Forensic Chemistry

Forensic Chemistry and

and Toxicology
Toxicology
Forensi

History of Forensic  Royal Decree no.

188 of the king of
Medicine, Forensic Spain
Chemistry and Crime
Laboratory  December 15, 1884
 The study of mineral
waters of Luzon
 Gen. Joaquin
 1858
Jovellar
 First medical
 Anacleto del Rosario
textbook printed
-Chemist
 Dr. Rafael Genard y
Mas
 September 13, 1887
-Chief Army
 Laboratorio
Physician
Municipal de Manila
 “Manual de
 Analysis of
Medicina
a. Food
Domestica”
b. Water
 1871
c. Public Health
 Teaching of Forensic
and Legal
Medicine
Medicine
 Pontificia
d. Specimens
Universidad de
 1894
Santo Tomas, that is
 Teaching of Forensic
known as University
Medicine
of Santo Tomas
 Rules regulating the
( UST ) today
service of medico
 March 31
titular references was
 March 31, 1876
published.
 Creation of position
of “Medico
Titulares”
a. Public  1895
Sanitation  Medico – legal
b. Medico – laboratory
Legal Aid  City of Manila
 Provinces

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  1898  Head of the
 Spanish forensic Department of Legal
medicine system was Medicine and Ethic
preserved. became the Chief of
 1899 the Medico-Legal
 First Crime Department of the
Laboratory by the Philippines General
U.S. Army  March 10, 1922
 Lt. R.P. Strong  Philippines
 1901 Legislature enacted
 Act. No. 157, 307 Act. No. 1043 which
and 308 became incorporated
 The Philippine in the Administrative
Legislature Code as Section 2465
maintained the pre-  December 10, 1937
existing medico-legal  Commonwealth Act
system in full force No. 181
in the Administrative  Dr. Gregorio
Code. Tilantine as the chief

 July 1, 1901
 Bureau of  March 3, 1939
Government  Department of Legal
Laboratories (BGL) Medicine of the
was created College of Medicine,
a. Biological University of the
and chemical Philippines was
analysis abolished.
b. Reproduction  1945
of vaccines  Creation of the
and sera Criminal
 Act. No. 156 Investigation
 Dr. Paul C. Freer Laboratory
 Dr. Mariano Lara as
 1919 the chief medical
 University of the examiner
Philippines  June 1947
Created the Department of  Republic Act. No.
Legal Medicine and Ethics 157, creating the
 Dr. Sixto de Los Bureau of
Angeles as the chief. Investigation was
 January 10, 1922 passed.

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  Dr. Enrique V. de los National Bureau of
Santos as chief. Investigation
 All provincial
municipal and city
health officers, Introduction to Forensic
physician of hospital, Chemistry
health centers,
asylums,  FORENSIC – This refers to a
penitentiaries and relationship to a court of
prisons and colonies justice and legal proceedings.
are ex-official  CHEMISTRY – This refers
medico-legal to branch of science that
officers. deals with the identification
 June 18, 1949 of the substances of which
 Republic Act No. matter is composed..
409 which was later  FORENSIC CHEMISTRY –
amended by Republic This refers to the branch of
Act No. 1934 chemistry that deals with the
provides for the application of chemical
creation of office of principles in the solution of
the medical problems that arise in
examiners and connection with the
criminal administration of justice.
investigation
laboratory under the  Roles of Forensic Chemistry
police department of a. Speedy Investigation
the city of manila. b. Solution of Crimes
 December 23, 1975  Chemical Findings are used
 Presidential Decree in:
No. 856 was a. Convicting the guilty
promulgated b. Clearing the innocent
 Scope of Forensic Chemistry
a. Chemical side of
investigation
At Present
b. Analysis of material
 Two (2) distinct crime leading to legal
laboratory in the Philippines: proceedings
a. Philippine National c. Not only purely
Police Crime chemical questions
Laboratory but aspects of
b. Forensic Chemistry Forensic Science
Division of the

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  Stages in the Practice of court in spite of the
Forensic Chemistry good report of the
1. Collection or Reception expert if the
of the specimen to be specimen cannot be
examined – In the identified and
collection of specimens possibility of
the following guiding tampering excluded.
principles must be
observed in the practice 2. Actual Examination of
of Forensic Chemistry: Specimen – The first step
a. Sufficiency of the in the examination of an
specimen – Police is article is to scrutinize it
usually inclined to carefully and write down
be niggardly in in the laboratory
taking samples. This notebook a complete
mistake should be description of its external
avoided. appearance including the
b. Standard for manner in which it is
comparison – If the secured and particulars of
evidence in question the sealing.
