FORENSIC

CHEMISTRY &
TOXICOLOGY
 COVERAGE
• FOUNDATIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
• BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ANALYSIS
• DRUG ANALYSIS
• GLASS FRACTURE ANALYSIS
• BLOOD PATTERN ANALYSIS
• FIBER, DEBRIS, DUST, DIRT ANALYSIS
• METALLURGY
• TOXICOLOGY
 DEFINITION AND BASIC CONCEPTS
FORENSIC SCIENCE - deals with the application of
chemistry in the identification of evidence, its physical
and chemical properties.

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY - is that branch of chemistry

which deals with the application of chemical principles in
the solution of crimes and in the administration of justice.

FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY - deals with examination

of human internal organs, food samples and water and
gastric contents for the purpose of detecting the presence
of poisonous substance, its dosage, effects and treatment.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY
DATE EVENT
- massacre occurred in Chicago. Then a group of public-minded individuals was responsible for the
FEBRUARY 14, 1829 establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that city which today has marked its place in the
historical annals of police science.

- creation of “Medicos Titulares” by virtue of Royal Decree 188 of Spain. For every province, a
MARCH 31, 1876 Forensic Physician was assigned to perform public sanitary duties and at the same time provide
medico-legal aids to the administration of justice.

- Gov. General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral waters of Luzon and
DECEMBER 15, 1884 appointed Anacleto del Rosario as Chemist.

- establishment of “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” under the inspection of the “Direccion

General de Administracion Civil” and the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”. The function of
SEPTEMBER 13, the laboratory was to make analysis not of food, water and others from the standpoint of public
1887 health and legal medicine but also of specimen for clinical purposes.
 - “Laboratorio Medico-Legal” was created under the dependency of the judicial
1894 branch of the government and the laboratory functioning under the direction of a
physician and assisted by a pharmacist-chemist.

- Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory where some original works in

1895 chemistry were done. Unfortunately, all prospects of the advancement of scientific
were paralyzed as a result of the revolution in 1896.

- The first scientific laboratory was established in a small building on the banks of
1899 Pasig River with Lt. Strong of the US Army in charge.

- Actual scientific work began under the initiative of Dean Worcester by virtue of Act
1901 No. 156 approved by the Civil Commission.

- The Bureau of Government Laboratories was created for the purpose of performing
July 01, 1901 biological and chemical examinations as well as for the production of vaccines and
sera.
 - The Department of Legal Medicine was created pursuant to the
March 11, 1915 resolution of the Board of Regents. The Department took charge of the
courses of Legal Medicines and its branches in the College of Medicine
and Law.
- Through the passage of Act No. 3043 by the Philippine Legislature, the
October 14, 1924 same Department of Legal Medicine became a branch of the Department
of Justice and at the same time an integral part of the University of the
Philippines.
- The “Division of Investigation” was created under Commonwealth Act
December 01, 1937 181 with two medico-legal officers and a chemist. The medico-legal
section of the Division of Investigation started the definite movement
towards the creation of scientific crime detection laboratory.
- The National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) was organized with the
September 1945 Division of Investigation as the nucleus. The chemical laboratory of the
Medico-Legal Section was expanded into a Forensic Chemistry
Division.
 SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

• EVIDENCE is a proof of allegation, it is a

means sanctioned by law of ascertaining in a
judicial proceedings the truth respecting a
matter of fact.

• SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE the means

sanctioned by law of ascertaining in a judicial
proceedings the truth respecting a matter of
fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary.
 MODERN WORKS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
• CODIS – Combined DNA Indexing System – for DNA Profiles for convicted
offenders and unidentified suspects in unsolved cases.

• AFIS – Automated Fingerprint Identification System – contains known

fingerprints and evidentiary fingerprints not yet identified.

• NIBIN or the IBIS – National Integrated Ballistic Identification Network or

the Integrated Ballistic Identification System.

• Other DATA bases – for Modus Operandi

• Mug Files for purposes of identification (Photography)
 FAMOUS CASES INVOLVING FORENSIC SCIENCE
Mapp v Ohio (1961) The court ruled that the evidence
obtained in the search was inadmissible because it
was seized in an illegal search. In ruling this way the
court created the "exclusionary rule" which makes
illegally obtained evidence inadmissible in court. This
ruling is known as the “Fruit of Poisonous Tree
Doctrine”.

Gideon v Wainwright (1963) The Court ruled that all

citizens must be provided a lawyer if they cannot
afford one. This is regardless of the type of crime.

Miranda v Arizona (1966) The Court ruled that citizens

must be informed of their rights prior to questioning.
Any evidence or statement obtained prior to a suspect
being read his/her rights is inadmissible. This has led
to what is commonly referred to as one's "Miranda
 BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS ON FORENSIC
SCIENCE
 Around year 700, Chinese used fingerprints to establish
identity of documents and clay sculpture, but without any
formal classification system.

 1248 - A Chinese book, Hsi Duan Yu contains a description

of how to distinguish drowning from strangulation. This
was the first recorded application of medical knowledge to
the solution of crime.

 1609 - The first treatise on systematic document

examination was published in France.

 1686 - Marcelo Malpighi, noted fingerprint characteristics.

However, he made no mention of their value as a tool for
individual identification.
 1810 - Eugène François Vidocq, established the first
detective force, the Sûreté of Paris.

 1810 - The first recorded use of questioned document

analysis occurred in Germany.

