Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-019-00201-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Experimental and computational dynamic response comparison

of hybrid and mono windmill towers considering soil–structure
interaction
Hemal J. Shah1 · Atul K. Desai2

Received: 6 June 2019 / Accepted: 2 October 2019

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Abstract
In countries like India, wind turbine heights are rapidly increasing to harvest more wind energy at a given location. In recent
years, due to increase in hub height of windmill likelihood, soil lying below foundation may influence dynamic response of
wind turbines. By increasing the height of the conventional monopole supporting system, it becomes slender and dynami-
cally sensitive under the influence of soil below foundation; therefore, in the present investigation, hybrid supporting system
is proposed to avoid slenderness effect of monopole system. A 1:40 scaled model of 78-m-high conventional monopole
windmill and hybrid windmill comprised of nacelle, rotor mass and supporting tower are prepared in the laboratory. To
study the behavior of both the towers under operational dynamic loads of rotor, laboratory tests were conducted on scaled
model considering soil below foundation. Simulations of experimental analysis are presented for multi-degree of freedom
turbine structure subjected to dynamic loading of rotor considering soil stiffness below base. It is examined in terms of
displacement in time domain, shear at base of tower and response spectra. From laboratory tests and its simulation, it can
be concluded that hybrid supporting system are recommended for windmill towers with higher hub heights considering soil
stiffness below foundations.

Keywords Dynamic analysis · Hybrid windmill · Base shear · Soil–structure interaction

Introduction harvest more wind power at given locations. The velocity

The use of wind turbines to generate power is the fastest
growing renewable source of energy in developing countries
like India. As per global world power report (Sawyer 2017),
India has produced 4 GW energy from wind power in the
year 2017 which is the second largest in Asia. According to
investigations carried out in Gujarat state, it was observed
that wind velocities are 25% higher at 110 m compared
to 80-m height in states like Gujarat of India (Draxl et al.
2014). By increasing hub height of windmill tower, one can
* Hemal J. Shah
hemal3007@gmail.com
Atul K. Desai
atuldesai61@gmail.com
1
Applied Mechanic Department, Government Engineering
College, Bharuch, Gujarat, India
2
Applied Mechanic Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India
of wind is also steadier at higher heights and available for
longer duration which results in more power generation.
The supporting tower of windmill structures are con-
structed either with lattice-type or monopole-type towers.
The monopole-type structure consists of hollow circular
tubular structure having very less thickness and large height
possesses higher slenderness ratio. As forces and moments
are higher at the base of windmill, larger diameter is pro-
vided at the bottom which reduces gradually at the top of
tower and it resists forces by bending action. In conventional
windmill towers, another configuration is lattice-type sup-
porting tower. In lattice-type structure, trussed configuration
is used with angle section or other shaped tubular struc-
tural members. This member is either riveted or welds and
transfers load through axial stiffness. The major advantage
of this configuration is that wind will pass through tower,
so wind loads are very less compared to monopole towers.
At the top of tower, nacelle is provided which consists of
generator and other parts to generate power from wind. The
mass of nacelle is very high, and it is transferred to ground

