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Flotation modelling: A wide range of solutions for solving industrial problems

Article in Minerals Engineering · April 1995

DOI: 10.1016/0892-6875(95)00006-C

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Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling

Flotation modelling: a wide range of solutions

for solving industrial problems.

J. Villeneuve, J.-C. Guillaneau, M.-V. Durance

BRGM - Process Simulation Group
Avenue de Concyr - BP 6009 - 45060 ORLEANS Cedex 2 - FRANCE

Abstract.
Steady state simulation is now widely used for the design and optimisation of mineral processing
plants. One of the most difficult unit operations to simulate in mineral processing is flotation. There
are two main reasons for this. Firstly, the flotation circuits are made up of a number of streams of
widely differing flowrates and compositions, which can make the collection of reliable experimental
data time-consuming and expensive. The data generally available are thus limited in number and often
subject to experimental error. Secondly, the flotation process is highly complex and controlled by
many different hydrodynamic and physicochemical parameters. Many mathematical models exist
which represent flotation, reflecting the variety of approaches with emphasis on different principal
parameters, however, few of these models are effectively operational for industrial purposes, their
usability depending on the data available.

This paper presents the solutions to such problems provided by the USIM PAC 2 simulator. Several
methods are possible, depending on the objectives of the simulation study and the data available, that
require the use of data reconciliation algorithms, simple flotation models (flowsheeting) or much
more complex models (liberation modelling). A detailed description is given of the flotation models
embedded in the software enabling different parameters for specific ores and specific plants to be
taken into account . The more detailed the model is, the greater the amount of data required for its
use. Industrial examples are given to illustrate some of the uses and relative advantages of the
different models.

The flotation process: a complex system

Flotation has been known over the years to be one of the most difficult processes to understand, even
if it has been, and still is, used to treat the larger tonnage of ores. In the general case of "conventional"
flotation of valuable minerals, major economic importance is justified by efficiency and relatively
easy industrial practice. Industrial practice of flotation consists of two successive steps: conditioning,
where an appropriate combination of chemical reagents make the surfaces selectively hydrophobic,
and flotation itself, where small bubbles are dispersed in the pulp and carry the attached hydrophobic
particles to the froth which is continuously removed.
This simple outline hides the large number of variables that can affect the process. For instance, the
simple fact that "the particles made hydrophobic stick to the air bubbles" implies the following
variables:

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Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling
• feed characteristics, depending on the previous unit operations: mass flowrate, mineral
composition, size distribution and specific gravity of each mineral phase, liberation spectrum,
surface chemical properties, shape of particles, percentage of solids in the pulp, slurry rheological
properties, etc.
• physico-chemical system: surfactant at the mineral/solution interface, selectivity of the surfactant
distribution between each mineral phase, covering of the surface by hydrophobic species, water
quality, temperature, frother addition or resulting dynamic surface tension at the air/water
interface, etc.
• hydrodynamics: circuit arrangement, design of the cells or columns, turbulence intensity in the
various parts, aeration rate, volumetric spatial distribution of bubbles and particles or mixing
characteristics, dead zones, etc.
In order to answer questions of general industrial concern, for example, "How to optimise a plant
economically ?" or "How to design a new circuit for maximum return on investment ?", many factors,
commonly interacting with each other, can be of major importance. It is almost impossible to take
them all into account; even if most factors were amenable to precise description, the necessity to
individually characterise some thousands of particles in order to collect reliable statistical data would
prevent this.

Use and limits of flotation modelling

Unit operation modelling is a way to describe, interpret and try to predict what happens in reality.
The modelling task is subject to a series of approximations summarised in Figure 1.

Reality

Observation

Physics and
Chemistry

Methods and
Algorithms

Use

Figure 1. Successive approximations from reality.

The quality of the model strongly depends on each step of approximation.

The first step is "What we can observe from reality". If reality is a flotation plant, the collection of
data concerning operation of the plant will never provide a complete representation of what really
happens. To date, a model built from these data will include this lack of knowledge. On the contrary,
if a very precise model were built which necessitates, for example, the gradient of dissolved oxygen
concentration in the neighbourhood of particle surfaces, it is obvious that this data would never be
available from any plant to allow the use of this model.

