-alpine area of the SMNP was found to be
66.67% sandy loam, 20% loam and 13.33% silt loam. As stated by Zerihun woldu (2012)
soil classification from particle size point of view has an implication on water, aeration and
nutrient availability to plants.

SAS version 9.1 was used to show the correlation among all plant species and among all
environmental variables separately. SAS was found to be superior to be used for correlation
since it includes the p value for respective correlations. The correlation was important to
show which plant species can be found together with the other species and this could help
researchers and any interested body to find the species in need. On the other hand it could
assist the restoration effectiveness in the management of the park. Therefore the output of the

33
software is provided for the library of SMNP with some explanations. The procedure PROC
PRINT was used for the data verification prior to the correlation analysis. The strongest
correlation was between Haplocarpha schimperi (found in the second community type) and
Ranunculus oreophytes (found both in the first and second plant community types)
(R2=0.98); Deschampsia flexuosa and Scabiosa columbaria, both of them found in the
second and third plant community types (R2=0.96) and Helichrysum horidom (found in the
first and second plant community types) and Cyanotis polyrrhiza (found in the second plant
community types) (R2=0.89) to mention the strongest correlations. Rare plant species as that
of Antherica species and Gnaphalum tweedae didn’t show correlation with any of the other
species because of rarity. The output for environmental variables is shown in appendix 3; but
not the vegetation because of space. There was a preference to correlate the most widely
distributed grass species Festuca macrophylla ”Fmacr” in SAS, with the environmental
variables rather than correlating the environmental variables alone to see if the variables have
effect on this widely distributed species. As a result, though the correlation was not strong F.
macrophylla was negatively correlated with soil conductivity (R2 = -0.40868 and p = 0.0249)
and sand (R2 = -0.40431 and p = 0.0267); and positively correlated with silt (R2 = 0.42529
and p = 0.01991). Significant correlations are underlined in the output of SAS.

The test of association (permutation test) of all environmental variables (Table 4.7) showed
that there were significant association of environmental variables to the afro-alpine
vegetation community formation and species distribution (F 12, 17 =1.2254, and p=0.002).

Table 4.7 Measure of association between environmental variables and vegetation

Df Chi-Square F Pr (>F)

Model 12 2.2654 1.2254 0.002 **

Residual 17 2.6191

Permutation test was used to obtain the p- value of the correlation coefficients. As a result,
the test indicated that environmentally similar locations were similar in species composition.

34
On the other hand Analysis of variance from function Adonis test (Table 4.8) revealed that
the details of the most significant environmental variables. Five environmental variables
were significant among other variables. Altitude was highly significant followed by pH and
Sand. Slope and Total Nitrogen were other significant variables that influence the community
formation and species distribution in the afro-alpine areas of SMNP.

Table 4.8 Adonis Significance Test

Variables DF Sums Of Mean Sqs F. Model R2 Pr (>F)

Sqs
Aspect 1 0.2632 0.26321 1.3718 0.03525 0.19
Slope 1 0.4412 0.44123 2.2997 0.05909 0.02 *
Altitude 1 0.8774 0.87741 4.5730 0.11750 0.01 **
pH 1 0.5657 0.56568 2.9483 0.07575 0.01 **
EC 1 0.2338 0.23379 1.2185 0.03131 0.31
Sand 1 0.4811 0.48107 2.5073 0.06442 0.01 **
Clay 1 0.1402 0.14019 0.7306 0.01877 0.67
CEC 1 0.1942 0.19418 1.0121 0.02600 0.46
OM 1 0.1290 0.12898 0.6722 0.01727 0.82
TN 1 0.4037 0.40371 2.1041 0. 05406 0.03 *
AvlP 1 0.1753 0.17527 0.9135 0.02347 0.58
AvlK 1 0.3009 0.30095 1.5685 0.04030 0.15.
Residuals 17 3.2618 0.19187 0.43680
Total 29 7.4674 1.00000
Significant codes: 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’

Where DF=degree of freedom, Pr=probability, R2= coefficient of determination.

Getinet Masresha (2014) found that nine variables were significant among 13 in the
afromontane vegetation distribution of SMNP. Altitude was the most significant variable
followed by CEC. These two studies indicated that altitude is the most important factor that
contributes for the vegetation community formation and species distribution in the afro-
alpine and afromontane of SMNP.

35
Following the tests of significant variables, ordination of sites with environmental variables
(Fig. 4.3) was made using canonical correspondence analysis to show which variables have
more effect on specific sites of the study area. Sites were expressed with species similarities
in advance to prevent blurt of the figure due to cloud of species when plotted.

Different environmental variables showed variations in different sites of the study area.
Though the influence of altitude is most significant everywhere (Table 4.8), the community
formation and species distribution in Ras Dejen and Sebat Minch areas were more explained
by this variable. On the other hand pH was important variable in Bwahit and Chenek areas
where the upper areas are conserved very well and the lower is frequently disturbed by the
local communities. Organic matter and total nitrogen were the most positively (when the
value of one of the variables increase, so do the other) strongly correlated variables and
equally the most important variables that explain the vegetation in Ambaras area and was
negatively (when the value of one of the variables increase, the other decrease) correlated
with pH and altitude. Slope was found to be the other explanatory variable and positively
correlated with sand. Both of these variables were important in explaining the vegetation in
St. Yared areas. Available potassium was the variable that had influence on the vegetation of
Chenek area next to pH. Cat ion exchange capacity (CEC) was negatively correlated with pH
and explained the vegetation of Chenek area. Soil or electrical conductivity (EC) and clay
were much correlated with EC being more important to explain the vegetation in silky and
Gitch areas. In addition, available phosphorus and aspect had effect on the vegetation
composition of these areas.