is found in the a. Scrutinize, document
presence of foreign complete description
substance, a sample of external
of the foreign appearance, manner of
substance must be collection and
submitted for secured.
analysis. b. Take photographs if
possible.
c. Maintenance of c. Weigh, measure,
individuality – Each record.
evidence must be
collected and
preserved as a 3. Communications of
separate sample. Result – The results of
There must be no the examination
mixing or conducted will be
intermingling of communicated to the
unknown to known. requesting party in the
form of a written report
d. Labelling and which must include an
Sealing – Evidence enumeration of the
will have no value in articles received for

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 examination with detailed
description of the
packing, sealing and
labeling, date of receipt
and from whom received
the purpose of the
examination, the findings
and conclusion. The
findings should include a
brief but sufficient record
of all significant facts
noted during the
examination.
4. Court Appearance – The
written report of the
chemist is usually
supplemented at a later
date by oral evidence if
the case is brought to
court or fiscal’s office. In
court appearance the
witness must be
composed and as much as
possible avoid being
irritated by upbraiding of
the opposite counsel.
 Six Golden Rules
a. Go slowly – Good
work cannot be
buried.
b. Be thorough – Make
a careful and minute
examination of
everything and do not
be satisfied with a
qualitative analysis if
a quantitative one be
possible.
c. Take notes – Keep a
full, neat and clear
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record of everything
seen and done.
d. Consult others –
Should consult others
who are most likely
to know.
e. Use imagination – it
enables and
deductions to be
made from slender
and incomplete
premise is very
useful.
f. Avoid complicated
theories – The
simplest explanation
is usually the right
one.
 Factors Contributing to the
loss of physical Evidence.
a. Lack of precautions
preventing tampering
of specimen
b. Failure in
preservation
c. Failure in transport
of specimen
d. Failure in identifying
the specimen
e. Improper packing of
specimen
 Types of Examination used in
Forensic Chemistry
a. Qualitative
Examination –
What?
b. Quantitative
Examination – How
Much?
  Methods of Analysis in c. Invisible Rays – this
Forensic Chemistry refers to the use of
a. Wet Method – invisible spectrum of
Requires much time light such as UV, IR,
and effort. X-ray for the
b. High Precision identification and
Method – This refers evaluation of pieces
to the utilization of of evidence.
UV and IR
Spectrophometry. d. Chromatography –
 Techniques Used in Forensic this refers to
Chemistry biophysical technique
a. Microscopy – This that enables the
refers to the technical separation,
field of using identification, and
microscopes to view purification of the
samples & objects components of a
that cannot be seen mixture for
with the unaided eye qualitative and
(objects that are not quantitative analysis.
within the resolution
range of the normal e. Electrophoresis –
eye) this refers to
b. Photography – laboratory technique
(preservation of used to separate
evidence) this refers DNA, RNA, or
to the study electrical charge. An
concerning the electric charge
duplication of images current is used to
through the action of move molecules to be
light, upon sensitized separated through a
materials gel. Pores in the gel
(photographic paper works like a sieve,
or film) with the aid allowing smaller
of mechanical device molecules to move
(camera) and its faster than larger
accessories, and the molecules.
chemical processes
(film developing and f. Spectrography – this
printing) involved refers to the
therein. technique of using a
spectrograph, an

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 optical device for and appropriate
breaking light down matches for
into a spectrum and transplantation of
recording the results organs and tissues.
photographically.

g. Neutron Activation
Analysis – this refers
to a nuclear process j. Forensic Entomology
used for determining – study of
the concentrations of insect/arthropods in
elements in a vast criminal
amount of materials. investigation.
NAA relies on
excitation by k. Atomic Absorption
neutrons so that the Spectrometry (AAS)
treated sample emits – analytical
gamma – rays. It technique that
allows the precise measures the
identification and concentration of
quantification of the elements
elements, above all
of the trace elements – use of the
in the sample. wavelengths of light
specifically absorbed by
h. XRD (X-ray an element.
Diffraction) – this
 Characteristic of Tools and
refers to a rapid Techniques used in Forensic
analytical technique Chemistry
primarily used for a. Sensitivity
phase identification b. Specificity
of a crystalline c. Rapidity
material and can  Principle used in Forensic
provide information Chemistry
on unit cell a. Law of individuality
dimensions. – has an individuality
which is not
i. DNA Typing aka
duplicated in any
DNA Profiling –
other object.
used to establish b. Law of Progressive
identity, parentage, Change – changes
family relationship

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 with the passage of
time.
c. Principle of
Comparison – only e. Evidence – means,
“like” can be
compared.
d. Principle of Analysis
– analysis of two or
more sets to
understand any  Kinds of Evidence
difference.
e. Law of Probability –
all identifications.