The second step of approximation is "What we can understand from observation". The large number
of variables mentioned earlier gives an idea of the complexity of phenomena occurring during
flotation. Much research has been, and is presently being, carried out in this field on specific subjects.
An extensive literature exists on the mechanisms of collector adsorption and electrochemistry [1, 2,
3], on the physics of collision and adhesion of particles on bubbles [4] but present understanding of
flotation which allows representation of any industrial or laboratory data is still widely based on a

2
Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling
"global" kinetic approach [5], also called "macro-phenomenological approach". This approach in
which all the micro-phenomena are lumped into a single kinetic constant, even discretised, will not
supply any kind of information on, for example, either the role of pH, or the role of agitation speed
in a cell. This understanding of flotation is, of course, a severe approximation. It has the advantages
of supplying a means for analysing the material balance in a plant, necessitating relatively few
experimental data, and taking into account the influence of the previous processes. It will be discussed
in the following section.

The third step of approximation from reality is "What is possible to resolve ?". The resolution of the
basic equations describing the physics and chemistry of the system may be difficult or even
impossible without hazardous assumptions. Conversely, the difficulty arising from mathematical
resolution of equations may lead to the choice of simplified representations of reality. One of the best
examples is Residence Time Distribution (RTD), whose equation may lead to difficulties in
integrating the kinetics if the RTD is not assumed as a series of perfect mixers or a plug flow.

The last step is "What knowledge is possible to transfer". Any model is a communication tool, and is
subject to losses of information when communication occurs. If the knowledge transfer from the
model developer to the final user is not properly carried out, the results acquired from use of the
model will reflect this loss of information.

As a result of these remarks, the possibility of solving industrial problems using a modelling approach
is linked to the extent to which these approximations should be accepted. For preliminary design of
a plant, we do not need the same level of precision of simulation results as when trying to increase
metallurgical performance of an existing concentrator by a few percent . It the first case, the results
may be evaluated by an experienced process designer whereas in the second case, the results can be
compared to plant data and these data can be used to improve the precision of results. The simulator
should not offer THE universal mathematical model of flotation, but rather a range of methods for
data treatment and objective definition, and a range of models allowing different problems to be
solved according to the available data and the user's objectives.

Flotation models: basic principles and practical implications

This section will describe the flotation models embedded in the USIM PAC simulator. One of the
main ideas considers that any representation of reality is of interest if the user's objectives may be
reached through it. Several models are thus available for flotation, ranging from "level 0" to "level
2".
This classification distinguishes:
• the "performance" models (level 0), where parameters describe directly the performance of a
flotation bank; these models are made for material balance calculation and definition,
• the "predictive" models (levels 1 and 2), where the main parameters are the sizes of the equipment,
the circuit configuration and parameters describing the flotation kinetics of each mineral species.

Level 0 models.

These models enable definition of the recovery per component of the ore for each bank. Even if they
are very simple, they may be used, for example in a design study, to calculate the individual
performances of each bank that should lead to the most appropriate material balance in terms of the
minimisation of the circulating loads. In an optimisation study, starting with the measured recoveries
in the plant, these models should help in determining which bank is the most important to optimise.
Figure 2 shows the results of such a "pre-optimisation". The circuit is made of a rougher bank, a
scavenger bank and two cleaning banks in which a chalcopyrite ore is floated. These banks have

3
Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling
respectively a recovery of chalcopyrite of 78%, 62.2%, 88.8% and 66.8%, giving a total recovery of
the circuit of 89.1%. The Figure shows the relative variation of the total recovery according to the
relative variation of the recovery of each bank. This type of result is easy to obtain with level 0
flotation models, and it produces some quantitative information upon which to base the optimisation
work.

Relative variation of circuit recovery (%)

10

Rougher bank
8

Scavenger bank
6
1st cleaner bank
4
2nd cleaner bank
2

0 Relative variation
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-2 of recovery in
one bank (%)
-4

-6

-8

-10

Figure 2: Variation of total recovery (%) versus variation of the recovery of banks (%)

Level 1 and 2 models.

This paragraph will focus on "conventional" flotation in agitated cells.

There are currently three available models in the USIM PAC software. All of them are based on the
kinetic approach. This approach has been extensively discussed [6, 7] and the different models
compared [8]. The two following models have generally proved realistic enough to represent
industrial data and simple enough to be used with industrial data.

Model with two kinetic constants.

This model is based on the representation of flotation by a first order kinetic phenomenon. However,
it is considered that for each mineral there are three "sub-populations" corresponding to different
flotation behaviours:
• a non-floating sub-population, which is expressed through a maximum possible recovery Rinfj
for each mineral j,
• a fast-floating sub-population characterised by a fast-floating constant kfj, and defined as a
proportion (1-ϕ) of the total amount of floating particles,
• a slow-floating sub-population characterised by a slow-floating constant ksj, and defined as a
proportion ϕ of the total amount of floating particles.