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through supporting tower systems. In addition to this blade
of windmills are connected with nacelle at some eccentric-
ity. This heavy mass of rotor is rotating at designed rpm of
windmill and generates dynamic loads on supporting towers
of windmill. The rotational frequency of blade depends on
the amount of wind available at given location. As the veloc-
ity of wind at any location is continuously changing, the rpm
of rotor will also change and due to that loads transferred on
towers are also changing in time domain.
Conventional windmill structures are constructed with
either mono-type supporting system or lattice-type system.
Lattice-type supporting system is suitable for lesser hub
height of the tower. Another conventional system is mono-
type structural system, which resists the forces and moments
acting on it by bending stiffness and this system can be
used for higher hub height of windmill tower. One major
problem in increasing hub height of windmill tower is that
structure becomes slenderer and more sensitive to dynamic
forces acting on it due to rotation of heavy rotor blades at
top of tower. To reduce slenderness effect of tall towers due
to heavy mass at top of tower, a hybrid structural system is
proposed in the present investigation. This hybrid structural
system is a combination of mono- and lattice structural sys-
tem with mono-type tower at higher elevations and lattice
type tower in lower elevations. At higher elevations where
the dynamic loads are less, the mono-system is provided and
at lower heights; where forces and moments to be resisted
are more, the lattice system is provided because lattice sys-
tem can resist the higher forces more effectively due to its
truss action and axial stiffness properties.
In normal practice, this windmill towers are analyzed
considering fixed base without considering interaction
between structure and soil. This fixed base condition can be
used for very hard soils or rock which can provide enough
stiffness at base of tower. Nonetheless, this condition does
not exist at all sites and tall tower containing heavy mass
is constructed on soft soil deposits. Under these circum-
stances of softer soil deposits, response of the tower under
operational dynamic loads could become a major criterion
for design of tower and foundations. The tower with ele-
vated hub height constructed on soft soils with conventional
mono-system becomes dynamically sensitive and responses
under operational dynamic loads are amplified due to softer
soil below foundation. This dynamic amplification can be
reduced by constructing hybrid structural system contrary
to the conventional monopole system.
Windmill towers are long slender structure and its
dynamic response depends on type of soil below the foun-
dation. To study the effect of soil stiffness on dynamic
response of windmill tower, various methods are available.
In FE simulation, one of the methods is to assign spring
at bottom nodes (He and Li 2008), and at nodes, Mulliken
approach was used to model soil stiffness and damping
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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
below foundation which shows that SSI influences dynamic
performance of windmill system. The soil stiffness is mod-
eled considering three-dimensional model of soil in FE
software and their effects are considered under seismic time
history of north bridge earthquake. It was shown that shear
and moment demand increases considering soil stiffness in
FE simulation (Prowell et al. 2010). The FE simulation of
1.65 MW wind turbines is performed for various locations
of Canada (Nuta et al. 2011) and the seismic risk assess-
ment was carried out using buckling failure mode and it is
observed that design of windmill towers is safe for Cana-
dian environment. The soil–structure interaction model is
developed using Euler–Lagrangian approach (Harte et al.
2012) and the effect of soil stiffness is studied for differ-
ent soils, and it is observed that in case of softer soils the
natural frequency coincides with 1P frequency which results
in resonance condition. The windmill tower structures can
be designed considering the effect of soil stiffness for pile
foundations and 46-m-high windmill tower is designed at
various locations of Alaska by modeling tower and pile
foundation in FE software (Alhamaydeh and Hussain
2011). The piled raft foundation is modeled, and soil stiff-
ness is considered by modeling spring in FE software and
detailed foundation design was applied at site. Various types
of foundations can be procured for windmill towers con-
sidering the effect of soil (Austin and Jerath 2017); in this
study, three windmill towers of 65 kW, 1 MW and 5 MW
are analyzed in Ansys software and various recommenda-
tions are suggested to model soil–structure interaction. The
windmill turbines are analyzed without considering soil and
then same structures are analyzed considering soil proper-
ties at base and a new model developed to find natural fre-
quencies of wind turbines which can be used for horizontal
axis wind turbines (Andersen et al. 2012). The windmill
tower is analyzed considering soil–structure interaction by
deriving governing motion equations using Lagrange for-
malism including Lagrange multipliers. It is also subjected
to seismic excitation and concluded that seismic excitation
is predominant in tower constructed on softer soils (Zhao
2016). In another work, 1.65 MW and 3 MW turbines are
analyzed considering SSI and P delta effects which shows
that natural frequency of tower decreases by 7% considering
SSI and horizontal acceleration decreases by 10%. It is also
concluded that the base moment is also affected by P delta
effects (Hongwang 2012). The effects of soil on natural fre-
quencies of 900 KW wind turbines by modeling soil as solid
elements in FE software are studied and it was observed that
the stiff soil produces very less effect on dynamic properties
of tower, but soft soil can change frequencies of tower and
can be included in design of tower (Prowell 2009).
One method to study dynamic response of windmill struc-
tures is to prepare scaled-down model of prototype struc-
ture in laboratory; therefore, 1:100 scaled model prepared
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
in laboratory considering soil below wind turbine and
subjected to 172,000 cycles of rotor loading and effect of
soil stiffness is evaluated in the form of natural frequency
under dynamic loading. It is observed that change of first
frequency depends on the strain level in soil available near
the pile (Lombardi et al. 2013). Before preparing scaled-
down model in laboratory, it is required to decide scaling
down factor for various parameters of tower. The scaled-
down model of prototype building is prepared using vari-
ous scaling down factors and tested for seismic excitation
(Tabatabaiefar and Mansoury 2016). Experimental testing