Definite or indefinite,
are made conscious
or unconsciously on
the basis of  Forms of Scientific Evidence
probability.
 Crime scene vocabulary
a. Crime Scene – any physical
location in which a crime has
occurred.
Types of crime Scenes
1. Primary Crime Scene –
the original location of
the crime
2. Secondary Crime Scene
– alternated location,
such as where additional
evidence may be found.
b. Suspect – person thought to
be capable of committing a
crime.  Basic forms of Evidence
c. Accomplice – second person
associated with committing a
crime.
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d. Alibi – statement of where a
suspect was at the time of a
crime
sanctioned by law, of
ascertaining in judicial
proceedings the truth
respecting a matter of fact.
1. Testimonial Evidence -
witnessed accounts
2. Physical Evidence – any
material items present on
the crime scene
3. Trace Evidence – small
but measurable amounts
1. Real or Autoptic
Evidence – evidence
which is addressed to the
senses of the court.
2. Testimonial Evidence –
testimony of an expert
witness.
3. Experimental Evidence –
required to perform
certain experiments to
prove a certain matter of
fact.
4. Documentary Evidence –
any written evidence
presented by an expert in
court
1. Direct Evidence – based
on what he saw, heard,
smelled, touched or
tasted
 2. Circumstantial Evidence
– which seeks to
establish a conclusion by
inferences from proved
facts.
3. Hearsay Evidence – not
from his personal
knowledge or
observation, evidence is
inadmissible except
declaration against
interest, dying
declarations, re gestae,
public records and
statement made in prior
time
 Witness – one who testifies
and has personal knowledge
or experience of something.
 Types of Witness
1. Ordinary witness –
states facts and may
not express his
opinions or
conclusions
2. Expert Witness –
who possesses a
special skill, be it art,
trade or science, with
special knowledge.
Semen, Seminal Stain and
Other Stains
a. Semen and Seminal Stain
 Examination of semen and
seminal stains is an
important part in the
routine investigation of
sexual offenses like cases
of rape, adultery, sodomy,
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bestiality and sexual
homicide.
 Semen
 This refers to a whitish
fluid of the male
reproductive tract
consisting of spermatozoa
suspended in secretion of
accessory glands.
 Composition of cells.
 Semen and sperm are not
the same. Sperm is just part
of semen
 Parts of the Semen
 Seminal Fluid - Has
characteristic alkaline odor,
it is viscid, gelatinous and
sticky. It becomes more
liquid in character when
exposed to air for one and
half hour due probably to
enzymatic reaction that is
slightly alkaline in
reaction.
 Formed Cellular Elements
which includes:
1. Spermatozoa or Sperm
Cell – this refers to
small objects with a
pear-shaped head
behind is a short neck
and then a tail of about
ten times as long as the
head.
2. Epithelial Cells – are a
type of cell that covers
the inside and outside
of the surfaces of your
body. They are found
on skin, blood vessels,
 and organs, including
your urinary tract.
- Barrier
3. Crystal of Choline and
Lecithin – 1.5 ml to
3.5 ml is the normal
quantity of seminal
fluid in single
ejaculation 400 to 500 c. COLLECTION,
million is the total
number of spermatozoa
contained in a single
ejaculate from a
healthy young man
b. Cases Where in Ejaculation
has no Spermatozoa
1. Azoospermia – this
refers to the complete
absence of spermatozoa
from the ejaculate. This
diagnosis must be
confirmed by
centrifugation of a semen
specimen for 15 min at
room temperature with
high-powered
microscopic examination
of the pellet and a
centrifugation speed of at
least 3,000g.
2. Oligospermia – this
refers to an abnormally
low concentration of
sperms in the seminal
fluid. Fertile semen
contains about
100,000,000 sperms per
ml. semen with less than
about 20,000,000 sperms
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per ml are likely to be
infertile.
3. Necrospermia – this
refers to a condition in
which there are dead or
immobile spermatozoa in
the semen.
PRESERVATION,
PACKING AND TRANSIT
SEMEN-STAINED
SPECIMENS
1. Seizure of wearing
apparel must be done as
soon as possible. It often
happened that washing
the clothes, chemise,
panties and trousers has
destroyed important
traces.
2. In packing of wearing
apparel there should be
no friction between the
apparel and the stain. The
packing of wearing
apparel or objects
carrying seminal stain
must be made in such a
manner that there is no
friction against the stain.
Semen in dried condition
is very brittle and is
liable to break into small
particles which can be
lost. Friction may cause
the breaking of the
spermatozoa.