 1813 - Mathieu Orfila, a Spaniard who became professor of

medicinal/ forensic chemistry at University of Paris,
published Traite des Poisons. Orfila is considered the father
of modern toxicology. He also made significant
contributions to the development of tests for the presence
of blood in a forensic context and is credited as the first to
attempt the use of a microscope in the assessment of blood
and semen stains.

 1823 - John Evangelist Purkinji, a professor of anatomy at

the University of Breslau, Czecheslovakia, published the first
paper on the nature of fingerprints and suggested a
classification system based on nine major types.
 1879 - Rudolph Virchow, a German pathologist, was one of the first to both study
hair and recognize its limitations.

 1880 - Henry Faulds, a Scottish physician, suggested that fingerprints at the scene of
a crime could identify the offender. In one of the first recorded uses of fingerprints
to solve a crime, Faulds used fingerprints to eliminate an innocent suspect and
indicted a perpetrator in a Tokyo burglary.

 1883 - Alphonse Bertillon, a French police personnel, identified the first recidivist
based on his invention of anthropometry.

 1891 - Hans Gross, published Criminal Investigation, the first comprehensive

description of uses of physical evidence in solving crime. He is also sometimes
credited with coining the word criminalistics.
 1892 - Sir Francis Galton published Fingerprints, the first comprehensive book on the nature
of fingerprints and their use in solving crime.

 1892 - Juan Vucetich, an Argentinean police researcher, developed the fingerprint

classification system that would come to be used in Latin America. After Vucetich implicated
a mother in the murder of her own children using her bloody fingerprints, Argentina was
the first country to replace anthropometry with fingerprints.

 1896 - Sir Edward Richard Henry developed the print classification system that would come
to be used in Europe and North America. In 1901, he was appointed head of Scotland Yard
and forced the adoption of fingerprint identification to replace anthropometry.

 1900 - Karl Landsteiner first discovered human blood groups and was awarded the Nobel
prize for his work in 1930.

 1901 - Henry P. DeForrest pioneered the first systematic use of fingerprints in the United
States.
 1910 - Edmund Locard, professor of forensic medicine at the
University of Lyons, France, established the first police crime
laboratory. He was known for the principle “Every contact leaves a
trace.”

 1910 - Albert S. Osborne, an American and arguably the most

influential document examiner, published Questioned Documents.

 1913 - Victor Balthazard, professor of forensic medicine, published

the first article on individualizing bullet markings.
 1920s - Calvin Goddard, with C. Waite, P. Gravelle, and J. Fisher, perfected the
comparison microscope for use in bullet comparison.

 1921 - John Larson and Leonard Keeler designed the portable polygraph.

 1923 - In Frye v. United States, polygraph test results were ruled inadmissible.
The federal ruling introduced the concept of general acceptance and stated that
polygraph testing did not meet that criterion.

 1924 - August Vollmer, as chief of police in Los Angeles, California, implemented

the first U.S. police crime laboratory.

1929 - Calvin Goddard’s work on the St. Valentine’s day massacre led to the
founding of the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory on the campus of
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.
 FORENSIC SCIENCE REQUIRES LABORATORIES
Professor R. A. Riess
• Established a forensic photography laboratory at the
University of Lausanne, Switzerland in
1909

Edmond Locard
• Established one of the world’s first police crime laboratories in
Lyon, France in 1910
• Known for the Locard Exchange
Principle

J. Edgar Hoover
• Established the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) forensic
laboratory in 1932
August Vollmer
• Established a forensic laboratory at the Los
Angeles Police Department in 1923

Colonel Calvin Goddard

• Established a crime detection laboratory at

Chicago’s
Northwestern University in 1929
• Perfected the comparison microscope for
bullet and cartridge case examinations
 THE FORENSIC SCIENCE
SPECIALTIES
Pathology - is a specialty area of medicine
• Pathology is the study of diseases and the bodily changes caused by
the diseases
• Forensic pathologists determine the
cause and manner of death (the medical reason
why a person died; e.g. asphyxiation)

Entomology is a branch of biology devoted to the study of

insects
• Forensic entomologists use insects as investigative aids
• By examining insects, larvae or pupae associated with a corpse,
knowing the life cycle of insects, and by using the existing
environmental factors, forensic entomologists can estimate the
time of death www.rkmfiles.net
Odontology is the study of the physiology, anatomy, and
pathology of teeth.
• Forensic odontologists perform two types of analysis
involving the human dentition.
• Identify human remains by comparing pre-mortem and
postmortem dental X-rays and bite mark comparisons.

FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
• Physical Anthropology is the science of the human
skeleton and how it has evolved over time
• Can determine whether found remains are
of human or animal origin
• Provide an estimate of age, stature, and gender
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY is the study of the effects of
extraneous materials such as poisons and drugs in the
body
• Forensic toxicologists must determine both the presence
and the amounts of extraneous materials in the body.
FORENSIC ENGINEERING
• Involved in the investigation of
transportation related accidents, material
failures, and structural failures

FORENSIC COMPUTER SCIENCE

• Use information located on computers and
other electronic devices as investigative
aids
• Find hidden or deleted information to
determine if internet based crimes have
been committed
Forensic Science
Specialties
CRIMINALISTICS
This specialty involves the examination,
identification, and interpretation of items of
physical evidence.
 ELEMENTS OF FORENSIC EVIDENCE ANALYSIS

1. EVIDENCE - Recognition means to know something because one has

seen, heard or experienced it before
RECOGNITION
-Classification is to place things into groups according to
2. CLASSIFICATION their basic characteristics
(IDENTIFICATION)
-Individualization is demonstration that an object is unique,
even among members of the same class, or that two
3. INDIVIDUALIZATION separate objects were at one time single object (had a
common source of origin)

-Reconstruction is the process of putting together the

evidence available with the objective of understanding the
4. RECONSTRUCTION nature and sequence of events that created it.
BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ANALYSIS

Blood Saliva Tissue Urine

Semen Hair Feces

Bone Teeth Skin Cells
Sweat
 What is Blood?
• Slightly alkaline fluid made up of water, cells, enzymes, proteins, glucose and hormones,
organic and inorganic substances.
• Circulates throughout the body to supply nutrients and oxygen to the body. It also removes
waste.