is carried out on machine foundations considering different
types of foundation and results of experimental works are
validated using FE simulation and from investigation berate-
type foundation system is suggested for machine foundations
(Tripathy and Desai 2016).
In experimental testing, different scaling factors can be
used to scale down prototype structure, so 1:100, 1:200
and 1:300 scaled models of prototype windmill structures
are prepared (Bhattacharya et al. 2013) The fatigue testing
was carried out for symmetric and unsymmetrical foun-
dations which shows that natural frequency of windmill
tower changes 7–24% depending on the number of cycles
of rotor applied on windmill. Scaled-down model of off-
shore windmill towers are prepared in laboratory (Adhikari
and Bhattacharya 2012). After that, long-term behavior of
these structures is studied by applying scaled-down loads on
small-scale models. The dynamic properties are evaluated
considering soil, and natural frequencies of windmills are
predicted using this approach.
The wind turbines are often constructed on sand beds.
To study the effect of sand bed, 1:100 scaled model is pre-
pared in laboratory considering soil below foundation (Yu
et al. 2015). It is exposed to cyclic loading of rotor and it is
observed that natural frequency of windmill constructed in
sand will increase with increase in load cycles. In another
investigation, 1:100 scaled model of 90-m-high wind tur-
bines was prepared in laboratory considering monopiles as
foundation and soil below foundation (Bhattacharya and
Adhikari 2011). Experimental and numerical natural fre-
quencies are evaluated and concluded that frequency as well
as damping factor depend on type of soil below foundation.
The seismic response of structures can be studied by
performing full-scale testing on shake tables. For full-
scale testing, 23-m-high towers are exposed to seismic
time history of five high-intensity earthquakes, and dis-
placement and accelerations are recorded in time domain
and results are validated in FE software (Prowell 2008).
The monopole tower used in windmills are also used for
other supporting towers such as telecommunication tow-
ers and for economic design It is required to optimize the
size of such towers. To find optimum sections of circu-
lar monopoles and to optimize weight of tower, colliding
body optimization and enhanced colliding body optimi-
zation methods are used, and minimum weight of towers
is obtained considering all constraints (Kaveh and Sabeti
2018a).
To avoid resonance conditions in windmill tower, nat-
ural frequencies of tower plays important role in tower
design, and it depends on the mass of windmill-supporting
tower. The total mass of supporting tower is optimized
considering natural frequencies of the tower and reduced
to half of structural weight using CBO algorithm for jacket
supporting windmill structures (Kaveh and Sabeti 2018b).
In case of offshore wind turbines, optimization task con-
sidering various parameters including frequency domain
is very difficult. To get the solution of this problem, it is
coded using MATLAB software considering ultimate limit
states of design in frequency domain of windmill and after
repetitive iterations of optimization large reduction in total
weight of structure is observed (Kaveh and Sabeti 2018c).
The optimal design of OC4 reference jacket is carried out
using CBO and ECBO algorithms considering hydrody-
namic and aerodynamic loads acting on tower and after
optimization process, significant reduction in weight of
windmill towers is obtained for wind turbine-supporting
structure (Kaveh et al. 2017). In case of offshore windmill
structures, the size and dimensions of windmill struc-
tures play an important role in design but optimization
of design is a tedious task as numerous environmental
factors are involved. The total weight of windmill struc-
ture constructed in Denmark is optimized considering all
environmental constraints including frequency constraint
(Kaveh and Sabeti 2019).
This paper analyzes the effect of dynamic loads under
operational conditions considering soil–structure interac-
tion on conventional monopole tower and proposed hybrid
windmill tower. In the present study, to investigate effect
of soil–structure interaction, a scaled-down model of pro-
totype 78-m-high horizontal axis wind turbine monopole
tower (Nuta et al. 2011) is prepared in the laboratory con-
sidering appropriate scaling factor. The response of both
structural systems in terms of base shear, response spectra
and top displacement in time domain are examined con-
sidering the effects of soil below foundation for various
operating frequencies of turbine. The results obtained from
experimental work are validated using simulation in SAP
2000 software. One of the methods to consider effects of
soil stiffness below foundation is to provide soil springs.
The Lysmer and Richart’s approach (Tripathy and Desai
2016) is used to model the stiffness of foundation in FE
simulation. They have given various equations to find stiff-
ness of soil considering properties of soil. The soil proper-
ties are derived based on laboratory testing and stiffness
are assigned at base of tower in FE simulation.
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Dynamic loads acting on windmill tower
The turbine blades are rotating at varying speed during
operation of windmill. This rotating speed depends on the
velocity of wind available at a given location. It rotates
with lesser frequency at lower wind speed and rotates at
higher frequency during high wind velocity. These turbines
are designed in such a way that it can generate power at
higher and lower ranges of wind velocity. This rotational
frequency is not a single value, but it has lower and higher
ranges of rotating frequency at which wind turbine rotates.
These higher and lower ranges of windmill are refereed as
1P frequency of turbine. Due to this rotation of blades at
1P frequencies, dynamic loads are generated and it is trans-
ferred to the tower of windmill. The windmill towers are
also subjected to another frequency which is known as 3P
frequency. The 3P frequency is generated due to shadowing
effects of blades of rotor on windmill tower. These frequen-
cies are referred as 3P frequency for three-bladed turbines
and 2P frequency for two-bladed turbines. This 2P or 3P fre-
quency is obtained by doubling or tripling the 1P frequency
of turbine. One of the important parameters in deciding the
dimensions of supporting tower is that natural frequencies
of the supporting structure must not correspond to 1P or 3P
frequency of turbine; otherwise, it results in the resonance
condition of tower.
For higher hub heights of tower under monopole struc-
tural system, natural frequency of tower may coincide with
1P and 3P frequencies of the generator. The soft soil below
the foundation may change the natural frequency of tower
which can result in resonance condition during the operation