36
 CCA Scaling = 1

p7
pH p12

p15 p11
p48
p13
p18 Slope
p27 p36
p28 p17
1

Altitude

p30
Sand
CCA2

p60
p40
p1
p44 p38

0
0

p21
p20
p34
p51 p54
Aspect
Av lK
Clay p32
p26p56
p23
-1

EC
p46
Av lP OM
TN
p63 CEC p58
p24
-2

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2

CCA1

p = plot

Figure 4. 3 Ordination of environmental variables to vegetation sites

The highest the correlations in the first and second axes are the more important in explaining
the variation in species distribution in relation to the specified environmental variable. In this
case, from the output of R program package “vegan” the more explanatory variables are
altitude with the negatively highest correlation with the first axis (-0.85) and pH positively
correlated with the second axis (0.58). The eigenvalues were high in the first and second
axes always with decreasing values showed that the first two axes explained 31.4% of the
variation in the species distribution with those variables mainly (Table 4.9). Eigenvalues are
measures of the importance (variance) of the axes. They can be expressed as Proportions
Explained, or proportions of variation accounted for (Borcard et al., 2011).

37
Table 4.9 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the whole community (7 CCA axes
excluded)

Factor CCA1 CCA2 CCA3 CCA4 CCA5

Aspect -0.30 -0.15 -0.329 0.4097 -0.060
Slope 0.20 0.37 0.257 0.3357 0.323
Altitude -0.85 0.28 0.222 0.0042 -0.122
pH -0.31 0.58 -0.114 -0.0746 -0.493
EC -0.45 -0.33 -0.111 -0.3797 0.356
Sand 0.12 0.14 -0.360 -0.7389 0.327
Clay -0.29 -0.21 0.480 0.4417 -0.199
CEC 0.30 -0.49 -0.023 0.0202 0.247
OM 0.48 -0.46 0.203 -0.2318 0.523
TN 0.48 -0.46 0.205 -0.2299 0.521
AvlP -0.12 -0.47 0.063 -0.2400 0.049
AvlK 0.27 -0.17 -0.245 -0.4822 -0.165
Eigenvalue 0.3953 0.3162 0.2830 0.2515 0.19882
Proportion Explained 0.1745 0.1396 0.1249 0.1110 0.08777
Cumulative Proportion 0.1745 0.3141 0.4390 0.5500 0.63779

Avl = available, CCA1 = canonical correspondence analysis axis one

According to Legendre et al. (2005), test of significance is less powerful than test of
canonical ordination. This indicates that canonical correspondence analysis is better than the
other tests. On the other hand as described by Zerihun Woldu (2012) miss ordination might
result in direct use of the environmental variables that could lead to misinterpretation.
Therefore, Variance Information Factor (vif), AKaike Information Criterion (AIC) and
ANOVA of CCA were used to test the dataset prior to ordination. Though there were slit
difference the best was ANOVA of CCA and Adonis function that eliminates the less
important variables. Both authors, Legendre et al. and Zerihun Woldu support that CCA
ordination is the best of the multivariate analysis. vif was important to eliminate co-linearity
between organic matter and total nitrogen. The vif value OM was greater than five and was

38
supposed to be voided. In all cases altitude was found to be the most important factor that
influences the vegetation and plant community formation and species distribution in the afro-
alpine areas of the SMNP.

According to Zerihun Woldu (2012) and Kent (2012), the length of the variables indicates
the importance of that variable with respect to the other variables in influencing the
vegetation community formation and species distribution. The arrows or the direction shows
the correlation among environmental variables and the influence on indicated sites of the
vegetation.

Elevation and pH were found to be positively correlated which was uncommon. This could
be due to the sample plots were taken from relatively undisturbed areas in the higher
elevation. The soil in which the samples were taken was not affected by erosion because of
low disturbance and strong prevention of soil eradication by Festuca and other grass species
and hence not strongly acidic. But in relatively lower altitudes there was slightly decrement
in pH due to some sort of disturbance at least there was livestock trampling that exposed the
soil for erosion as well there was farming practice some years ago because of closeness to
villages. This was in line with Puff and Sileshi Nemomissa (2005) that the disturbance was
high nearby the villages and the severity went up in the dry season due to shortage of
foraging.

Altitude was found to be very important in many studies in influencing the plant community
formation and species distribution (Jin et al., 2008; Khalik et al., 2013; Getinet Masresha,
2014; Zewde Achiso, 2014). Zewde Achiso (2014) found that Altitude and pH were equally
important, though negatively correlated, in community formation and species distribution. In
the works of Jin et al. (2008) altitude was the main variable that determines the vertical
distribution of vegetation whereas the horizontal distribution was affected by Aspect in the
Qilian Mountain, China. Khalik et al. (2013) found that soil conductivity, soil mineral
content and pH had significant role in the plant species variation and speciation in Wadi Al-
Noman, Mecca, Saudi Arabia. In the works of Leul kidane Woldemichael et al. (2010)
altitude and slope were the main important factors among environmental variables that affect
the plant community and species distribution in Hugumbirda-Gratkhassu National forest
priority area, South Tigray, Ethiopia.

39
As altitude was the most important variable in the vegetation community formation and
species distribution as well as that affected the correlation between all the other
environmental variables, it was of interest to investigate the effect of variables in the three
community types.

In the first plant community type five factors (aspect, altitude, slope, pH and EC) were more
explanatory of the vegetation community formation and species distribution (Fig. 4.4).

CCA Scaling = 1

p1
1

EC

p11
p12

0
0

Aspect
p17
CCA2

Slope

pH
-1

p15

Altitude -1
-2

p7

-2 -1 0 1 2

CCA1

Figure 4. 4 Ordination for plant community type one

40
In the first plant community the first two axes explained 57.86% of the variation in the plant
community formation and species distribution (Table 4.10). Among strong variables in this
case were aspect, altitude and slope those were strongly correlated with the first two axes. As
altitude and pH were strong variables that controlled the species distribution (Fig. 4.4)
considering their correlation in all the community types were of great attention. In this
community these variables were not correlated compared to the others.