 3. Specimen should not be
rolled for transit. Gently
lay between two sheets of
cardboard or similar
material which are tied
together with a string to
avoid friction.
4. Smaller objects like hair
should be placed in a test
tube and corked.
5. Specimen must be
thoroughly dried before
packing. Presence of
moisture certain bacteria
act on the protein
constituents of semen,
digest the dried protein
and thus destroy its
stiffness.
6. Fluid semen should be
placed in a test tube. It
may be preserved by a
few drops of 10%
solution of formalin
during hot weather where
there is danger of
putrefaction.
d. THE EXAMINATION
SEMEN AND SEMINAL
STAIN
a. The Physical
Examination of Seminal
Stains
1. Semen when dry gives
stiff starchy feeling to the
cloth and procedures
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slight deepening of the
color with the
disappearance of the
odor. Stiffness disappears
if specimen is not
properly dried in open
air. Presence of moisture,
bacteria will act on the
protein constituent or
semen, digest the dried
protein thus destroy its
stiffness. Also, the
bacteria will remove the
albuminous matter and
also disintegrate the
spermatozoa.
2. Seminal stain exhibits
bluish fluorescence under
the ultraviolet light.
Ultraviolet light is used
to locate invisible
seminal stain on cloth. It
gives bluish fluorescence
provided the cloth is
clean and not dark
colored. Bluish
fluorescence is not
specific for seminal
stains and may be seen in
some other albuminous
materials.
3. Grayish white,
sometimes, yellowish
stain which is typical of
seminal fluid.
4. Have appearance or
outline of contour map.
 a. Clothes with seminal stains
5. May have reddish tint in
case of old man.
b. The chemical
Examination of Seminal b. If stain is wet and mixed with
Stains
1. Florence Test – this is c. After 24 hours it is negative
known after the name of
Dr. Florence of Lysons,
who first introduce it.
Reagent/Chemical: d. Even after long period (2 ½
Florence reagent
(1.65-gram potassium
iodide and 2.5 grams
iodine in 30ccof water)
Procedure:
a. Cut a portion of the
stain and divide into
small bits then soak
in saline solution.
b. Transfer into a slide,
tease and evaporate
the fluid.
c. Add a drop of
Florence reagent and
cover with cover slip.
d. Examine under
microscope
Visible/Positive Result: Crystals of
Choline Periodide, which are dark
brown, rhombic or needle shaped that
occur singly or in cross or even
grouped in clusters. It resembles
haemin crystal in shape, size and
color.
Negative reaction may be due
to absence of seminal fluid or
spermatic fluid.
Limitation of Florence Test:
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are not dried thoroughly so
Choline Periodide is
decomposed completely, so
result is negative.
blood.
due to rapid decomposition
but still spermatozoa can be
detected.
years) it will give positive
result with Florence test
provided thoroughly dried
and preserved and if free
from blood and other
albuminous substance.
2. Barberio’s Test
Reagent/Chemical
Saturated Aqueous or
Alcoholic Solution of Picric
Acid
Procedure:
a. Soak a piece of stained
material in a 2.5%
solution of
Trichloroacetic acid for
one hour in a test tube.
b. Centrifuge the test tube.
c. Get the clear liquid part
and add to an equal
amount of a saturated
Aqueous or Alcoholic
solution of Picric Acid on
a glass slide.
d. Observe under a
microscope.
 Positive Results: Crystals that
are slender yellow tinted
rhomboid needles with
obtuse angle or appear as
ovoid crystals. These crystals
are made of specimen picrate.
(Take Note: Barberio’s test
is almost specific for human
semen. The seminal stain as
old as six years are said to
respond to the test. This is
caried out with fresh, dried or
dissolved semen.)
3. Acid Phosphatase Test –
this test is the best way to
locate and at the same
time characterized a
seminal stain. It has
replaced the Florence test
in reliability and was
shown to be specific for
human and higher apes.
The test is based
fundamentally upon the
extraordinarily high acid
phosphatase content of
human male ejaculate.
Phosphatase is the
enzymes present in
semen.
Reagent/Chemical:
100mg of Alpha
naphthyl phosphoric acid and
200 mg of Brentamine fast
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blue B (Raju and Iyengar.
1964)
Procedure:
a. Moisten with water a piece of
filter paper.
b. Swab the stained area with
the filter paper.
c. The acid phosphatase will be
transferred to the filter paper.
d. Add a drop or two Alpha
naphthyl phosphoric acid and
Brentamine fast blue B.
Positive Results: Purple color.
Purple color is indicative of Acid
Phosphatase.