of tower. The proposed hybrid system provides more axial
stiffness which reduces the effect of dynamic forces acting
on the tower.
Table 1  Details of monopole Sr. no. Parameters
tower
1 Height of tower
2 Diameter
3 Rotor eccentricity from top of tower
4 Height of nacelle from top of tower
5 Mass of nacelle
6 Mass of rotor
7 Rotational frequency
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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
Preparation of model in laboratory
Preparation of monopole model
Before performing detailed experimental testing in labora-
tory, it is required to prepare scaled-down model of prototype
structure using established scaling-down factors. Research-
ers have given various scaling-down relationship between
physical model and prototype structure to prepare scaled
model (Tabatabaiefar and Mansoury 2016). In the present
investigation, prototype structure selected is the 78.2-m-high
windmill tower (Nuta et al. 2011). The various geometri-
cal parameters, the mass of nacelle and mass of rotor to be
applied on tower, C.G. of nacelle from top of tower, C.G. of
rotor from the center line of tower, operational frequencies
of tower, and the thickness of tower at various elevations, are
collected as shown in Table 1 (Nuta et al. 2011). The testing
program was carried out in geotechnical engineering labora-
tory of applied mechanics department at SVNIT, Surat. The
major factor to decide the scaling-down factor is the height
of the tower of prototype structure and the free board avail-
able above the tank filled with soil in laboratory. Depending
on this, a scale factor λ of 40 is decided and based on scaling
factors, scaled-down model of mono-tower is prepared in
the laboratory (Tabatabaiefar and Mansoury 2016). Table 1
shows the details of monopole tower model prepared in the
laboratory for experimental testing.
To rotate the blades at various frequencies, the nacelle is
provided at the top of the tower in the form of electric motor.
The mass of nacelle in physical model is decided depending
on nacelle mass of prototype structure and selected scal-
ing down factor as per scaling criteria shown in Table 1. In
actual practice, length of blades in windmill is very large. In
laboratory, modeling of blades is not possible due to height
constraint of laboratory space; hence, scaled-down mass of
rotor blades is provided in the form of circular plate which
is attached to shaft of the motor. The C.G. distance of mass
of rotor above the top of the tower is decided based on the
distance of the rotor from center line of tower in the proto-
type structure. As the rotor of windmill generator rotates at
Scaling factor Dimension of prototype Dimensions of
tower (Nuta et al. 2011) physical model
λ 78 m 1.95 m
λ 2.282 m 90 mm
λ 3.447 m 87 mm
λ 1.8 m 45 mm
λ3 52 ton 0.8125 kg
λ3 43 ton 0.671 kg
λ−0.5 0.18–0.24 Hz 70–90 rpm
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
variable frequencies, to simulate this variable frequency, a
special controller of motor as shown in Fig. 1 is procured for
the model. The rotational frequency of rotor can be changed
by changing the voltage of motor through the controller
mechanism. Figure 1 shows the model of mono-structural
system with mass of nacelle in the form of a motor at the top
and mass of rotor in the form of a rotating disk attached to
electric motor placed at the top of tower.
Preparation of hybrid tower
We have seen that monopole structural system consists of
circular cross section with very less thickness possessing
very slender structure. To resist forces and moments more
efficiently, combination of mono- and lattice structural sys-
tems known as hybrid structural system is prepared in labo-
ratory. The bottom of the hybrid tower consists of lattice
structural system and the top consists of mono-structural
system. To compare both the systems, governing criterion
selected is total mass of structure and both systems are
prepared in such a way that total mass of both supporting
systems remains identical. The lower 1-m lattice portion of
hybrid system consists of 4-mm-diameter M.S. bar as the
main leg and cross bracing of 4-mm-diameter bar. The cross
bracing and main legs are joined rigidly with each other. The
width of tower at base is kept as 0.3 m which is reduced to
Fig. 1  Experimental testing of monopole
0.15 m at 1 m level. The monopole portion of tower consists
of 90-mm-diameter hollow circular section. To transfer the
loads and moments generated due to rotation of windmills
to bottom lattice portion, proper connection between mono-
and lattice systems is provided at the 1-m level. Figure 2
shows the details of connection between monopole and lat-
tice portions. In the physical model, lattice and monopole
portions are connected using a welded connection between.
The base plate is provided in lattice portion which is con-
nected to the monopole portion of tower. In addition to this,
vertical stiffener is also provided for proper rigid connection
between two portions. A base plate of 0.3 m × 0.3 m size is
provided at the base of the tower to secure the tower with
pile foundations during experimental works. Figure 2 shows
details of hybrid tower and its connection details with soil at
base prepared in the laboratory.
Determination of soil properties
The soil used in the present investigation is clay with low
compressibility. To classify the soil, various tests were per-
formed in geotechnical laboratory. The specific gravity of
soil is 2.66 by density bottle method. The liquid limit of
soil is 30.5% and plastic limit of soil is 20.1%. The shrink-
age limit of soil obtained from the laboratory test is 8.1%.
From the obtained results, calculated value of the plasticity
index of soil is 10.4. For proper compaction of soil in tank,
the O.M.C. and M.D.D. of soil are evaluated using Proctor
test in the laboratory. The O.M.C of soil is 34% and M.D.D.
of soil is 1.43 g/cc. Based on the properties evaluated in
the laboratory, the A line charts are used to classify the soil
to be used for research work. From the A line chart, soil is
classified as CL soil. To study SSI effect, pile foundations
are used as foundation. The pile foundation is modeled using
12-mm-diameter 500-mm-long bars. The material proper-
ties such as modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of pile
are derived in laboratory. Table 2 shows the properties of
materials used in the present investigation.
Experimental dynamic testing
in the laboratory
Testing considering SSI
The following procedure is adopted for experimental
dynamic testing in the laboratory.
(a) The small-scale experimental testing carried out in geo-
technical engineering laboratory available at applied
mechanics department of SVNIT, Surat.
(b) The size of soil influencing the dynamic properties
of prototype structure under consideration is taken as
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 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 2  Experimental testing of