Blood Cells
• Red blood cells
• White blood cells
• Platelets
Leukocytes (WBC) - the cells of the
immune system that are involved in
protecting the body against both
infectious disease and foreign invaders.

Erythrocytes (RBC) - transport

oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from
the tissues.

Thrombocytes (platelets) - a cell

with a similar or promotes clotting
function.
Plasma - the liquid portion of blood – a
protein-salt solution in which red and white
blood cells and platelets are suspended which is
92 percent water, constitutes 55 percent of
blood volume.

Antigens - is any substance that causes an

immune system to produce antibodies against
it.

Serum - includes all proteins used in blood

clotting (coagulation) and all the electrolytes,
antibodies, antigens, hormones, and any extra
substances such as drugs and microorganisms.
 Blood Typing
Blood Type: Antigens on Antibodies in
• All Blood groups are RBCs serum
determined by the antigens A A Anti-B
on their red blood cells.
B B Anti-A
• Most dominant blood
AB AB Neither Anti-A
group – O or Anti-B

• Least dominant blood O Neither A nor Both Anti-A and

group - AB B Anti-B
 TEST USED IN DETECTING/EXAMINING BLOOD
PRECIPITIN TEST - test used to determine whether blood is of human or animal
origin.
- it is generally accepted tests that a positive result confirms
TAKAYAMA TEST the presence of blood. The sensitivity is about 0.001 mL of
blood or 0.1 mg of hemoglobin.
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST - is an indicator of acids (colorless) and bases (pink)
LUMINOL TEST - forensic investigators use it to detect trace amounts of blood
at crime scenes, as it reacts with the iron in hemoglobin.
KASTLE-MEYER TEST - relies on the iron in hemoglobin, which is the iron-containing
portion of a red blood cell, to promote the oxidation of
phenolphthalin to phenolphthalein.
BENZIDINE TEST - a sensitive test for the presence of blood (as in urine or
feces) based on the production of a blue color upon contact
with a solution of benzidine,
Semen and its Composition
• Cellular component – spermatozoa
• Fluid component - seminal plasma

• Presumptive Test for Semen – UV Light

• Semen stains fluorescent under UV Light

• ACID PHOSPHATASE TEST (AP Test) –is

a common screening test for detecting semen.

• The AP test detects the enzyme acid phosphatase

that is secreted from the prostate gland.
Hair
• Composed of cylindrical structures or shafts
made up of tightly compacted cells that grow
from follicles

• Diameter ranges from 15-120 µm

• Depends on type of hair and body region
• Root material can be used for nuclear DNA
testing

• Shaft material can be used for some

mitochondrial DNA testing too.
Saliva
Colorless fluid secreted by 3 glands in the mouth
• Saliva is composed of electrolytes, enzymes, mucus

The presumptive test to detect

saliva is the alpha-amylase test
also known as the Phadebas Test.

This detection technique is based

on the activity of the enzyme alpha-
amylase which breaks down
starches from food into smaller
oligosaccharide molecules, starting
digestion in the mouth.
Fecal Material Microscopy

• Feces are food residues • Microscopy has been used to identify

passed after completion of fecal material
travel through the digestive • Looking for undigested residues of food
material
system
• Chemical Tests
• Detection of urobilinogen, a bile
• Has a characteristic odor
pigment excreted in feces, which may
mainly due to skatole, an
be detected using its fluorescent
organic compound that
reaction to Edelman’s reagent
occurs naturally in feces
 Urine
Jaffe Test
• Contains creatinine, which is a breakdown
product of creatine (an important part of
muscle) • One of the oldest tests for the
detection of creatinine-1886
• Creatinine is a waste product that is excreted
from the body entirely by the kidneys • Creatinine forms a red
• Identification of creatinine can serve as a screening compound with picric acid
test for urine in fluids or stains (Jaffe test)
Teeth and Bone
• DNA can be extracted from nucleated cells preserved inside teeth.
• DNA can be preserved in bone marrow, especially if bones are dry.
• Teeth are drilled in the lab and the material is extracted and DNA is
extracted.
• Bone is drilled out and DNA is extracted
• Teeth and bones are best tissue for DNA analysis from skeletal remains.
 Protect the Evidence
• Preserve evidence with proper packaging
• Proper storage
• Use appropriate labels
• BIOHAZARD LABELS
• Case#, Initials, Descriptive label,
date packaged
• Identifiers that describe the
evidence at the time it was found
• Location
• Position
• Date/Time of Collection
• Packaging/Sealing information

• Sign across your seal!!