Since each cell is represented as a perfect mixer, flotation is described for each cell by:
  1   1 
Ff j = Fj .Rinfj. ϕ j . 1 −
  1 + ks jτ 
( )
 + 1 − ϕ j . 1 −  
 1 + kf jτ  
(1)

where:
Ffj: flowrate of mineral j in the froth
Fj: flowrate of mineral j in the feed

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Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling
Rinf : maximum possible recovery of mineral j in the froth
j
ϕj: proportion of mineral j capable of floating and which shows slow floating behaviour
τ: mean residence time in the cell, computed from the ratio of the effective cell volume
to the cell feed.

Model with a distribution of kinetic constants according to particle size.

This model is also based on the representation of flotation by a first order kinetic phenomenon, but
considers that there are only two "sub-populations" for each mineral:
• a non-floating sub-population, which is expressed by a maximum possible recovery Rinfj for each
mineral j,
• a floating sub-population which is the complement to the non-floating sub-population, and in
which each size class has its own kinetic rate constant.

The maximum possible recovery is independent of the size distribution.

The kinetic constant is calculated for each mineral j and each size class i according to a simplified
version of the formula derived by R.P. King [10] which is a typical "bell-shaped" curve:
α j   xi  
15
.
  xe j  2 
k i,j = 0 .5 . 1 −   . exp −   (2)
xi   xl j     2. x i  
 
Where:
x i: average size in size fraction i
α j: adjustment parameter for mineral j
xlj: largest floating particle size for mineral j
xej: easiest floating particle size for mineral j

Each cell is represented as a perfect mixer. Flotation is described for each cell by:
 1 
Ffi, j = Fi, j .Rinfj. 1 −  (3)
 1 + k i, j . τ 
Where:
Ffi,j: flowrate of mineral j and size class i in the froth
Fi,j: flowrate of mineral j and size class i in the feed

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Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling
Description of sub-populations.

These models allow a fairly good representation of flotation. One of their essential features is the
ability to modify the proportions of sub-populations in each stream of the circuit, as shown in Figure
3.
The kinetic equation allows calculation of the flowrate of each component and each size class in the
concentrate, and these flowrates are subtracted from the feed flowrates to give the tailing stream. The
balance is made over each sub-population defined.

Feed: Tailings:
F=10 result of a balance
Ffloat=4 F=8
Fno-float=6 Ffloat=2
(Rinf = 40%) Concentrate: Fno-float=6
result of kinetics (Rinf = 25%)
F=2
Ffloat=2
Fno-float=0
(Rinf = 100%)

Figure 3. Balance of sub-populations around a flotation bank.

The sub-populations are also modified by other unit operations.

The influence of regrinding for example may be taken into account not only in the modification of
the size distribution, but also in the increase of the limit recovery Rinfj induced by the liberation of
mineral species.
The influence of conditioning is taken into account mainly in the modification of the proportion of
fast/slow floating particles, and also, to a certain extent, in the modification of Rinfj.

The dilemma of entrained components.

The kinetic equations described above have been experimentally defined for "normally floating"
minerals. Their application to the "normally non-floating" minerals is sometimes doubtful.
The models in USIM PAC propose an alternative with the possibility of taking into account a
proportion of entrainment for each mineral species. The entrainment model is based on the work
described in reference [9]. The relations between particle mass, water recovery rate and slurry
viscosity are described as follows :
R i, j = Pi, j .R w (4)
where :
Ri,j = recovery of mineral j in size class i in one cell
Pi,j = probability factor
Rw = water recovery in the cell

The expression of Pi,j is :

w 0.7
Pi, j = 0.5
(5)
m 
w 0.7 + a j . i, j 
 η
where :
w = recovery rate of water (kg/s.m2)

6
Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling
aj = adjustment parameter for mineral j
mi,j = mass of a particle
η = viscosity of the medium, which is defined by :
Γ.Cv
η = η0 + (6)
(1 - Cv )4.8
where :
η0 = viscosity of the liquid (1 mPa.s for water),
Cv = volume fraction of solids,
Γ = constant depending on the material (1.83 for quartz; 3.8 for phlogopite).

Therefore, for each mineral component of the ore, it is possible to choose the flotation kinetics or the
entrainment equations, or even a mixing of the two leading to the general expression:
  1  
Fi, j = Ffi, j  Rinf j  1 −  + Ap j . Pi, j .R w 
 (7)
  1 + k i, j . τ  
where :
Apj = Adjustment coefficient.

Use of these models.