3.1 Alternative Acid –
Phosphatase Test
Reagent/Chemical: 23
grams of sodium
chloride, 0.55 ml of
glacial acetic acid, 2
grams of sodium acetate
trihydrate in 90 ml water,
a suspension of 30 mg of
anthraquinone – 1
diazonium chloride and
50 grams of calcium –
napthyl phosphate in 1
ml of 1% aerosol.
Procedure:
a. Treat the stained area in a
water bath a pH 5 containing
Alpha naphthyl phosphoric
acid as a substance and
anthraquinone – 1-
diazonium chloride.
Positive Result: orange – red
pigment.
Principle of the Test: Alphanaphtol
by the acid phosphatase combines
with diazonium salt to form the color.
The reaction takes place for 30
seconds on fresh stains.
Limitation of the Test: Blood
lengthens the time but does not
interfere.
b. The microscopic
Examination of Semen and
Seminal Stains – The chief
purpose of microscope
examination is to determine
the presence of spermatozoa.
The identification of
spermatozoa is at present the
only specific test for semen.
Procedure:
Determination of
spermatozoa in fresh semen is
relatively easier than in stains.
a. Transfer a drop of specimen
to a glass slide.
b. Add a drop of water or saline
solution and cover with cover
slip
c. Examine under the high-
power objective
d. Observe for the presence of
spermatozoa.
Determination od Spermatozoa in
Seminal Stain:
a. A piece of material is teased
on a slide in a drop of water
b. Allow the smear to dry and
then stain with Loffler’s
methylene blue for a minute,
wash with water, dry and
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examine under the
microscope.
Limitation of the Microscope
Test:
1. Absence of sperm does not
prove that the stain has not
been produced by human
semen.
2. Elements which may
obstruct detection of
Spermatozoa
a. Nature of fabric
b. Age of stain
c. Condition to which the
stain was exposed before
reaching the laboratory
d. Handling the specimen
3. Some medical jurist believes
that these can be no semen
without the presence of
spermatozoa, but not true in
case of Aspermia or
Oligospermia.
c. Biological Examination of
Semen and Seminal Stain –
the spermato – precipitins are
of value in the identification
of seminal fluid in certain
cases like for examples,
bestiality when it may be
desirable to differentiate
between the human seminal
fluid from that of an animal.
This test was originally
proposed by Farnum in 1901.
He injected human semen to
a rabbit from 5 to 8 times
intervals from 6 to 8 days.
The serum obtained from the
 blood of the rabbit gave a
precipitate with both recent
and old emulsions of human
semen. In 1928, Hektoem and
Rustinant showed that an
antiserum produced by
immunizing rabbits with
human semen is both specie
specific and semen specific,
e.i. It gives a positive
reaction with human blood.
Limitation of the Test: The
bacterial action that produces
disintegration of the spermatozoa
in seminal stain is equally
effective in decomposing and
digesting the protein constituents
of protein constituents completely
disintegrated cannot possibly give
a positive precipitin reaction.
e. OTHER STAINS OF
MEDICO-LEGAL
INTEREST
1. Obstetrical and
Gynecological Stains – this
refers to examination at the
scene of the crime in cases of
criminal abortion, infanticide
and sex offenses may lead to
the discovery of bed linen,
towels, chemise, skirts,
mattresses, and blankets etc.
which have stains.
2. Excrements – this refers to
waste matter discharged from
the body especially feces.
Adults – Yellowish Brown
Infant – Greenish Yellow
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3. Paints – this refers
commonly to as a pigmented
coating. Paint can reveal vital
evidence for the forensic
scientist as it is present in
many surfaces. The
examination of paint usually,
although not exclusively,
involves the comparison of a
recovered paint sample from
a crime scene with a control
sample of paint which has
been taken from known
source. Some examples of
being transferred include:
a. Paint recovered from the
clothing of a road traffic
victim with paint from a
vehicle.
b. Paint from two or more
vehicles involved in a
collision.
c. Paint recovered from a
tool that may have been
used in housekeeping
with paint from the point
of entry
Paint id generally encountered in
vehicle accidents. Newly
manufactured vehicles have a specific
layer sequence of paints.
4. Rust Stains – this resembles
bloodstains, reddish – brown
in color, insoluble in water
and soluble in dilute acid.
5. Synthetic Dyes – this
resembles old bloodstains but
can be recognized by treating
strong acids and alkaline.
6. Stains of Vegetables and
Fruit Origin: This resembles
 blood that may be produced
by fruit juices and vegetables
Almost all of the above can be
differentiated from bloodstains by
action of chemicals. The above give
reaction while blood does not.