BLOOD
PATTERNS
ANALYSIS
CHRISTIAN G. DOMINGO, RCrim., MCJ, PGDip-AC
INSTRUCTOR
THE SIX (6) MAJOR GROUPS OF BLOODSTAIN
PATTERNS:

1.Radiating patterns produced by an impact to a

blood mass, such as impact spatter;
2.Linear patterns produced by blood flung from
another object, such as cast off;
3.Patterns produced by the streaming volumes such
as spurt;
4.Patterns produced by blood falling as a function of
gravity such as drip trails.
5.Patterns produced by volume accumulation such
as pools and flows; and
6.Patterns produced through contact with a bloody
object, such as smears and pattern transfers.
BlOODSTAIN
CLASSIFICATION
TAXONOMY CONCEPT

Bloodstain can be grouped into two major

classes:

Spatter : Are drops that have been put into

free flight through some mechanisms

Non-Spatter: Is composed of patterns in

which the primary stain is not a circular or
 THE SPATTER GROUP
SPATTER STAINS

Linear Spatter Non- Linear Spatter

(Arterial) Spurt Cast-Off Drips trail Impact Spatter Drip

Expectorate
Spurt are produced when blood is ejected in
a stream under pressure. They are often
referred to as arterial spurts because the
primary source of a spurt is a breach to an
artery or the heart.

CAST OFF
A cast –off pattern is produced when the
blood adheres to another object and that
object is put into motion. Small drops of
blood are ejected over time and space as the
object is moved. The droplets produce
spatter stains in linear and curvilinear
Drip Trail
A drip trail pattern of individual spatter stains
deposited on the surface that demonstrate
movement of the dripping item from one point to
another. Drips form from any number of things
including people weapons and other objects .

IMPACT SPATTER

An impact pattern is a radiating pattern of small

spatter stains produced when a blood mass is
broken up at a point source. Typical impact patterns
are produced from blows or gunshot wound to a
body. It can also be produced when accumulations of
blood outside the body are exposed to some force.
EXPECTORATE PATTERN

The expectorate pattern is similar to impact

spatter, but with a slight difference. The
blood source is broken up in the mouth or
respiratory system by air pressure.
DRIP

A drip is formed in the same fashion as a

drip trail, by blood falling as a function of
gravity from an individual or bloody object.
Where the drip trail was linear pattern of
individual drips,, a drip is simply a random
 THE NON SPATTER GROUP
Non- Spatter Stains

Irregular Margin Regular Margin

Blood into Pattern

Gush Smear Flow Pool Saturation
blood Transfer

Wipe Swipe
Pattern Pattern
Gush
A gush is an irregular pattern created when a large
volume of blood is ejected. A gush is created by similar
circumstances as the spurt. Typically, when an artery or
the heart is breached and a streaming ejection occurs.
The primary difference between the two is in the volume
ejected.
Smear
A smear is created when a bloody object makes contact
with another surface often with some form of lateral motion.
The smear is simply an irregular shaped contact stain. There
are two subcategories of smear:

Wipe: The wipe pattern produced when an object moves

through a preexisting bloodstain on another surface.

Swipe : Is any stain produced by the transfer of blood from

PATTERN TRANSFER
A pattern transfer is created when a bloody
object come in contact with another surface and
produce a pattern in which a recognizable
characteristic of image or object is evident.

POOL

Pools are produced when blood

accumulates on the surface.
SATURATION
A saturation stain occur when the blood is
deposited in or is in contact with an absorbent
surface.
Rather than forming a pool, the blood is
wicked or absorbed in a permeable surface

FLOW
A flow is a movement of liquid blood from
one point to another usually under the
effects of gravity.
 GLASS FRACTURE
ANALYSIS
CONCEPT OF GLASS FRACTURE

Glass bends in response to any force that is exerted

on anyone of its surfaces; when the limit of its
elasticity is reached, the glass fractures.

The penetration of ordinary window glass by a

projectile, whether it is a bullet or a stone, produces a
familiar fracture pattern in which cracks both radiate
outward and encircle the hole,. The radiating lines are
appropriately known as radial fractures, and the
circular lines are termed concentric fractures.
Determining the order of shots

Radial fractures will always

travel along the path of
least resistance, and they
will always end if they
encounter an existing
fracture line. This fact
allows an investigator to
determine the order of
multiple impacts to a single
pane of glass. Let us
analyze the figure below:
Both impacts created radial and concentric fractures.
However, , the radial fractures from the right impact
were stopped by the pre-existing fractures caused by
the left impact.
Fracture Patterns in Glass

Determining the direction of Impact

a high-velocity projectile always leaves a

hole wider at the exit side of the glass. The
size of the hole itself is not necessarily
indicative of the size of the projectile.

Exit side
Entry
side
Cone-shaped
hole
Fracture Patterns in Glass

When glass breaks, most of the glass

falls inward. However, the tiny shards
produced in the formation the concentric
fractures spray backwards towards the
person wielding the weapon or tool.
These tiny bits of glass can get
caught in the hair and clothing of a
person near the point of impact. .
FIBER, DIRT, DUST,
DEBRIS, SOIL AND
PAINT ANALYSIS
Christian G. Domingo, RCr., MCJ, PGDip-AC
INSTRUCTOR
 TRACKS, TRACES AND IMPRESSIONS

• TRACE - a mark or sign left behind by

something that has passed by.

• TRACK - a series of traces that show the

direction that something went.

• IMPRESSION - a strong mark made by

pressure that goes below the surface.

• IMPRINT - a weak mark made by pressure

that stays on the surface.
 COMPARISON OF FOOTPRINTS
• A comparison is made by enough similarities and the absence of
any dissimilarity which cannot be explained. There are both
explainable and fundamental differences.