Parameter estimation.

The use of these models is dependent on the data available to calculate their parameters.
The model with two kinetic constants described above has 4 parameters per mineral (Rinfj, ϕj, ksj,
kfj). It is currently called "level 2A" in USIM PAC.

It can be simplified by assuming Rinfj = 100%, ϕj = 0%, and as ksj is not used, the only parameter
left is kfj. Rearranging formula (1), and expressing the time after which 50% of one mineral is
recovered in the concentrate, gives: t50 = 1/kfj. This simplified model is called "level 1" and may be
used for design if a typical value of the half flotation time (t50) is known.

The model with a distribution of kinetic constants described above has also 4 parameters per mineral
(Rinf , αj, xlj, xej). It is currently called "level 2B".
j
If entrainment is to be represented (level 2C model), 2 parameters per mineral entrained are necessary
(aj, Apj) and one parameter for all minerals (Γ).

The parameters of the level 2 models cannot be determined without experimental data. As analysed
by Védrine [11], the precision and the reliability of simulation results depend on:
• the choice of the appropriate model for a specific flotation bank,
• the quality of the adjustment of its parameters,
• the quality of the experimental data used for the adjustment.
The first step to obtaining good simulation results is to collect good experimental data. In the case of
an existing plant, one way to obtain kinetic data is to sample each cell of a bank, as shown in Figure
4. The samples should give the total flowrate, the grade per component, or eventually the grade per
component and size class. The black points are the sampled streams. The blank squares are the streams
which are impossible to sample. It should first be noted that it is impossible in most cases to make a
balance for each cell. It should also be noted that even where sampling is carried out very carefully,
7
Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling
there is little chance of the overall balance being coherent. These remarks show the necessity to
reconcile data before being able to profit from them.

Figure 4. Sampling points around a bank of cells.

After this first treatment of data, it is necessary to reconstruct the kinetics, i.e. from (recovery versus
cell number) to (recovery versus time), taking into account the decrease of volumetric flowrate in the
feed of the cells along the bank, which causes an increase in the mean residence time.
Once the kinetic data are available, it is possible to adjust the parameters of the model with an
appropriate search algorithm. At this stage, the quality of adjustment gives a good indication of the
pertinence of the choice of the model.

This presentation shows that many factors can influence the quality of results obtained from
simulation, and that often, the way data are collected and treated is a more serious "bottleneck" than
the model itself.

Practical applications.

Level 2A model.

The use of the conditioner model included in the software allows variation of the proportion of sub-
populations after conditioning, according for example to the quantity of collector added. The variation
of the proportion of slow floating particles for chalcopyrite (ϕch) influences the results of the flotation
model 2A, as shown in Figure 5.
80

78

76

R e c o v e ry (% )
74

72

70
5 10 15 20 25 30
P h i s lo w (% )

Figure 5. Recovery of chalcopyrite versus the percentage of

slow-floating/total-floating particles in the feed of the bank.

Level 2B model.

If the rate of flotation of one component depends on the size of particles, as commonly occurs with
industrial minerals (i.e., phosphate, barite or fluorite) [12, 13], model 2B takes this phenomenon into
account. As an example, Figure 6 shows the measured recovery versus particle size of the valuable
mineral and the gangue in the first cell of a bank during a pilot test.

8
Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling

Figure 6. Recovery of valuable mineral and gangue versus particle size.

Other possible models.

The models illustrated in the above examples may be too limited for specific cases.
An example of such a case is the simulation of the pilot plant operation at EDM (Portugal) for the
treatment of the Moinho ore in Portugal. The polymetallic sulphide ore contains copper, lead, silver
and zinc. A modelling study has been carried out on the grinding and flotation circuits of this ore
based on pilot plant data by EDM and BRGM with the financial support of the European
Communities.
Although the USIM PAC software package was used as a shell for simulating the Moinho process, a
specific research project still had to be carried out to elaborate the specific unit operation models.
This research included, amongst others, modelling of the flotation circuit.

This study [14, 15] has shown that successful modelling of flotation of such an ore requires not only
the influence of particle size to be taken into account , but also the mineral liberation of the ore.
The flotation model developed distinguishes the behaviour of the minerals depending on whether they
are found in the form of free particles or in the form of locked particles. It is a two-parameter kinetic
model (a maximum recovery and a kinetic constant) defined for free and locked particles for each
mineral and particle size class.
Adjustment of this model has been made using a large amount of kinetic data. The curves similar to
those shown in Figure 7 were established for each mineral and each size class.