hybrid tower and its connection
details

Table 2  Properties of material 40 m × 40 m × 40 m. To decide the size of soil below

Sr. no. Material property Value Unit
foundation, concept of isobars is used. The stresses at
various points located vertically below the structure
1 Clay with low compressibility as well as lateral distances are calculated. From the
Unit weight 18.2 kN/m3 obtained results of stresses it is observed that up to
Modulus of elasticity 50,000 kN/m2 40 m length and height, the pressure is influenced by
Poisson’s ratio 0.45 windmill; therefore, 40 m × 40 m × 40 m size is decided.
Shear modulus 17,100 kN/m2 The scale factor in the present investigation is 40, so
2 Properties of tower depending on the scale factor, a tank of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m
Modulus of elasticity 2 × 108 kN/m2 size is procured in the laboratory as shown in Fig. 2.
Unit weight 77 kN/m3 (c) The boundaries of tanks are kept smooth to avoid fric-
Poisson’s ratio 0.3 tion between soil and tank during testing. The OMC of
3 Properties of foundation soil is evaluated earlier in the laboratory, so based on
size 0.30 × 0.30 m this, OMC soil is filled in layers of 5 cm and compacted
Modulus of elasticity 2 × 108 kN/m2 to achieve 95% of compaction.
Unit weight 77 kN/m3 (d) The piles having 12 mm diameter and 0.5 m length is
Poisson’s ratio 0.3 inserted in soil and connected properly with base plate
4 Properties of pile of model using nuts as shown in Fig. 4.
Diameter 0.012 m (e) The mono- and hybrid models of tower is erected on
Length 0.5 m soil and proper vertical position is checked using plum
Modulus of elasticity 2 × 108 kN/m2 bob.
Unit weight 77 kN/m3 (f) The electric motor along with its frequency controller
Poisson’s ratio 0.3 is placed on the model. The scaled-down mass of rotor
in the form of circular disk is attached with the axle of
motor as shown in Fig. 3.
(g) The accelerometer and data acquisition system of
national instrument corporation are fixed on the top

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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
Fig. 3  Detail of nacelle and rotor mass
Fig. 4  Detail of pile foundation and its finite element meshing
node of the model to record displacements as presented
in Fig. 3.
(h) The accelerometers are placed in two directions to
measure acceleration under dynamic loading. This
system is connected with lab view software to record
acceleration in time domain. The recorded accelera-
tions are converted into displacement in time domain
using lab view software.
The operational 1P frequency and 3P frequency of genera-
tor in prototype structure is 0.18–0.24 Hz and 0.54–0.72 Hz,
respectively (Nuta et al. 2011). The lower and upper limits of
1P and 3P frequency are selected in the present experimental
investigation. The scale factor decided in the present inves-
tigation is 40; depending on this scaling factor, scaled-down
frequencies to be applied in experimental testing are 70 rpm,
90 rpm, 205 rpm and 275 rpm. As shown in Fig. 1, control-
ler is attached to control rotating frequency of rotor fixed on
the top of the tower. Before performing experimental work
on model, in laboratory, the rpm of rotor and controller is
calibrated so that correct frequencies can be applied in the
experimental work.
The accelerometers are placed in two directions at the top
node as shown in Fig. 2. This accelerometer is connected
with lab view software which gives displacement in time
domain after performing double integration of recorded data.
For obtaining the response of structural system, the mass
of rotor attached with the electric motor is first rotated at
70 rpm. This rotation of rotor mass will create periodic force
in tower structure; the response of structural vibration due
to this force is recorded in the form of acceleration by data
acquisition system and converted in displacement in time
domain using LabVIEW software.
The experiment is repeated for lower and higher ranges of
1P frequency and lower and higher ranges of 3P frequency.
To control the various frequencies to be applied to the rotor,
the percentage of currents is changed as shown in Fig. 1.
After obtaining the response of monopole structural sys-
tem, the model of hybrid tower is fixed on top of the soil as
shown in Fig. 2 and the scaled-down nacelle mass and rotor
mass are secured on top of the tower and data acquisition
systems are connected to the tower. The mass of rotor is
rotated at four different vibration frequencies as discussed
earlier and displacement in time domains is recorded.
Experimental testing considering fixed base
(a) To compare the response of tower under fixed base and
effect of soil stiffness on dynamic response of tower,
the models of monopole and hybrid tower are fixed
using bolts with firm base prepared in the laboratory.
(b) The rotor mass and mass of nacelle are placed on top
of the tower and accelerometers are attached at the top
node to measure acceleration and displacement in time
domain as discussed in earlier sections.
(c) The true vertical position of towers is checked using
plumb bob to avoid bending stresses in tower under
consideration.
(d) Both models of tower are subjected to four operating
frequencies for required time duration and acceleration
at top joints is measured in time domain using acceler-
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 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