1. EXPLAINABLE DIFFERENCES - parts of the cast are missing, rocks

are in cast, a slight increase of size is caused by pressure or a
slight decrease is caused by suction.

2. FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES - the shoes are of different size or

different makes.
FIBERS, FABRIC AND CLOTHING
• Clothing can leave both imprints and impressions. This is
often in the case with gloves. Some criminals put their
stockings on their hands to take the place of gloves.
• The comparison of fabric is not as good as a fingerprint,
but if there is a tear or mend in the clothing, this may
cause individuality. Cloth imprints should be
photographed.
DIRT, DUST AND DEBRIS
• Debris means the small remains of anything broken down or
destroyed. Rubbish is an example of debris. These small particles
are the most common type of contact evidence found on the
clothing and shoes of the suspect, or left behind by him at the
scene of the crime. Some examples of debris are:
SOIL
• Soil means different things to different people. A farmer plants crops in it, an
engineer builds with it, a miner takes minerals from it. The criminalist regards
soil as the top layer of the earth.
• Spectrograph Analysis – examination used to identify the granularity of the
soil and some of its characteristics.
 PAINT
• Paint is a common form of physical
evidence often found in hit-and-run
accidents or burglary.

• Paint evidence may occur in the form

of chips, flakes, smears or dust.

• Paint chips or flakes are the most

valuable kind of paint evidence
because they can be compared
microscopically to show individuality.
 GUNSHOT RESIDUE ANALYSIS
• GUNSHOT RESIDUE comes from the powder
component of bullet, elements from cartridge
cases and gun barrel where the bullet passes.

• GUNPOWDER RESIDUE may be found on the

skin or clothing of the person who discharged the
gun, on the entrance bullet hole of garment or
wound of the victim or on other target materials at
the scene.

NOTE: Upon discharge of the firearm, gunpowder residues

(nitrates) may be deposited on a person at close proximity,
so the interpretations as
to who discharged the firearm should be made with caution.
 COMPOSITION OF
GUNSHOT RESIDUE
1. primer or lead
2. gunpowder residue
3. elemental component from
cartridge cases residues
COMPOSITION OF COMPOSITION OF
PRIMER GUNPOWDER
1. major primer elemental 1. contains up to 23 organic
composition: lead, barium, compounds
antimony
2. nitrocellulose is virtually
2. trace elements: aluminum, always present along with
sulfur, tin, calcium, potassium, nitrate and nitrogen containing
chlorine or silicon compound such as
Diphenylamine or DPA
3. inorganic compound: (stabilizer in the powder)
mercury fulminates
 TYPES OF POWDER USED IN THE AMMUNITION OF
SMALL FIREARMS

BLACK POWDER SMOKELESS POWDER

- consists of a mixture of carbon (charcoal), sulfur and - mixtures consist of cellulose glycerol nitrate
potassium nitrate which is used as an igniter in combined with some stabilizers (nitrobenzene or
smokeless gun propellant. graphite nitrates, dichromate and oxalates).

- mixture of 15% charcoal, 10% sulfur, 75% - when this powder explodes, the chemical reaction
potassium nitrate takes place

- aluminum is added to enhance burning property

- when this powder is burned, combustion reaction

takes place
 DETECTION OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE
• PARAFFIN TEST
• LEAD RESIDUE EXAMINATION
• GUNPOWDER RESIDUE EXAMINATION
• OTHER EXAMINATION
a. NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS (NAA)
b. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE WITH ENERGY
DISPERSIVE ANALYSIS (SEM-EDA)
 BRIEF HISTORY OF PARAFFIN TEST
• PARAFFIN TEST was originated in Cuba when DR. GONZALO ITURRIOS first used
paraffin for collecting gunpowder residues from discharged firearm.
• 1933 - Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Justice Laboratory in Mexico City, introduced the test
in the US.
• In this test, the hands were coated with a layer of melted paraffin. After cooling, the casts
were removed and treated with Diphenylamine (5% DPA in 60% sulfuric)

NOTE: The blue color that appears indicates the reaction of nitrates with diphenylamine reagent. Thus, nitrate
from other sources like fertilizers will give the same reaction. Other substance similar to nitrate known as
oxidizers will also react with the regeant in the same way.
However, it must also be noted that the blue specks have the characteristics of “tailing”
Q: Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands? How long will they stay in the pores?

A: None. Ordinary washing will not remove the nitates from the pores of the skin.
Usually, gunpowder nitrates that are embedded on the skin stay for 72hours. That
is why paraffin casting should be conducted within the specified period.

Substance giving false positive results:

fertilizers
explosives
tobacco
urine
certain cosmetics
food samples
Q: Will these substances not give positive result for paraffin test?
A: If the hands of the subject person are contaminated with nitrates other than from
gunpowder, one will expect to find smudges.

Q: Is paraffin test result a conclusive evidence? Why?

A: No. It is just a corroborative evidence which tends to support the testimony of
eyewitness. There are instance wherein a person who actually discharge a firearm
would still give a negative result to the paraffin test because of so many factors;

-types of caliber of ammunition

-use of gloves
-length of the barrel
-age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism
-direction of firing
-wind direction and velocity
-humidity/percentage moisture in air
-72 hours lapsed (3days)
 FACTORS THAT AFFECTS GUNPOWDER RESIDUE
- revolver is more likely to give positive result than pistol
- considering the chamber of pistol is an integral part of the
TYPES OF CALIBER OF
AMMUNITION
barrel while in revolver it is separated from the barrel with air
space. Thus, leakage of powder in a revolver is more likely to
occur.