Table 4.10 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the first community (all CCAs axes
used)

Factor CCA1 CCA2 CCA3 CCA4 CCA5

Aspect -0.94 -0.038 0.011 -0.19216 -0.263
Slope 0.87 -0.161 -0.432 -0.15331 -0.069
Altitude -0.43 -0.895 0.021 0.00099 0.017
pH 0.52 -0.438 0.284 -0.67469 0.068
EC -0.14 0.477 0.840 -0.17063 0.156
Eigenvalue 0.6223 0.4248 0.3646 0.2263 0.17166
Proportion Explained 0.3439 0.2347 0.2015 0.1250 0.09486
Cumulative Proportion 0.3439 0.5786 0.7801 0.9051 1.00000

In the second plant community type, organic matter and total nitrogen were strongly
positively correlated and equally important as that of in the whole ordination. Altitude and
pH were fully positively (100%) correlated due to presence of the highest elevation though
altitude was more important than pH in species distribution (Fig. 4.5). Many of the plots were
found in this plant community type and wide range of elevation that included the range of
plant community type one. This made that the ordination in plant community type two was a
bit similar to that of the whole ordination in having all the variables for species distribution.

41
 CCA Scaling = 1

3
p27

p28

1
2

p48
1
CCA2

p36
Slope Sand

p18

p13

0
0

p38
EC
p44
p40 pH
OM
TN Altitude
p34
p30 p51
p56 Clay
p32 Aspect
Av
p26 lK Av lP
CEC
-1

p24

-1 0 1 2 3

CCA1

Figure 4. 5 Ordination for plant community type two

The first two axes explained 32.75% of the variation in species distribution and community
formation (Table 4.11). The more explanatory variables were altitude, total nitrogen and
aspect. The influence of aspect was practically observed especially around St. Yared facing
north. The dominant species found from streams or gorges to edges of hills facing east to Ras
Dejen were Festuca species and grew very short. This could be due to very cold wind that
blew from the peak areas of Ras Dejen. The other side of the hill edges facing west to
Telemit where worm wind blew grows too long especially carex species and Lobelia

42
rhynchopetalum were dominant in such aspects. Wind might not be the only reason but also
light.

Table 4.11 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the second community (2 CCAs
excluded)

Factor CCA1 CCA2 CCA3 CCA4 CCA5

Aspect 0.521 -0.253 -0.200 -0.186 -0.3322
Slope -0.429 0.358 0.428 -0.022 0.0182
Altitude 0.650 -0.155 0.423 -0.018 0.3846
pH 0.390 -0.103 0.253 -0.078 0.0056
EC 0.462 -0.052 -0.372 0.432 0.1892
Sand -0.041 0.365 -0.749 0.115 0.0878
Clay 0.115 -0.232 0.573 -0.174 -0.5622
CEC -0.190 -0.357 -0.278 0.237 0.3581
OM -0.621 -0.181 -0.317 0.317 0.1958
TN -0.620 -0.187 -0.318 0.311 0.1991
AvlP 0.222 -0.302 -0.021 -0.044 0.2581
AvlK 0.066 -0.300 -0.484 0.406 0.4284
Eigenvalue 0.4927 0.4375 0.3648 0.3034 0.27948
Proportion Explained 0.1735 0.1540 0.1284 0.1068 0.09839
Cumulative Proportion 0.1735 0.3275 0.4559 0.5627 0.66110

The third plant community (Table 4.3) was influenced by six environmental factors (Fig.
4.6). More important environmental variables in this plant community were altitude, soil
conductivity and sand. This community was found in the lower elevation of the afro-alpine
and relatively possible anthropogenic effects could be existed. This was why altitude and pH
were strongly negatively correlated. This was common in many of the studies that were
conducted in afromotane ecosystems (Bello et al., 2013; Getinet Masresha, 2014; Zewde
Achiso, 2014). This was because the lower afro-alpine areas are relatively closer to that of
the upper areas of afromantane.

43
 CCA Scaling = 1

p46
1.0
Aspect
p60

Altitude
0.5

p54
Slope
p21
p20
0.0

0
CCA2

p23 pH
-0.5

EC
-1.0

Sand
-1.5

-1
-2.0

p58

-1 0 1

CCA1

Figure 4. 6 Ordination for plant community type three

Percentage variation explained by the first two axes (CCA1 and CCA2) was 55.18 (Table
4.12). More than half of the explanation was only by the first two axes even though there
were six axes to explain the whole variation. Excluding the last axis (CCA6), the five axes
explain 95.84% of the variation in species distribution. Altitude was negatively strongly
correlated with the first axes or weighing (-0.83) followed by sand (-0.77) and EC (-0.75).