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HAIR
Hair examination is one of
the oldest forms of physical evidence.
Its use is older than
fingerprints.
It is valuable because the hair
of each kind of animal is different
and distinct for all others.
History of Hair Examination
1874 – First used as physical
evidence
1897 – Rudolph Virchow become the
first person to do an in-depth study of
hair.
1906 – Hugo Marx wrote a paper on
the use of hair in forensic
investigation to determine identity.
1931 – Dr. Paul Kirk works on new
ways to improve the use of hair in
forensic investigations.
A. COLLECTION, PACKING,
AND PRESERVATION OF
HAIR
a. Collection of Specimen
1. Complete search at the crime
scene must be done. Use
vacuum cleaner.
2. All of the hair in the
questioned specimens should
be submitted but do not mix
hairs at different places.
3. Search for and collection of
hair evidence should begin as
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soon as possible. Hair
evidence is easily transferred
to and from the crime scene.
4. Collection should be done by:
a. Hand if the location of
the hair is important.
b. Lint rollers
c. Special filtered vacuum
cleaner – collect hairs
and fibers in mass from
carpet, bedding, etc.
(Take Note: If the evidence is stick to
another object, the entire object
should be packaged and labeled)
(Take Note: If lint rollers are used,
the entire surface used should be
packed into a polyethylene storage
bag)
5. In vicious assault and murder
cases, obtain the clothing of
the victim from the hospital
or morgue to avoid the loss of
evidence by careless handling
and to prevent the clothing
from being destroyed.
6. Representative samples of
hair from the victim as well
as the suspect should be
obtained if possible. To be a
representative head hair
samples from a particular
individual it should consist of
at least a dozen hairs from
different areas of the scalp
and preferably full – length
hair. Take from all pertinent
regions of the body:
a. 50 head hairs
b. 24 pubic hairs
(Take Note: Root still intact is
preferable)
7. Don’t mix known samples of
hair from different parts of
the body.
8. Hair evidence should be
looked for in the following:
clothing, combs, weapons,
pockets, fingers, hat and etc.
9. Get samples from both victim
and suspect (Dead body:
Head hair and pubic hair). It
should be taken before it is
buried.
10. Best way to collect hair is by
combing.
A. Packing of Specimen
1. Hair evidence should be
packaged into paper packets.
2. The hairs should be placed in
a folded paper or in a white
mailing envelope should be
sealed with scotch tape.
3. Do not secure the hair
samples to a piece of paper
with scotch tape because this
will damage the hair.
4. All foreign fibrous debris
should be removed from the
submitted specimen.
5. Fragmentary hairs or
underdeveloped hairs are not
suitable for examination.
6. Areas on object containing
hairs should be protected
with cellophane or paper
taped over the area before
wrapping the object from
transmittal to laboratory.
18 | P a g e
B. Preservation of Specimen
1. Methods of packing hair: Pill
box or test tube.
2. Questioned specimen’s
druggist powder papers.
3. Properly folded, sealed and
labeled.
4. Big envelope containing all
the papers with hair and
fibers.
HAIR
B. Hair – this refers to a specialized
ephitilial outgrowth of the skin which
occur everywhere on the human body
except on the palm of the hands and
the stole of the feet. It is an
appendage of the skin. Hair is not
completely round but may be oval or
flattened. It’s width is not always the
same along its length. It starts out
pointed and narrow and then strays or
less the same.
a. Two Kinds of Hair (among
mammals including human being)
1. Real Hair – This refers
generally to long and stiff
hair.
2. Fuzz Hair – This refers
generally to short, fine at
times curly and wooly hair.
a. Parts of the Hair
1. Root – this refers to portion
of embedded in the skin
2. Shaft – this refers to portion
above the surface of the skin.
 It is the most distinctive part
of the hair.
3. Tip – this refers to distal end
of an uncut hair shaft. It
refers sometimes to point
19 | P a g e
b. The Human Hair
Parts of the Shaft
1. Cuticle – this refers to the
outermost covering of the
hair. It consists of one layer
of non – nucleated polygonal
cells which overlaps like the
scales on fish.
2. Cortex – this refers to the
intermediate and the thickest
layer of the shaft and is
compose of elongated,
spindle shaped fibrils which
cohere. They contain pigment
granules in varying
proportion depending on the
type of the hair.
3. Medulla or Core – this refers
to the central canal of the hair
that may be empty or may
contain various sorts of cells
more or less pigmented and
begins more or less near the
root.
Certain hair has medulla.
Therefore hair can be classified
into two categories namely:
1. Hair without medulla
2. Hair with medulla
Medulla can be interrupted,
continuous, fragmented, solid or
none/absent.