- the shorter the barrel the more likely to leave a greater amount
LENGTH OF THE BARREL of unburned particles than a longer barrel firearm

- complete combustion is more likely to occur in a new weapon

compared to an old one. Besides, leakage of gunpowder is more
AGE OF THE GUN/EFFICIENCY
OF MECHANISM
likely to happen in the old weapon where the breech
mechanism is no longer tightly fitted.
 - more powder residues will be obtained when the
gun is discharged pointing upward than downward.
Gunpowder residues have weight and will naturally
DIRECTION OF FIRING
fall down because of gravity.

- in a strong wind, the powder residues will be bown

in the direction of the wind. One is more likely to be
positive for gunppowder nitrates if there is no wind,
WIND DIRECTION AND
VELOCITY or the wind direction is towards the shooter.

- humidity lessens the extent of combustion yielding

HUMIDITY/PERCENTAGE more gunpowder nitrates.
OF MOSTURE IN AIR
 SMUDGING, TATTOING, SINGEING
• SMUDGING - the term as applied in
ballistic for the smoke that is
deposited in the skin.

• TATTOOING - the particles of

unburned or burned gunpowder
marks which are propelled to the area
surrounding the wound.

• SINGEING - the burning of the skin

hair or the skin itself due to close
contact fire.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN ENTRANCE & EXIT WOUNDS

ENTRANCE WOUND EXIT WOUND

- Appears to be smaller than the projectile
owing to the elasticity of the tissue. - always bigger than the projectile
- Edges are inverted. - Edges are everted.
- Usually oval or round shape - It does not manifest any definite shape.
- Contusion collar or contusion ring is present, due to
invagination of the skin and spinning of the projectile. - Contusion collar is absent.
- Paraffin test may be positive. - Always negative.
- Tattoing or smudging maybe present, when
firing is near. - Always absent

- Always present after fire. - Maybe absent in the body, if projectile is lodge
in the body.
DRUGS
 DRUGS
- a chemical substance that brings about physical, physiological,
DRUG behavioral and/or psychological change in a person taking it.

- a substance which when taken into the human body cures illness
MEDICINAL DRUGS and/or relieves signs, symptoms of disease.

- a substance affecting the central nervous system which when

taken into the human body brings about physical, emotional or
behavioral changes in a person taking it.
DANGEROUS
DRUGS
- any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical, psychological,
legal, economic or social damage to the user or to people affected
by the user's behavior.
DRUG ABUSE
 CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS

1. NATURAL DRUGS - are active ingredients, secondary metabolic products of

plants and other living systems that may be isolated by extraction. Ex. Raw Opium,
Marijuana, Coca Bush
ACCORDING TO DRUGS 2. SYNTHETIC DRUGS - are artificially produced substance, synthesized in the
laboratory for the illicit market. Ex. Metamphetamine, Barbiturates

ACCORDING TO LEGAL a. R.A. 9165 (Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002)

CLASSIFICATION b P.D. 1619 (Volatile Substance)
c. R.A. 6425 (Classified as: Regulated and Prohibited Drugs)

ACCORDING TO 1. NARCOTICS SUBSTANCE

INTERNATIONAL 2. PSYCHOTROPIC SUBSTANCE
CLASSIFICATION 3. DESIGNER DRUGS

ACCORDING TO A. STIMULANTS
PHARMACOLOGICAL B. HALLUCINOGENS
CLASSIFICATION (EFFECTS) C. DEPRESSANTS
D. INHALANTS
STIMULANTS - increases alertness or physical disposition
AMPHETAMINE
street name: eye opener, lid poppers, pep pills, uppers, hearts
what it is: reduces appetite, relieves mental depression,
comfort fatigue and sleepiness
administration: oral as tablet or capsule
effects: wakefulness, increased alertness/initative
danger: dependence, overdose, violent
HALLUCINOGENS - affects sensation, emotion, thinking,
self-awareness
ECSTACY
street name: XTC, Adam, essence, E, herbals
administration: swallowing, inhalation
effects: hyper emotions, makes HR & BP hike up, dries
the mouth, stiffens arms, legs, jaw, dilates pupils of the
eyes
danger: it can really kill

METHAMPHETAMINE HYDROCHLORIDE (SHABU) MARIJUANA

street name: poor man's cocaine, S, Shabs, Ubas, Siopao, street name: Mary Jane, Flower, Pampapogi, Damo, Tea, Joint,
Sha, Ice Pot
what it is: white odorless crystal/crystalline powder wth a what it is: looks like fine, green tobacco
bitter numbing taste administration: smoke in pipes/cigarette, can be taken in food,
made into candy, mixed with honey or butter
administration: inhalation, ingestion, smoked effects: faster heartbeat, bloodshot eyes, dry mouth, loss of
effects: anxiety, irritability, irrational behavior fertility, cancer
physical : chest pain, irregular heartbeat, hypertension, danger: slows down mental and psychomotor activities, long
convulsion, death term may lead to psychological dependence
danger: injection from contaminated needles may lead to
risk of infections, AIDS etc.
DEPRESSANT - depresses or lower the INHALANTS - these are liquid, solid or
functions of the CNS mixed substance that has the property of
releasing toxic (psychoactive) vapors or fumes.