Table 4.12 Bi-plot scores for constraining variables in the third community (1 CCAs
excluded)

44
Factor CCA1 CCA2 CCA3 CCA4 CCA5
Aspect 0.46 0.49 -0.402 -0.4299 0.45
Slope -0.62 0.14 -0.674 0.0025 0.36
Altitude -0.83 0.34 0.092 0.0236 0.43
pH 0.50 -0.23 -0.720 -0.2305 -0.33
EC -0.75 -0.41 0.214 0.1843 0.43
Sand -0.22 -0.77 -0.024 0.2746 -0.53
Eigenvalue 0.5490 0.3693 0.3588 0.1760 0.14186
Proportion Explained 0.3299 0.2219 0.2156 0.1058 0.08525
Cumulative Proportion 0.3299 0.5518 0.7674 0.8732 0.95844

4.6 Vegetation Structure

There were woody plant species dominantly Erica arborea interspaced by Hypericum
revolutum in ten quadrats; the rest 52 quadrats were occupied by more of herbs. In this study
the tree line was found to be above 3800 m asl. In some places E. arborea and H. revolutum
were found at 4100 in the form of shrubs. This finding was in line with Jacob et al. (2014)
that tree line in tropical African highlands didn’t show shift except SMNP. Some literatures
stated that the tree line in SMNP is 3700 m asl (ANRS, 2009). This could be probably due to
global warming and park management improvement. The structure of the vegetation, in this
case, is based on these two (E. arborea and H. revolutum) woody species. The vegetation
structure of the afro- alpine of SMNP was summarized using Excel (2010) as shown in
figures (Fig. 4.7 – 4.10).

DBH

The DBH was classified into six categories from the measurements of 370 trees/ shrubs.

45
 300 246
250 250
266

Individuals
200

Individuals
200
150 150
100 100 42 37
50 20
50 20 42 37 3 2 3 2
0 0

DBH Class DBH class

a b

249 232 20
250 250 17
200
Individuals

200 15

Individuals
150
Individuals

70 150 10
100
38
50 12 1 100 70
0 5 3
50 35
12 1
0 0
4.1-6m 6.1-8m
Height Class Height Class
c d Height class e

Figure 4. 7 DBH and Height class distributions of E. arborea and H. revolutum

About 72% of the DBH lied under the category of 1.5 – 5cm (Fig. 4.7a). This could be due
to the improvement of the park management in the last years after the conflict in the area got
rid of between the present and the previous ruling parties. Together with this the global
warming may played the role for plants to grow in the upper parts of the mountains. This can
be clearly exemplified by Chenek area, getting down to the villages from Bwahit. Number of
trees recorded per 400 m2 at the altitude of 3800 m asl were 45 and somehow thinner; at
about 3700 m, 27 plants, at about 3600 m, 7 plants and at about 3500 m, 5 plants were
recorded with an increase in DBH. This shows that getting closer to villages pressure from
the local community increases. Generally, the DBH increases when the altitude lowers for a

46
single stem; but the number of individual plants (density) decreases and the majority of the
DBH were taken by the density of the plants.

The DBH of both species (E. arborea and H. revolutum) were done separately to compare.
The DBH class of H. revolutum is found in only one class which was the lowest group. In
most of the study area this species is dominant in its seedling and sapling stages as can be
clearly seen from previously farmed plots of lands and even in farming lands. But later
became dominated by E. arborea. On the other hand the dominant species DBH class is a bit
similar to the woody species class (Fig. 4.7b).

Height

The height distribution was classified into five categories (Fig. 4.7c). About 66.3% of the
height distribution of the woody species is in the range of 4.1 – 6 m followed by the second
largest class of 2 – 4 m which is about 18.9%. This indicates that the park is getting more
forested in relation to the past times. The height of the plants increases when getting down
till the impact of the villagers seen. But very close to villages the tree height decreases
because of cut of the branches and might be due to restricted growth of oldness. E. arborea is
easily flammable even before well dried. Because of this the branches are taken by shepherds
during shortage of fire wood in the local community.

For comparison, the height classes for both of these species were summarized separately. The
height categories of H. revolutum fall in to two groups (Fig. 4.7e). This species is found
following streams and relatively in meadow (flat) areas. So the number is very few when
compared to that of E. arborea. Because of this the structure is very different from that of
woody species. This shows that the contribution of this species to the height distribution of
the woody species is very little.

The height class of E. arborea is a bit similar to that of woody species height class due to the
dominancy of this species (Fig. 4.7d). Among the species that were taken to the consideration
of height distribution about 94.6% were contribute by this species. This is because the
species grows on the cracks of rocks and in most places that is not favorable for other woody
species.

47
Density

In the upper most parts of the mountains the vegetation cover is very less and rather it is
dominated by sandy soil and rock. This could be due to non-permanent snow cover that
makes unfavorable condition for plants to grow up. Going down to the bottoms of the
mountains the cover of herbs and shrubs increased. The most frequently observed shrub
species is H. citrispinum which is Asteraceae. Below the elevation of 4100m tree species in
the form of shrubs (too dwarf) appear dominating down and at elevation of 3900m shows
normal growth form.

For herbs, that dominate the upper most part of the afro-alpine vegetation, abundance cover
was taken rather than count per area. Density was calculated for lower altitude of the study
site where trees and shrub were measured for height and DBH. 370 Erica arborea (being
dominant) and Hypericum revolutum were measured for height and DBH in ten plots. Based
on this extrapolation was made for afro-alpine woody species density which was found to be
925/ha. The density is in the altitude range of 3500 – 3900m asl with DBH >1.5 cm and
height > 2m. Density decreased going down to lower altitude which is not natural
phenomenon but because of the pressure which is characterized by many stumps increased.

Frequency

The most frequent plant species was F. macrophylla, which occurred in 47 quadrats followed
by Alchemilla microbetula occurred in 43 quadrats. In case of trees E. arborea was found to
be more frequent which was found in 13 quadrats. The other tree species H.revolutum was
found in 3 quadrats. Among the shrubs H. citrispinum was the most frequent species. On the
other hand the least frequent species were many that occurred in only one quadrat. Some of
these species were Antherica sp, Agrocharis melanantha, Rumex nepalensis and Polygala
abyssinica.

48
 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

Altitude is the main factor not only to influence the vegetation distribution and community
formation in the afro-alpine areas of the SMNP but also affect the correlation and regression
among other environmental variables. As elevation changed the relationship of other
environmental variables varied. Vegetation is not affected by a single environmental variable
but by many. Among environmental variables texture (silt) is the least important that matter
for vegetation and community formation in the afro-alpine of SMNP.