C. Microscopic Examination of
Human Hair
Before performing the
examination take note of any
foreign material on the hair
 and should be identified if
present in sufficient quantity.
Hair should be cleaned with a
mixture of equal parts of
alcohol and either.
1. Color – this can be examine
using the naked eye or under
the microscope.
Melanin – this refers to the
brownish – black pigment in
the hair, skin, etc. it is the
chemical responsible for the
color of the hair. Black and
brown hair differs only on the
amount of melanin. Red hair
is thought to be due to iron.
2. Length by Actual
Measurement
3. Character of the Hair –
whether stiff, wiry or soft.
4. Width Breath
5. Character of the Hair Tip if
present – tip of the hair may
show whether a hair has been
cut. Tips of body hair become
rounded from rubbing against
the cloths. Hair of human
usually shows a fine tip.
Men’s hair tip is apt to be
cutoff square.
6. Manners by which Hair has
been Cut:
 Scissor-cut
 Razor-cut
 Burnt hair
 Abraded
 Rounded
 Broken
7. Condition of Root or Base or
Bulb of Hair
20 | P a g e
 Pulled
 Forcibly Removed
 Shed
8. Character of Cuticle – the
size, the general shape and
the irregularity of the scale
are observed.
9. Character of Cortex –
Structural features is studied
under the microscope. Cortex
embedded with the pigment
granules that impart hair with
color. It is the color, shape
and distribution of these
granules that provides the
criminalist with important
points of comparison
between the hairs of the
different individuals.
10. Presence of Dye in Hair –
Dyed hair can be
distinguished from natural
hair. Under the microscope
dyed hair has a dull
appearance and the color tone
is constant, whereas natural is
not and the individual
pigment granules stand more
shapely. If portion will stand
out markedly. Bleached hairs
have a rough appearance, are
more uniform in shade and
contain less pigment
depending on the amount of
bleaching. Dye absorption
and chemical tests have been
developed for the detection of
bleached hair.
11. Determination of whether
Naturally or Artificially
Curled

12. Character of Medulla.
Medulla – This refers to the
innermost layer of your hair.
Medulla’s diameter can be
absolutely constant. At times
alternately narrow and
broader. The diameter of the
medulla is of very little
importance but the
relationship between the
diameter of the medulla and
the diameter of the whole
hair is the greatest
importance.
D. Medullary Index (M.I) – this
refers to the relationship
between the diameter of the
medulla and the diameter of
the whole hair usually
expressed in fraction. Its
determination is performed
under a microscope provided
with micrometer eyepiece.
1. Hair with narrow medulla
(less than 0.5) belongs to
human and certain
monkey hair.
2. Hair with medulla
(approximately 0.5)
almost all cow, horse and
others.
3. Hair with thick medulla
(greater than 0.5) almost
all animals belong to this.
Based on the medulla
examination it can be
determined whether hair is
human or animal origin. The
21 | P a g e
medulla is usually narrower
in width in human hair when
present. It has finer and more
numerous cross striations.
Animal hairs usually consist
of both heavy guard hair and
finer fur hair whereas human
hair does not.
E. Other Aspect of Hair
Examination
1. Determination of
characteristics by race
In most instances it can be
determined whether a human
hair came from Negroid,
Mongoloid or Caucasian
race.
a. Negroid Race Hair:
1. Contain heavy pigment
distributed unevenly
2. A thin cross section
3. Hair is usually kinky with
marked variation in the
diameter along the shaft.
b. Mongoloid Race Hair:
1. Hair contains dense
pigment distributed more
evenly than Negroid race
hair.
2. Cross section of the hair
will be round to oval in
shape
3. Hair is coarse and
straight with very little
variation in diameter
along the shaft of the
hair.
4. Usually contains a heavy
black medulla or core.
c. Caucasian Race Hair
 1. Hair contains very fine to
coarse pigment and more
evenly distributed than is
found in Negro or
Mongolian.
2. Cross section will be oval
to round in shape
3. Usually straight or wavy
and not kinky.
2. Determination of
characteristics by sex
Sex cannot be definitely
determined from a hair
examination. Male hair is
generally larger in diameter,
shorter in length, wirier in
texture than that of a female.
Male hair average
approximately 1/450 of an
inch in diameter
If hair is as much 6 inches in
length and has a split end,
these are good indications
that hair is from a female,
though not a positive proof.