1. Narcotics - drug which induces sleep

(Hypnotics) or stupor and relieve pain Ex. Solvent, Glue, Gasoline, Kerosene, Paint, Thinner,
Naphthalene
(analgesics)
2. Tranquilizers - substance that reduces anxiety,
ease tension and relax muscles.
3. Sedatives and Hypnotics - calm the nerves,
reduce tension and induce sleep.

Ex. Barbiturates, Alcohol

 PHASES IN THE EXAMINATION OF AN ALLEGED CONFISCATED
DRUGS
SCREENING/PRELIMINARY TEST
(Color Test)
- non-specific and preliminary in nature. It is
employed to reduce the family or group of
drug to a small and manageable number
- includes a series of color test which is done
by adding specific regeants to unknown
sample in a spot plate.
- is quite simple to perform even by
investigators in the field.
CONFIRMATORY TEST
- method employed to confirm the results of
the screening/preliminary test.
- involves the application of analytical
procedures to identify the presence of specific
drugs or metabolites.
- independent of screening test which uses
techniques and chemical principles different to
that of initial test in order to ensure reliability
and accuracy.
 COLOR TEST

DRUG/SUBSTANCE TYPE OF TEST COLOR

CANNABIS DUQUENOIS-LEVIN TEST VIOLET
FAST BLUE B SALT PURPLE RED
COCAINE WAGNER TEST (Specific Test for Coacaine) BROWN

OPIUM MARQUIS TEST VIOLET

FERRIC SULFATE BROWNISH PURPLE
MECKE BLUE TO GREEN
NITRIC ACID ORANGE TO RED YELLOW
MORPHINE MARQUIS TEST VIOLET TO REDDISH
PURPLE
CODEINE MECKE BLUE TO GREEN
NITRIC ACID ORANGE TO YELLOW
HEROIN MECKE BLUE TO GREEN
NITRIC ACID YELLOW TO GREEN
METAMPHETAMINE SIMON TEST BLUE
HYDROCHLORIDE MARQUIS TEST ORANGE TO BROWN
(SHABU)
ECSTACY SIMON TEST BLUE
 THE CONFIRMATORY TEST
- the process of separating mixture and comparing the migration of each
component with standard. It includes;
CHROMATOGRAPHY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

- a confirmatory method whereby light is used to

SPECTROSCOPY identify the sample specimen.
FOURIER-TRANSFORM - used for the identification of pure organic substances. In
INFRARED layman's term the resulting spectrum could be referred to as the
SPECTROSCOPY fingerprints of the substance.
(FTIR)

ULTRA-VIOLET - used for screening of dangerous drugs in urine specimen.

SPECTROSCOPY
 EXAMINATION OF URINE SPECIMEN
• The rate of excretion from the body depends on the drug's solubility in fat.
Water Soluble Drugs (like cocaine) are excreted quickly, while Fat Soluble
Drugs (like marijuana) may take several weeks or months before excretion.

• Drug Test may be conducted to apprehended individuals who are suspected to

be a user and to those who are charged with the offense of “Illegal Use of
Dangerous Drugs”

• Validity Test is conducted to determine the integrity of

the samples.
 CRITERIA IN DETERMINING TAMPERED URINE
SPECIMEN
ADULTERATED DILUTED
- addition of salt
- addition of juice
- addition of detergent
- addition of bleach and other
oxidizing adulterants
- addition of illicit drugs
SUBSTITUTED
- INTERNAL DELUTION
like intaking of plenty of
water before collection or
drinking of herbal tea etc.
- EXTERNAL DELUTION
like addition of water to
previously collected urine
- urine from friends or other
persons not using drugs may
be used as substitute specimen
- replace sample with other
substance similar to urine in
appearance
 METALLURGY
 METALLURGY - is the art and science of extracting metals from their ores.

 ORES - are minerals that can be used as a source for the commercial production of
materials.

 METALLOGRAPHY - a branch of metallurgy that involves the microstructure of

metals and alloys.

 ALLOYS - are combinations of metals.

 METALLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE - can determine the structures of different

metals.
 MACROETCHING
MACROECTHING - the process of restoring or
extracting the serial number which involves the
application of chemical solution on the metal surface SERIAL NUMBER - A series
where the serial number is normally located.
of number that is punched or
CHEMICALS USED: pressed into a particular
object/material to distinguish
1. FOR IRON AND STEEL - Cupric Chloride + the object from one another. A
Hydrochloric Acid + Water serial number is sometimes
preceded with or followed by
2. FOR ALUMINUM - Nitric Acid + Water
letters and symbols.
3. FOR LEAD - Glacial Acetic Acid + Hydrogen
Peroxide
 TYPES OF ATTACKED NUMBERS

1. STAMPED NUMBER -number that is

pressed or punched into a metal surface.

2. ENGRAVED NUMBER - number that is

pressed intendedly using electrical or
mechanical gadget.

3. EMBOSED NUMBER - number that is

raised from the surface.
 FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY
CHRISTIAN G. DOMINGO, RCr., MCJ, PGDip-AC
INSTRUCTOR
 BASIC CONCEPTS
• TOXICOLOGY - is a scientific study of poisons, their nature, properties,
effects, and detection and the treatment in case of poisoning.

• POISON - a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a

living organism causes death or injury.

• ADVERSE EFFECTS - refers to the injury caused by poison

• APPROPRIATE CONDITION - the dosage of the substance that is

sufficient to cause adverse effect.
 BASIC CONCEPTS
• POSOLOGY - science which deals with the study of the dosage of medicine
to be within a certain period.