The concept that is accepted as a general truth could not work on the correlation between
altitude and acidity, when altitude increases acidity increases. In the case of SMNP the higher
in altitude was not the more in acidity because of undisturbed areas in the higher elevation.
So, the reality for aggravation of acidity could be disturbance than solely by elevation.

Grasses especially Festuca species are the best plants that conserve soil from erosion. They
grow very close to each other as well lots of fibrous root help the upper part of the soil from
eradication. Because of this runoff from the uppermost afro-alpine flew down as cool water.
Thus using the grass species could be better than tree species in soil conservation in the afro-
alpines. Soil conservation by tree species could work well in the gorgeous and lowlands
especially where high water volume is frequent near by the rivers.

Resource scarcity is the most important factor that affected the species distribution and
vegetation community formation. This is because organic matter and total nitrogen were
scarce in the higher altitude and was considered as factors affecting the species distribution in
the ordinations of the whole except the third plant community where total nitrogen and
organic matter were plenty in the lower elevation.

The presence of more DBH and Height in the lower class indicates that the park management
is getting much better in comparison of the previous years. The tree line in SMNP is shifted
up to the higher elevation than was stated in many of the previous literatures.

49
 5.2 Recommendations

Based on the result of this study the following recommendations are forwarded.

The species Pulcaria/ Conyza (Plate 4) which was unable to be identified at the
national herbarium level should be investigated further including the exoticism.
According to the observation of the local residents this species happen in the area
since 1990s and becoming dominating. This can be supported by its presence along
the main road passing through the park in between Adisge Miligebsa and Arginjona
areas being dominant at Simien Lodge areas and before around Chenek.
Botanical exploration would be more important if done in Segenet specifically Abay
forest Beyeda district and Lower parts of Telemt as that of Mirka areas.
When reforestation is planned, the park management should better pay attention for
lower and upper areas in relation to the species types. The most effective plant
species to grow in all areas is Festuca macrophylla. The lower altitudinal plants could
be Hypericum revolutum to recover fast and Erica arborea in the long run in
Northwest aspect.
Studying ethno- botany of the area is for the next research as many of the medicinal
plants getting deteriorated due to over exploitation by local medicinal practitioners.
This could be exemplified by Echinops kebercho, dug out at many places and no live
form was observed during field work.
Wildlife distribution, feeding and habitat association in relation to the afro-alpine
vegetation should be considered in the future investigation.
When the park management wants to conserve soil in the afro-alpine areas the grasses
especially Festuca species could be considered as an effective mechanism.

50
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 7. APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Afro-Alpine Plant species list of the study area

Habit Family Species

Herb Apiaceae Agrocharis melanantha
Herb Poaceae Agrostis diffusa
Herb Poaceae Agrostis quinquesta
Herb Poaceae Agrostis sclerophylla
Herb Rosaceae Alchemilla abyssinica
Herb Rosaceae Alchemilla microbetula
Herb Rosaceae Alchemilla pedata
Herb Poaceae Andropogon lima
Herb Asteraceae Anthemis tigrensis
Herb Anthericaeae Antherica sp
Herb Asteraceae Artemisia abyssinica
Herb Aspleniaceae Asplenium aethiopicum
Herb Aspleniaceae Asplenium protensum
Herb Scrophulariaceae Bartsia decurva
Herb Scrophulariaceae Bartsia longiflora
Herb Poaceae Bromus leptoclados
Herb Asteraceae Cardus nyassanus
Herb Asteraceae Cardus schimperi
Herb Cyperaceae Carex monostachya
Herb Caryophylaceae Cerastium octandrum
Herb Asteraceae Cineraria sebaldii
Shrub Asteraceae Conyza spinosa
Herb Asteraceae Cotula abyssinica
Herb Asteraceae Cotula cryptocephala
herb Crassulaceae Crassula schimperi
Herb Commelinaceae Cyanotis polyrrhiza
Herb Cyperaceae Cyperus dichrostachyus

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Herb Poaceae Deschampsia flexuosa
Herb Asteraceae Dianthoseris schimperi
Herb Asteraceae Dicrocephala chrysanthemifolia
Herb Onagraceae Epilobium stereophyllum
Tree Ericaceae Erica arborea
Shrub Ericaceae Erica tenuipilsa
Herb Geraniaceae Erodium moschatum
Herb Ephorbiaceae Euphorbia Schimperi
Herb Poaceae Festuca abyssinica
Herb Poaceae Festuca macrophylla
Herb Poaceae Festuca simensis
Herb Rubiaceae Galium acrophylum
Herb Rubiaceae Galium simense
Herb Geraniaceae Geranium aculeolatum
Herb Asteraceae Gnaphalium tweediae
Herb Asteraceae Haplocarpha ruppellii
Herb Asteraceae Haplocarpha schimperi
Herb Scrophulariaceae Hedbergia abyssinica
Shrub Asteraceae Helichrysum citrispinum
Shrub Asteraceae Helichrysum horridum
Herb Asteraceae Helichrysum splendidum
Tree Hypericaceae Hypericum revolutum
Herb Asteraceae Inula confertiflora
Herb Asphodelaceae Kniphofia foliosa
Herb Lobeliaceae Lobelia rhynchopetalum
Herb Poaceae Lolium sp
Herb Juncaceae Luzula abyssinica
Herb Malvaceae Malva verticillata
Herb Boraginaceae Myosotis vestergrenii
Herb Oxalidaceae Oxalis procumbens
Herb Poaceae Poa annua