ometers placed on top of the tower. It is converted into FE software for each rotational frequency. The time his-
displacement in time domain using LabVIEW software. tory load case is defined considering specified number
of time steps in sine loading and enough vibrational
Modeling in FE software modes are considered so that modal participation factor
is more than 90%.
In the present research, experimental work is carried out (g) To model the soil, Lysmer and Richart’s method is used
by preparing scaled-down models of prototype structure in and soil stiffness is evaluated and modelled using linear
laboratory and their responses are obtained in the form of link elements given in the software. The spring stiffness
displacement in time domain. To validate the experimental assigned in finite element model is calculated using the
results, numerical simulation of both physical models is car- details as shown in Table 3.
ried out in FE software SAP-2000. (h) The top joint where accelerometer is placed is identified
in FE software and variation of displacement in time
Modeling of monopole tower domain is extracted from the analysis. The detailed FE
model of the tower is shown in Fig. 5.
(a) The walls of monopole towers are modelled using
thin shell element and properties shown in Table 2 are
assigned to model in FE software.
(b) The mass of nacelle and mass of rotor is assigned as
joint mass on top of the tower at CG distances. This
joint is connected with the tower using two joint rigid
links given in FE software, so masses and moments are
transferred to the tower.
(c) To model harmonic dynamic loads of rotor rotating at a
different frequency, sine function given in FE software
is used.
(d) The thickness of base plate is very less compared to
its longitudinal and lateral dimensions, so it is mod-
elled as thin shell element in which shear stresses are
neglected. The size of meshing of plate near the pile is
very fine and it becomes coarser away from pile. This
automatic meshing is given by finite element software
which generates fine mesh near stress concentration
area and coarser mesh in other regions. The details of
generated meshing are shown in Fig. 4.
(e) The piles used in experimental testing are modelled
using the frame element. The geometrical properties
of pile are assigned and material properties as shown
in Table 2 are also assigned to piles.
(f) It is required to model dynamic loads of rotor in FE
software; to model dynamic loads, the sine function
is used. Various parameters such as number of cycles,
number of steps per cycle and amplitude are defined in Fig. 5  Modeling of tower in FE software

Table 3  Spring stiffness as per Direction Spring value Equivalent radius Remarks
Richart and Lysmer
Vertical Kz = 4Grz/(1 − µ) rz = √LB/π Vertical Z-direction
Horizontal Kx = 32(1 − µ)Grx/(7 − 8 µ) rx = √LB/π Sliding in horizontal X- or Y-direction
Rocking Kz = 8Gr3 φx/3(1 − µ) rφx = √LB3/3π Rocking about Y-axis
Rocking Kz = 8Gr3φ y/3(1 − µ) rφy = √LB3/3π Rocking about X-axis
Twisting Kz = 16Gr3 φ/3 rφx = √(l3b + bl3)/6π Twisting about vertical Z-axis

G dynamic shear modulus of soil, µ Poisson’s ratio of soil, K equivalent spring stiffness, r equivalent
radius, L length of the foundation, B width of the foundation