• DOSE - the quantity of medicine to be administered at one time.

• MEDICINE - any substance which can be administered to correct or alleviate

the disease or disorder state of the system.

• ANTIDOTE - any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise counteracts or

opposes its effects.
 TYPES OF POISON
• TRUE POISON - one that is still poison no matter
how diluted it is. Ex. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

• CORROSIVE POISON - one which by contact with

it chemically produces local destruction of tissues.
Ex. Nitric Acid, Mercuric Chloride-Acid

• CUMULATIVE POISON - one that increases

suddenly in its intensity of action after gradual
additions of it. Ex. Arsenic
 TYPES OF POISONING
ACUTE POISONING CHRONIC POISONING

- one which there is prompt and marked - one in which there is a gradual deterioration
disturbance of function or death within a of functions of tissues and may or may not
shorter period of time and is due to; result in death. It ma be produced by;

1. taking a strong poison 1. taking several small doses at long intervals

2. excessive single dose 2. taking only toxic doses of the drug
3. several doses, small but frequent
 EVIDENCE OF POISONING
CIRCUMSTANTIAL OR - an evidence deduced from occurence of facts or circumstances. Ex.
MORAL EVIDENCE motives for poisoning, purchasing the poison, keeping the materials.
This is not strong evidence.

- this includes the symptoms observed during the poisoning. This is not
conclusive because some disease may show similar symptoms as those
of poisoning. Ex. Arsenic poisoning is like cholera; alcoholic coma may
SYMPTOMATIC stimulate diabetic coma
EVIDENCE
CHEMICAL EVIDENCE - obtained by chemical analysis of the suspected substance.

POST MORTEM - this evidence is obtained from an examination of the tissues and organs
EVIDENCE after death.

- is obtained by administering the suspected substance to some living

animal and noting the effect or symptoms. This alone is also not
conclusive because the tolerance may not be of a man.
EXPERIMENTAL
EVIDENCE
 METHODS OF EXAMINATION
ISOLATION IDENTIFICATION
- submitted specimen is in pure form, the
poison must be first isolated. Thus poison
may be classified according to their method
of isolation as; - method employed for the identification of
specific poison like Spectrophotometer and
1. VOLATILE - isolated by extraction with Gas Chromatograph
alcohol and chloroform

2. NON-VOLATILE - isolated by extraction

with organic solvents and alkaloids

3. METALLIC POISONS - poisons such as

arsenic, mercury and lead
 ELEMENTS OF
POISONING
1. Poison
2. The poisoned organism
3. The injury to the cells
4. The symptoms and the signs of
death
 CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS
• BASED ON ITS ORIGIN
1. ANIMAL/TOXIN (BUFOTOXIN) - produced by living organism
stimulating antibodies.

2. VEGETABLE - poison ivy and jimsonweed plants

3. MINERAL - hydrochloric acid, caustic alkali

4. MICROBIAL - produced by microscopic organism. Ex,

bacteria, fungi

5. SYNTHETIC - manufactured by Chemist such as drugs,

pesticides as well as chemical purified from natural sources
such as metals from ores and solvents from gasoline.
• ACCORDING TO • ACCORDING TO
CHEMICAL PHYSICAL FORM
PROPERTIES 1. SOLID
2. LIQUID
1. VOLATILE POISONS 3. GAS
2. NON-VOLATILE 4. VAPOR
3. METALLIC 5. AEROSOL
• ACCORDING TO THEIR
EFFECTS ON THE
BODY/TARGET SITES

1. Those which cause local

destruction (skin) - phenol, HCl

2. Blood poisons - Carbon Monoxide,

Hydrogen Cyanide

3. Nervous Poisons (nervous system)

- alcohol, tobacco, opium

4. Cardiac Poisons (cardiovascular

system) - stop the heart beat -
digitalis, antipyrine
 DOSE
(Its concept is important. Whether a drug acts as therapy or
poison, it will depend on the dose. Even water is poisonous if too
much is ingested.)

• SAFE DOSE - does not cause harmful effects.

• MINIMUM DOSE - smallest amount of medicine that

can produce the desired therapeutic effect without
causing harm.

• MAXIMUM DOSE - largest amount that will cause no

injury but at the same time produce the desired
therapeutic effects.

• TOXIC OR POISONOUS - one that is harmful both to

the healthy and the sick.

• LETHAL OR FATAL DOSE - a dose that kills

 KINDS OF ANTIDOTES
CHEMICAL OR TRUE OR - one that makes the poison harmless by chemically altering it.
SPECIFIC
MECHANICAL OR ANTIDOTAL - an agent that removes the poison without changing it; coats the surface
MEASURE of the organ so that absorption is prevented. (Ex. Stomach tube and pump,
precipitants, ligatures, washes, injections poultries)

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTIDOTE, - an agent that acts upon the system so as to counteract the effects of the
SYMPTOMATIC poison. (Ex. chloral for strycine convulsions)

EMETICS - an agent that causes vomiting

CATHARTIC - an agent that produces intestinal evacuation

DEMULCENT - an agent that forms a protective film, soothes and protects the parts
where demulcent is applied

PRECIPITANTS - substances that prevent absorption of poisons by precipitating them and

rendering the insoluble.
CAUSES OF DEATH IN
POISONING
• Cardiac failure
• Respiratory failure
• General devitalizing
• Shock to the nervous system