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Herb Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata
Herb Polygalaceae Polygala abyssinica
Herb Primulaceae Primula verticillata
Shrub Asteraceae Pulicaria sp
Herb Ranunculaceae Ranunculus oreophytes
Herb Polygonaceae Rumex nepalensis
Herb Caryophylaceae Sagina abyssica
Herb Caryophylaceae Sagina afroalpina
Herb Lamiaceae Salvia merjamie
Herb Lamiaceae Satureja abyssinica
Herb Lamiaceae Satureja simensis
Herb Saxifragaceae Saxifraga sp
Herb Dipsacaceae Scabiosa columbaria
Herb Asteraceae Senecio fresenii
Herb Asteraceae Senecio nanus
Herb Aizoaceae Silene macrosolen
Herb Asteraceae Sonchus melanolepis
Herb Gentianaceae Swertia abyssinicca
Herb Gentianaceae Swertia lugardae
Herb Gentianaceae Swertia schimperi
Herb Lamiaceae Thymus schimperi
Herb Lamiaceae Thymus serulatus
Herb Fabaceae Trifolim multinervae
Herb Fabaceae Trifolium acaule
Herb Fabaceae Trifolium cryptopodium
Shrub Scrophulariaceae Verbascum sp
Herb Scrophulariaceae Veronica abyssinica
Herb Scrophulariaceae Veronica glandulosa

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Appendix 2 Synoptic Table of the plant community analysis

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3

Agrostis.sclerophylla 6.40 0.22 0.00
Agrostis.quinquesta 3.27 2.33 1.36
Trifolium.cryptopodium 2.67 1.97 2.45
Helichrysum.citrispinum 2.27 2.67 1.27
Alchemilla.microbetula 1.53 3.36 1.82
Dianthoseris.schimperi 1.13 2.19 0.27
Satureja.simensis 1.13 0.36 2.91
Cerastium.octandrum 1.00 1.42 0.64
Andropogon.lima 1.00 0.44 2.64
Satureja.abyssinica 1.00 0.36 0.00
Sagina.afroalpina 0.87 0.67 0.09
Festuca.macrophylla 0.73 5.97 5.64
Helichrysum.splendidum 0.67 0.33 0.55
Ranunculus.oreophytes 0.60 0.17 0.00
Agrostis.diffusa 0.47 0.53 0.45
Lobelia.rhynchopetalum 0.40 1.86 3.27
Cotula.abyssinica 0.40 0.31 0.18
Festuca.abyssinica 0.33 0.33 0.00
Hypericum.revolutum 0.33 0.00 1.00
Thymus.schimperi 0.27 0.17 2.36
Trifolium.acaule 0.20 1.67 3.36
Senecio.nanus 0.20 0.56 0.00
Swertia.lugardae 0.20 0.31 0.18
Alchemilla.pedata 0.13 0.56 1.73
Crassula.schimperi 0.13 0.00 0.00
Saxifraga.sp 0.13 0.00 0.00
Bartsia.longiflora 0.07 0.42 0.09
Salvia.merjamie 0.07 0.33 0.09

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Swertia.abyssinicca 0.07 0.33 0.09
Erica.arborea 0.07 0.19 6.45
Helichrysum.horridum 0.07 0.06 0.00
Artemisia.abyssinica 0.07 0.03 0.00
Primula.verticillata 0.07 0.03 0.00
Anthemis.tigrensis 0.07 0.00 0.00
Antherica.sp 0.07 0.00 0.00
Cotula.cryptocephala 0.07 0.00 0.00
Gnaphalium.tweediae 0.07 0.00 0.00
Haplocarpha.ruppellii 0.07 0.00 0.00
Verbascum.sp 0.07 0.00 0.00
Carex.monostachya 0.00 0.78 0.00
Kniphofia.foliosa 0.00 0.58 0.64
Erica.tenuipilsa 0.00 0.58 0.27
Cineraria.sebaldii 0.00 0.44 0.00
Sagina.abyssica 0.00 0.28 0.00
Scabiosa.columbaria 0.00 0.25 0.09
Deschampsia.flexuosa 0.00 0.17 0.09
Veronica.glandulosa 0.00 0.17 0.00
Trifolim.multinervae 0.00 0.14 0.45
Poa.annua 0.00 0.14 0.00
Bromus.leptoclados 0.00 0.08 0.00
Festuca.simensis 0.00 0.08 0.00
Luzula.abyssinica 0.00 0.08 0.00
Swertia.schimperi 0.00 0.06 0.09
Cyanotis.polyrrhiza 0.00 0.06 0.00
Galium.acrophylum 0.00 0.06 0.00
Senecio.fresenii 0.00 0.06 0.00
Silene.macrosolen 0.00 0.06 0.00
Lolium.sp 0.00 0.03 0.45
Bartsia.decurva 0.00 0.03 0.09

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Epilobium.stereophyllum 0.00 0.03 0.00
Erodium.moschatum 0.00 0.03 0.00
Haplocarpha.schimperi 0.00 0.03 0.00
Inula.confertiflora 0.00 0.03 0.00
Myosotis.vestergrenii 0.00 0.03 0.00
Polygala.abyssinica 0.00 0.03 0.00
Rumex.nepalensis 0.00 0.03 0.00
Sonchus.melanolepis 0.00 0.03 0.00
Alchemilla.abyssinica 0.00 0.00 2.82
Thymus.serulatus 0.00 0.00 1.09
Galium.simense 0.00 0.00 0.64
Agrocharis.melanantha 0.00 0.00 0.45
Veronica.abyssinica 0.00 0.00 0.45
Cyperus.dichrostachyus 0.00 0.00 0.36
Cardus.schimperi 0.00 0.00 0.27
Asplenium.aethiopicum 0.00 0.00 0.18
Asplenium.protensum 0.00 0.00 0.18
Conyza.spinosa 0.00 0.00 0.18
Pulicaria.sp 0.00 0.00 0.18
Cardus.nyassanus 0.00 0.00 0.09
Dicrocephala.chrysanthemifolia 0.00 0.00 0.09
Euphorbia.Schimperi 0.00 0.00 0.09
Geranium.aculeolatum 0.00 0.00 0.09
Hedbergia.abyssinica 0.00 0.00 0.09
Malva.verticillata 0.00 0.00 0.09
Oxalis.procumbens 0.00 0.00 0.09
Plantago.lanceolata 0.00 0.00 0.09