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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
Modeling of hybrid tower
(a) The walls of monopole portion are modelled using shell
element and material properties are assigned as pre-
sented in Table 2.
(b) The bottom lattice portion having 12-mm-diameter cir-
cular bars is modelled using frame element. The dis-
placements are checked in all directions for main leg
member of tower. The bracing members are also mod-
elled using frame elements, but it is restrained against
displacement in all directions.
(c) The harmonic loads acting on the tower are modelled
using joint masses as discussed earlier.
(d) It is required to transfer loads of monopole portion to
lattice portion so proper connection between lattice and
monopole is modelled using two joint rigid links. This
two jointed rigid links will transfer loads and moments
of upper monopole portion to lower lattice portion of
tower.
(e) The piles below foundation are modelled using frame
element and soil stiffness calculated by Richart and
Lysmer approach is applied at various joints in three
global directions. Table 3 shows the values of spring
stiffness in different directions by Richart and Lysmer.
(f) The detailed FE model prepared for hybrid structural
system is shown in Fig. 5.
Results and discussion
In the present research, the scaled-down model of pro-
totype structure is prepared in the laboratory; it is sub-
jected to dynamic loading of rotor at various scaled-down
Fig. 6  Displacement in time domain for monopole tower at 70 rpm
frequencies. The accelerometers are attached at the top of
tower as shown in Fig. 3 which measure the acceleration in
time domain, which is converted into displacement in time
domain using LabVIEW software. In the FE simulation, the
top node on which the accelerometer is placed is identified
and variation of displacement in time domain is evaluated.
The displacement is maximum at the top of the tower near
the nacelle; therefore, the node is deiced in experimental
model near nacelle, and data acquisition system is procured
at the identified node and variation in displacement is meas-
ured experimentally. The distance of this node from various
corner points is measured, and node is identified in finite
element simulation. The displacement of identified node in
time domain is evaluated and compared.
Comparison of displacement for monopole system
The variation of displacement obtained by experimental and
numerical work for monopole tower is presented in Figs. 6,
7, 8, and 9 for different operational frequencies. Comparing
the experimental and numerical results obtained for vari-
ous operating frequencies of tower, it is revealed that with
increase in operating frequency, displacement increases up
to 205 rpm and after this frequency, it decreases. The dis-
placement increases at the top of the tower up to 205 rpm
and maximum displacement is obtained for 205 rpm because
this frequency is very close to natural frequency of tower;
therefore, some dynamic amplification is observed. The
275 rpm frequency which is applied to the top of the tower
is not closely matching with the natural frequency of tower,
so displacement reduces in comparison to other frequen-
cies. It is also observed that variation of displacement in
time domain obtained from experimental results is closely
13

Fig. 7  Displacement in time domain for monopole tower at 90 rpm
Fig. 8  Displacement in time domain for monopole tower at 205 rpm
matching with its FE simulation. By studying Figs. 6, 7,
8, and 9, it can be inferred that at lower frequencies, some
noise is observed in experimental values, and there is no
noise in experimental displacement at higher operating fre-
quencies. It is revealed that the number of cycles of displace-
ment obtained in experimental work is closely identical to
its simulation work.
During experimental work, data acquisition system is
used and during recording some noise is observed in lower
frequencies of vibration. When dynamic loads are applied,
structure will also respond to dynamic loading of rotor. Dur-
ing lower frequencies, time taken to complete one cycle is
more; therefore, vibrations of structural systems are recorded
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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
in data acquisition system. In higher frequencies, time for
one cycle is less compared to lower frequencies, so before
structure responds another cycle is applied so noise is not
recorded in higher frequencies in experimental work.
Comparison of displacement for hybrid system
After analyzing the monopole tower, the hybrid towers are
subjected to various scaled-down operating frequencies
of rotor. The displacement in time domain is measured
experimentally at the top of tower. The analytical values
of displacement in time domain are also obtained by its
FE simulation. The comparison of displacement in time
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
Fig. 9  Displacement in time domain for monopole tower at 275 rpm
domain obtained by experimental and its FE simulation is
presented in Figs. 10, 11, 12 and 13.
Upon comparing the results of displacement obtained
by experimental and FE simulation work, it is observed
that displacement values and cycles of rotation obtained
in analytical works are closely matching with experimen-
tal work. The displacement values are increasing up to
205 rpm frequency and after that the displacement val-
ues are decreasing. From the obtained graph, it can be
observed that some noise is observed at 70 rpm and 90 rpm
but the obtained experimental results are identical to ana-
lytical results for higher rotor frequencies of 205 rpm and
275 rpm. From the displacement plotted in time domain
it is revealed that output cycles of displacement are also
Fig. 10  Displacement in time domain for hybrid tower at 70 rpm
identical with the frequency inputted in the experimental
works.
Comparison of dynamic response of fixed base
and soil–structure interaction
Table 4 shows the comparison of peak displacement
obtained considering fixed base and SSI at the base of tower.
By comparing the results, it is revealed that the displacement
at the top of tower increases with increase in frequency up to
205 rpm for both structural system and after that displace-
ment reduces. Upon comparing results obtained by experi-
mental and its FE simulation, it is ascertained that dynamic
response of monopole structural system is highly dependent
13

Fig. 11  Displacement in time domain for hybrid tower at 90 rpm
Fig. 12  Displacement in time domain for hybrid tower at 205 rpm
under influence of soil below foundation. In monopole sys-
tem, the displacement under dynamic loads is increased by
97–158% in case of soil below foundation compared to fixed
base. This increase in displacement in monopole structural
system also increases with increase in operational frequency
of tower. The results obtained by FE simulation of experi-
mental work carried out in laboratory are identical to results
obtained by experimental work, so it can be concluded that
experimental methods and scaling methods used to prepare
model in the present investigation are correct.
Figure 14 plots the variation in displacement obtained by
SSI for both structural systems of tower under influence of
various operating frequencies of tower, and Fig. 15 shows
variation of displacement considering fixed base condition.
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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
From the displacement plots, it is revealed that in case of
foundation with soil displacement increase by 150% com-
pared to fixed base in monopole tower, but displacement
increases only 16% in case of foundation with soil compared
to fixed base in hybrid tower.
From the present research, it can be concluded that
dynamic response of monopole system is strongly depend-
ent on stiffness of soil, but it is less dependent on stiffness
of soil in hybrid towers.
Response spectra comparison
The response spectra of any structural system are the plot
of acceleration vs natural frequency of the structure. This
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 13  Displacement in time domain for hybrid tower at 275 rpm