3. Determination of the region
from which the human hair
has been removes
The region of the body from
which the human hair has
been removed can be
determined with considerable
accuracy that is through
length, size, color, stiffness,
curliness and general gross
appearance.
a. Scalp Hair – they are
more mature than any
other kind of human hair
b. Beard Hair – coarse,
curve, very stiff and often
22 | P a g e
triangular in cross
section.
c. Moustache – usually
triangular in shape and
very stiff.
d. Hairs from eyebrows,
eyelid, nose and ear –
short stubby and have
wide medulla. Eyebrow
and eyelashes are usually
very short and has a
sharp tip.
e. Trunk Hair – vary in
thickness along the shaft
and are immature but are
somewhat similar to head
hairs. They have fine,
long tip ends.
f. Limb hair – similar trunk
hairs but usually are not
so long or so coarse and
usually contain less
pigment.
g. Axillary Hair – fairly
long with unevenly
distributed pigment. They
vary considerably in
diameter along the shaft
and have frequently a
bleached appearance. It
has an irregular shape
and structure. Looks like
pubic hair but the ends
are sharper and the hair is
not so curly.
h. Pubic Hair – similar to
axillary hairs but are
coarse and do not appear
bleached. Wirier, have
more constriction and
twist and usually have
continuous broad
 medulla. Have many
broken ends because the
clothing rubs off against
it.
4. Determinations of the
approximate age of
individual
The approximate age of an
individual cannot be
determined from hair
examination with any degree
of certainty except in infant’s
hairs. Infant hairs are fine,
short in length, have the fine
pigment and are rudimentary
in character.
Children’s hair through
adolescence is generally finer
and more immature than
adult hair but cannot be
definitely differentiated with
certainty.
If it is noted that pigment is
missing or starting to
disappear in the hair, it can
be stated that the hair is from
adult. It is common for a
relatively young person to
have prematurely gray or
white head hair but not body
hairs. The root end of hair
from an aged person may
show a distinct degeneration.
F. HAIR MICROSCOPY
a. Light Microscopy
a.Identification of
questioned hair
b. Comparison of
questioned and known
hair
b. Comparison Microscope
23 | P a g e
Link the suspect to crime
scene. Control hairs
match that of the suspect.
Exclude the suspect from
crime scene, meaning
that a control hair does
not match the evidential
hair.
c. Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)
Determine the species,
race, and somatic origin
of a hair.
In addition:
a. DNA on the
follicular tag
b. Drug Test – to test
and determine
whether a drug was
used.
1. A drug that is ingested enters
the blood stream and is
broken down to a specific
metabolite.
2. Hair strands normally grow at
an average rate of 1.3
centimeters every month:
they absorb metabolized
drugs that are fed to the hair
follicle through the blood
stream.
3. Drug will only disappear if
exposure to the drug is
ceased, and the hair
containing the drug is cut.
4. Hair analysis can be used for
the detection of many
therapeutic drugs, and
recreational drugs, including
 cocaine, heroin,
benzodiazepines (Valium –
type drugs) and
amphetamines.
a. Two Assays Used in
Forensic: Radioimmunoassay
(RIA) and Enzyme – Linked
Immunosorbent Assay
(ELISA)
TEXTILE FIBERS
 In general, and broad sense,
the word “textile” is derived
from the Latin word
“textillis” and the French
“textere”, to weave, hence
fiber means that can be
converted into yarn. A yarn
consists of fibers or filaments
that have been twisted
together.
TEST FOR TEXTILE FIBERS
1. Burning or Ignition Test – it
is a preliminary macroscopic
examination. A test that
determines whether fiber is
mineral, animal or vegetable
fiber.
Procedure:
A single fiber is applied with
flame at one end and the
following are noted:
a. Manner of burning
b. Odor of fumes
c. Appearance of burnt end
d. Color of ash
24 | P a g e
e. Action of fumes on moisten
red and blue litmus paper
f. Effect of litmus on a piece of
filter paper moistened with
lead acetate.
For animals Fibers – fibers smolders
or burn slowly and give odor like that
of burning feather. When removed
from the flame they fo not continue to
burn readily and a charred bead
remains at the end of the fiber. Fumes
turn red litmus blue.
Wool – odor strong, disagreeable;
fumes turn lead acetate paper black or
brown.
Silk – odor not so pungent, fumes
have no effect on lead acetate paper.
For vegetables fibers – fibers
burn rapidly with a flame and give off
but little smoke or fumes. Charred
bead not present when fiber is
removed from the flame. Fume turn
blue litmus red.
2. Fluorescent Test – frequently
used to determine the general
group to which a fiber
belongs. It is not reliable for
positive identification of
fibers. In general, the
vegetables fibers exhibit a
yellow fluorescence in ultra –
violet light, whereas the
animal fibers show bluish
fluorescence.
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