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Appendix 3 Correlation among environmental variables (The SAS System)

Obs. Fmacr Altitude Aspect Slope PH EC Sand Clay Silt CEC OM TN P K

1 0 4101 4.0 7 6.00 0.071 56 10 34 42.4 13.8800 0.69 7.88 334.45

2 0 4438 4.0 5 6.13 0.061 56 4 40 31.2 3.1000 0.15 10.75 163.70
3 5 4128 0.0 18 6.32 0.063 62 2 36 53.2 13.8800 0.69 7.25 395.25
4 5 4123 1.0 20 6.30 0.058 62 6 32 37.6 14.2100 0.71 6.63 274.10
5 6 4143 2.0 22 6.28 0.052 54 6 40 48.0 12.2700 0.61 5.25 232.00
6 0 4314 4.0 16 6.55 0.055 62 6 32 38.0 2.7120 0.14 13.13 296.80
7 0 4200 2.5 17 5.96 0.043 50 4 46 54.8 15.5000 0.77 12.50 119.65
8 7 3908 1.3 15 5.75 0.065 60 4 36 47.6 19.7000 0.98 6.75 298.40
9 5 3803 2.5 24 5.76 0.061 52 6 42 55.0 25.1900 1.26 7.63 285.00
10 5 3700 2.5 26 5.77 0.051 56 4 40 54.4 18.7300 0.94 7.13 269.15
11 6 3508 2.5 13 5.78 0.043 54 10 36 47.6 11.9475 0.60 7.00 345.20
12 6 4152 3.3 11 5.95 0.080 56 4 40 55.0 15.9800 0.80 10.13 360.80
13 6 4350 3.3 13 5.98 0.049 40 8 52 53.8 17.1100 0.86 19.38 223.60
14 0 4449 3.3 11 6.14 0.074 64 4 32 37.6 2.8420 0.14 5.38 190.35
15 2 4552 4.0 13 6.23 0.073 40 14 46 35.6 2.3890 0.12 18.00 203.30
16 5 4346 1.3 24 6.81 0.041 40 18 42 28.4 1.3240 0.07 8.50 81.35
17 6 4157 1.3 13 5.75 0.058 50 6 44 47.6 18.7300 0.94 6.75 295.65
18 6 3951 4.0 11 6.13 0.054 52 16 32 37.2 9.3640 0.47 7.00 166.10
19 7 3863 3.0 23 5.95 0.052 54 10 36 48.6 15.5000 0.77 7.50 164.80
20 5 4061 3.0 32 5.83 0.079 40 20 40 47.2 14.2100 0.71 6.25 166.20
21 7 4260 3.0 21 6.18 0.046 30 22 48 38.6 9.2030 0.46 9.13 137.95
22 7 4254 1.3 18 5.75 0.058 24 16 60 41.6 11.6200 0.58 3.75 148.10
23 0 4096 1.3 18 5.19 0.073 52 16 32 52.0 25.3500 1.27 11.88 165.85
24 7 3860 1.0 24 5.54 0.047 54 6 40 41.6 15.9800 0.80 6.13 165.05
25 7 4256 2.0 14 5.78 0.055 42 12 46 42.4 11.3000 0.57 12.88 142.90
26 5 4060 3.3 25 5.42 0.074 40 10 50 46.0 12.2700 0.61 23.13 235.30
27 7 3826 4.0 3 5.40 0.056 44 12 44 55.6 13.2400 0.66 11.00 305.35

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28 0 3623 1.3 15 5.53 0.078 64 6 30 50.4 25.8300 1.29 18.75 268.85
29 7 3512 3.0 12 5.62 0.037 44 4 52 52.6 16.7900 0.84 6.13 325.00
30 6 3750 1.3 5 5.32 0.055 56 8 36 55.6 19.3700 0.97 16.25 233.55

The CORR Procedure

14 Variables: Fmacr Altitude Aspect Slope PH EC Sand Clay Silt
CEC OM TN P K

Simple Statistics
Variable N Mean Std Dev Sum Minimum Maximum
Fmacr 30 4.50000 2.72599 135.00000 0 7.00000
Altitude 30 4058 275.10734 121744 3508 4552
Aspect 30 2.47667 1.15032 74.30000 0 4.00000
Slope 30 16.30000 6.92397 489.00000 3.00000 32.00000
PH 30 5.90333 0.36720 177.10000 5.19000 6.81000
EC 30 0.05873 0.01207 1.76200 0.03700 0.08000
Sand 30 50.33333 9.98044 1510 24.00000 64.00000
Clay 30 9.13333 5.42493 274.00000 2.00000 22.00000
Silt 30 40.53333 7.25750 1216 30.00000 60.00000
CEC 30 45.90667 7.80022 1377 28.40000 55.60000
OM 30 13.65072 6.59356 409.52149 1.32400 25.83000
TN 30 0.68233 0.32967 20.47000 0.07000 1.29000
P 30 9.99400 4.84980 299.82000 3.75000 23.13000
K 30 233.12500 80.73268 6994 81.35000 395.25000