Table 4  Comparison of displacement by fixed and support and SSI

Frequency rpm Type of support Monopole Monopole Percentage Hybrid Hybrid Percentage Percentage dif-
experimen- analytical increase in experi- analyti- increase in ference between
tal displacement mental cal displacement experimental and
considering SSI considering SSI analytical result

70 Fixed 2.5 2.4 – 1.01 1.11 – 6.5

70 SSI 4.9 5.15 97 1.1 1.25 8.9 7.5
90 Fixed 5.2 5.6 – 2.5 2.42 – 5.4
90 SSI 11 12 111 2.7 2.5 3.3 8.5
205 Fixed 7.2 7.8 – 3.3 3.46 – 7.8
205 SSI 15.5 17 115 3.4 3.6 3.3 7.3
275 Fixed 1.2 1.4 – 0.6 0.71 – 9.9
275 SSI 3.1 3.4 158 0.7 0.8 16 6.9

Fig. 14  Displacement compari-

son for SSI

13

Fig. 15  Displacement compari-
son for fixed support
plot gives idea about the dynamic response of structure
under different excitation frequencies. It depends on mass
and stiffness properties of the structural system, damping of
structure and soil and natural frequency of structure. Fig-
ure 16 shows the response spectra obtained at top joint for
5% damping for monopole structural system under different
exciting frequencies for monopole system. Figure 17 shows
response spectra for hybrid system under different exciting
frequencies.
From the response spectra curve, it can be observed that
acceleration at top of tower is less in hybrid structural sys-
tem compared to monopole system considering soil below
foundation. It can also be revealed that acceleration increases
by 360% for 205 rpm in monopole tower compared to hybrid
tower. It is observed that the acceleration values are less in
70 and 90 rpm for both structural systems.
From Fig. 16, it can be evidently implied that acceleration
response of monopole system increases under influence of
soil below foundation and depends on stiffness of soil, but
Fig. 16  Response spectrum
curve at the top node of tower
for various operating frequen-
cies for monopole system
considering SSI
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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
acceleration response of hybrid tower is less dependent on
stiffness of soil below foundation.
Base shear comparison
Both structural systems are excited by operating frequen-
cies considering soil below foundation. The dynamic loads
of rotor acting at top of tower generates base shear, which
is evaluated from FE simulation of tower. The base shear
depends on the natural frequency of tower, operating fre-
quency of tower and damping of structure and damping of
soil below foundation. Figure 18 shows comparison of base
shear considering soil for monopole and hybrid structural
system. From graph, it is observed that base shear is less
for hybrid system compared to monopole system for all fre-
quencies. The base shear is 32% higher for 90 rpm and 45%
higher for 205 rpm frequency in monopole system compared
to hybrid system. The value of base shear is approximately
same for 70 rpm and 275 rpm in both structural systems.
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
Fig. 17  Response spectrum
curve at the top node of tower
for various operating frequen-
cies for hybrid system consider-
ing SSI
Fig. 18  Comparison of base
shear by FE simulation for
various operating frequency
considering SSI
Conclusions
In the present investigation to avoid slenderness effect of
conventional monopole towers, a new hybrid supporting sys-
tem for tall windmill tower is proposed and it is compared
with conventional monopole tower system by experimental
and computational approach considering the effect of soil
below foundation. The results of variation of displacement in
time domain obtained from experimental works are identical
to its simulation work which confirms that methods adopted
in experimental work and numerical simulation works are
accurate. From the present investigation, it can be concluded
that hybrid towers are provided with lattice system in lower
half portion where forces and moments are higher, this tower
has axial stiffness which is more than bending stiffness of
conventional monopole tower and it gives less displacement
in hybrid tower compared to monopole tower under working
operational loads of rotor considering soil below foundation.
The values of base shear and spectral accelerations are also
reduced in hybrid structure compared to the conventional
monopole structure. The effect of soil stiffness below foun-
dation is very less in hybrid tower compared to conventional
monopole tower structures due to its higher axial stiffness.
Hence, the new hybrid structural systems are recommended
for windmill towers having higher hub heights subjected to
operational dynamic loading of rotors in case of soft soils
below foundations.
13

Acknowledgements The author would like to show their appreciation
to the department of applied mechanics, Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat, India, for providing laboratory facilities
and other instruments for this research. The authors also show their
appreciation to Nuta et al. (2011) for using various data of windmill
tower in present investigation from their research work.
Funding This study has not been funded from any funding agencies.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author
states that there is no conflict of interest.
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