9
Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling

Rougher and Scavenger Zinc Circuit

Size class (- 23 µm, + 11 µm)
100

80
Recovery (%)

60

40

Free
20
Locked

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Cell

Figure 7: Chalcopyrite kinetic curves of the zinc circuit.

Conclusions
This paper has discussed the complexity of the flotation system and the inter-dependencies of all the
parts of a plant which should be taken into account when trying to design or to optimise a flotation
circuit. This statement leads to approximations to represent what really happens in a plant. These
approximations are derived from the available data, the available understanding, the available
numerical methods and the communication efficiency.
The challenge of simulation is to be able to give useful results in any circumstances. In order to adapt
to the above limitations, the simulation tool should integrate various facilities both for data treatment
and for representation of a unit operation.
The models available in USIM PAC for conventional flotation in cells have been described. They are
shown to be comprehensive enough to address many industrial problems, and simple enough to be
used with the data generally available. Their ability to be integrated into a complex process, including
grinding, and to take into account the effect of regrinding has been demonstrated.
It is always possible to develop a specific model if the standard models are not precise enough or do
not reach the objectives of the optimisation. However, the more parameters a model has, the more it
needs reliable experimental data to be adjusted.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Commission of the European Communities for the partial financial
support of the EDM/BRGM research program.
This paper is the BRGM contribution no. 94040, for which the work was in part financed by a BRGM
research project.

References
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 Minerals Engineering Vol.8 n°4/5, April/May 1995 pp. 409-420 - Flotation modelling

1. Woods, R., 1976, Electrochemistry of sulphide flotation, in "Flotation", A.M. Gaudin Memorial
Volume 1, Chap. 10.

2. Woods, R., 1984, Electrochemistry of sulphide flotation, in "Principles of Mineral flotation", M.H.
Jones and J.T. Woodcock Eds., The Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

3. Chander, S., 1985, Oxidation/Reduction Effects in Depression of Sulphide Minerals. A review.

Minerals and Metallurgical Processing, Feb. 1985.

4. Schulze, H.J., 1984, Physico-chemical Elementary Processes in Flotation. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

5. Ek, C., 1992, Flotation Kinetics, in "Innovations in Flotation Technology", P. Mavros and K. Matis
Eds, Kluwer Academic Publisher, NATO ASI series. Serie E, Vol. 208, pp 183-210.

6. Fichera, M.A. and Chudacek, M.W., 1992, Batch cell flotation models - A Review, Minerals
Engineering, Vol. 5, No 1, pp 41-55.

7. Mehrotra, S.P. and Padmanabhan, N.P.H., 1990, Flotation Kinetics - A Review, Trans. Indian
Inst. Met., Vol. 43, No 1, pp 9-21, Feb. 1990.

8. Kelly, E.G. and Carlson, C.E., 1991, Technical note. Two flotation models: Resolution of a
conflict, Minerals Engineering, Vol. 4, No 12, pp 1333-1338.

9. Kirjavainen, V.M., 1992, Mathematical model for the entrainment of hydrophilic particles in froth
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10. King, R.P., 1974, The simulation of flotation plants. S.M.E. preprint 74 B-25, AIME Annual
Meeting, Dallas, Texas.

11. Védrine, H., 1992, "Mise au point et Evaluation de modèles de Simulation Statique de la Flotation
Conventionnelle", Ph. D. Thesis, Orléans University, France.

12. Broussaud A., Brachet C., Fourniguet G., Audoli H., Laplace G. 1985. Prédiction par simulation
de l'influence de modifications de flow-sheet sur les performances de l'usine de flottation de barytine
de Chaillac, Indre (France). Revue de l'Industrie Minérale, les Techniques. June. pp. 238-244.

13. Conil, P., Broussaud, A., Niang, S., Delubac, G., 1988, "Utilisation d'un simulateur pour l'aide à
l'évaluation d'hypothèses d'évolution d'un atelier de concentration à l'usine de phosphates de Taïba
(Sénégal)", Revue de l'Industrie Minérale, les Techniques, janvier-février, pp. 21-29.

14. Védrine, H., Broussaud, A., Conil, P., De Matos, C.F., 1991, "Modelling the Flotation Kinetics
of a Polymetallic Sulphide Ore", SME Annual Meeting, February 25-28, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A..

15. Guillaneau, J.-C., Villeneuve, J., Durance, M.-V., Brochot, S., Fourniguet, G., 1994, "Simulation
Improvements in Mineral Processing", communication presented at the first International
Symposium on Complex Ores Utilization, May, Saint Petersburg, Russia.

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