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 Pearson Correlation Coefficients, N = 30
Prob > |r| under H0: Rho=0
Fmacr Altitude Aspect Slope PH EC Sand
Fmacr 1.00000 -0.34026 -0.24138 0.19822 -0.15536 -0.40868 -0.40431
0.0658 0.1988 0.2937 0.4123 0.0249 0.0267
Altitude -0.34026 1.00000 0.19784 -0.04264 0.57272 0.22185 -0.24165
0.0658 0.2946 0.8230 0.0009 0.2387 0.1983
Aspect -0.24138 0.19784 1.00000 -0.31471 0.13587 0.10582 -0.14407
0.1988 0.2946 0.0903 0.4741 0.5778 0.4475
Slope 0.19822 -0.04264 -0.31471 1.00000 0.13061 -0.03325 -0.20110
0.2937 0.8230 0.0903 0.4915 0.8615 0.2866
PH -0.15536 0.57272 0.13587 0.13061 1.00000 -0.19459 0.06687
0.4123 0.0009 0.4741 0.4915 0.3028 0.7255
EC -0.40868 0.22185 0.10582 -0.03325 -0.19459 1.00000 0.22229
0.0249 0.2387 0.5778 0.8615 0.3028 0.2377
Sand -0.40431 -0.24165 -0.14407 -0.20110 0.06687 0.22229 1.00000
0.0267 0.1983 0.4475 0.2866 0.7255 0.2377
Clay 0.17488 0.20142 0.15137 0.23667 0.03820 0.00372 -0.70524
0.3553 0.2858 0.4246 0.2080 0.8412 0.9844 <.0001
Silt 0.42529 0.18176 0.08498 0.09964 -0.12051 -0.30848 -0.84803
0.0191 0.3364 0.6553 0.6004 0.5259 0.0972 <.0001
CEC 0.21374 -0.56747 -0.17403 -0.02245 -0.61272 0.03774 0.13542
0.2567 0.0011 0.3577 0.9063 0.0003 0.8430 0.4755
OM 0.15916 -0.63305 -0.43228 0.13097 -0.69863 0.13340 0.19424
0.4009 0.0002 0.0170 0.4903 <.0001 0.4822 0.3037
TN 0.16097 -0.63316 -0.43277 0.13141 -0.69850 0.13100 0.19238
0.3955 0.0002 0.0169 0.4888 <.0001 0.4902 0.3084
P -0.27945 0.14028 0.22295 -0.17519 -0.23093 0.25584 -0.09948
0.1348 0.4597 0.2363 0.3545 0.2195 0.1724 0.6010
K 0.06592 -0.41976 -0.01918 -0.29614 -0.12290 0.19669 0.47396
0.7293 0.0209 0.9199 0.1121 0.5176 0.2975 0.0081

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Continued…
Clay Silt CEC OM TN P K
Fmacr 0.17488 0.42529 0.21374 0.15916 0.16097 -0.27945 0.06592
0.3553 0.0191 0.2567 0.4009 0.3955 0.1348 0.7293
Altitude 0.20142 0.18176 -0.56747 -0.63305 -0.63316 0.14028 -0.41976
0.2858 0.3364 0.0011 0.0002 0.0002 0.4597 0.0209
Aspect 0.15137 0.08498 -0.17403 -0.43228 -0.43277 0.22295 -0.01918
0.4246 0.6553 0.3577 0.0170 0.0169 0.2363 0.9199
Slope 0.23667 0.09964 -0.02245 0.13097 0.13141 -0.17519 -0.29614
0.2080 0.6004 0.9063 0.4903 0.4888 0.3545 0.1121
PH 0.03820 -0.12051 -0.61272 -0.69863 -0.69850 -0.23093 -0.12290
0.8412 0.5259 0.0003 <.0001 <.0001 0.2195 0.5176
EC 0.00372 -0.30848 0.03774 0.13340 0.13100 0.25584 0.19669
0.9844 0.0972 0.8430 0.4822 0.4902 0.1724 0.2975
Sand -0.70524 -0.84803 0.13542 0.19424 0.19238 -0.09948 0.47396
<.0001 <.0001 0.4755 0.3037 0.3084 0.6010 0.0081
Clay 1.00000 0.22234 -0.35629 -0.23604 -0.23367 0.02160 -0.55814
0.2376 0.0533 0.2092 0.2139 0.9098 0.0014
Silt 0.22234 1.00000 0.08010 -0.09068 -0.08990 0.12066 -0.23459
0.2376 0.6739 0.6337 0.6366 0.5254 0.2121
CEC -0.35629 0.08010 1.00000 0.78206 0.78158 0.12581 0.47291
0.0533 0.6739 <.0001 <.0001 0.5077 0.0083
OM -0.23604 -0.09068 0.78206 1.00000 0.99995 0.04817 0.31268
0.2092 0.6337 <.0001 <.0001 0.8005 0.0925
TN -0.23367 -0.08990 0.78158 0.99995 1.00000 0.04922 0.31211
0.2139 0.6366 <.0001 <.0001 0.7962 0.0931
P 0.02160 0.12066 0.12581 0.04817 0.04922 1.00000 -0.05453
0.9098 0.5254 0.5077 0.8005 0.7962 0.7747
K -0.55814 -0.23459 0.47291 0.31268 0.31211 -0.05453 1.00000
0.0014 0.2121 0.0083 0.0925 0.0931 0.7747

68
Appendix 4 Laboratory soil analysis result

69
Appendix 5 Plates

Plate 1: the uppermost plant community- Plate 2: Transition from community type 3
pattern, type 2. Ras Dejen area (photo: (lower) to type 2 (upper), (photo: by Getahun

By Getahun Tassew; January, 2012) Tassew; Nov. 2016

Plate 3: Plant community type 1, Plate 4: Pulcaria/ Conyza, unidentified

while soil sample was being taken specimen (photo by Getahun Tassew;

(photo by Getahun Tassew; Nov. 2015) Oct. 2015)

70