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KEY WORDS: magnetic domains, magnetic domain walls, magnetic materials, magnetic
recording components
ABSTRACT
This review on magnetic force microscopy does not provide an exhaustive over-
view of the past accomplishments of the method but rather discusses the present
state of the art. Magnetic force microscopy is a special mode of noncontact op-
eration of the scanning force microscope. This mode is realized by employing
suitable probes and utilizing their specific dynamic properties. The particular
material composition of the probes and the dynamic mode of their operation
are discussed in detail. The interpretation of images acquired by magnetic force
microscopy requires some basic knowledge about the specific near-field mag-
netostatic interaction between probe and sample. The general magnetostatics as
well as convenient simplifications of the general theory, which often can be used
in practice, are summarized. Applications of magnetic force microscopy in the
magnetic recording industry and in the fundamental research on magnetic mate-
rials are discussed in terms of representative examples. An important aspect for
any kind of microscopy is the ultimately achievable spatial resolution and inher-
ent restrictions in the application of the method. Both aspects are considered, and
resulting prospects for future methodical improvements are given.
INTRODUCTION
Magnetic force microscopy (MFM) is a straightforward special mode of opera-
tion of the noncontact scanning force microscope. Shortly after the invention of
the atomic force microscope it was recognized that detection of magnetostatic
interactions at a local scale was possible by equipping the force microscope
with a ferromagnetic probe, which then could be raster-scanned across any
ferromagnetic sample. The near-field magnetostatic interaction for a typical
probe-sample configuration turns out to be fairly strong and largely independent
53
0084-6600/99/0801-0053$08.00
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54 HARTMANN
the probe. This approach is, however, not preferred in reality, because a far more
sensitive detection can be realized by utilizing the dynamic properties of the
probe. An obvious characteristic describing part of these dynamic properties
is the resonant frequency of the cantilever given by
r
c
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ω0 = , 1.
m
with its spring constant c and its effective mass m. In order to vibrate the probe,
the cantilever may be attached to a bimorph piezoelectric plate. Alternatively,
a piezoelectric actuator can be used to excite the sample. In some applications
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∂ 2d ω0 ∂d
+ + ω02 (d − d0 ) = δ0 ω0 cos(ωt), 2.
∂t 2 Q ∂t
where d0 is the probe-sample distance at zero oscillation amplitude and d(t) the
instantaneous probe-sample separation. Q, apart from the intrinsic properties of
the cantilever, which are the lumped effective mass and the resonant frequency,
is determined by the damping factor γ :
mω0
Q= , 3.
2γ
with ω0 from Equation 1. γ introduces the influence of the environmental
medium, which could be ambient air, a liquid, or ultrahigh vacuum (UHV).
Q thus ranges from values below 100 for liquids, air, or other gases at an
appropriate pressure, to more than 100,000 which is sometimes obtained in
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56 HARTMANN
UHV. After the usual building-up, Equation 2 leads to the steady-state solution
d(t) = d0 + δ cos(ωt + α) 4.
for the forced oscillator. The amplitude of the probe’s oscillation is given by
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δ0 ω02
δ = q¡ ¢2 . 5.
ω2 − ω02 + 4γ 2 ω2
The phase shift between this oscillation and the excitation signal amounts to
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2γ ω
α = arctan . 6.
ω2 − ω02
The above simplified formalism is based on the assumption that the oscillation
amplitude δ is sufficiently small in comparison with the length of the cantilever.
Obviously, the results derived so far describe only free cantilever oscillations,
e.g. oscillations at the absence of any probe-sample interaction. This means d0
is still so large that no influence of the sample on the probe’s oscillation can be
detected. If d0 is now decreased such that a force F affects the motion of the
cantilever then a term F/m has to be added to the left-hand side of Equation 2.
In order to consider almost all interactions that could be relevant in MFM, one
has to assume
µ ¶
∂d
F = F d, , 7.
∂t
which, apart from the static interaction, also accounts for dynamic forces. An
example of the dynamic forces is eddy currents (7). Because F covers probe-
sample interactions of various types, in particular spatially nonlinear ones; the
d(t) curves monitored by the deflection sensor and found according to Equation
2 may represent anharmonic oscillations. If, however, F(d ) can be substituted
by a first-order Taylor series approximation for δ0 ¿ d0 , then the force micro-
scope detects the compliance or vertical component of the force gradient ∂ F/∂z.
On the basis of this approximation, the cantilever behaves under the influence
of the probe-sample interaction as if it had a modified spring constant
∂F
cF = c − , 8.
∂z
where c is the intrinsic spring constant entering Equation 1. An attractive
probe-sample interaction with ∂ F/∂z > 0 will effectively soften the cantilever
spring, while a repulsive interaction with ∂ F/∂z < 0 will make it effectively
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1 ∂F
1ω ≈ − . 10.
2c ∂z
According to Equations 5 and 6, a shift in the resonant frequency will result
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in a change of the probe’s oscillation amplitude δ and of the phase shift α be-
tween probe oscillation and driving signal. 1ω, δ, and α are experimentally
measurable quantities that can be used to map the lateral variation of ∂ F/∂z.
Phase and amplitude additionally contain information about the damping coef-
ficient γ . Thus a local variation of this quantity can be separated from the local
variation of the compliance by measuring the frequency shift and the change
in amplitude or the phase shift. The simple harmonic solution in Equation 4
evidently shows that the dynamic mode of operation can be based on the em-
ployment of lock-in signal detection methods. The additional use of suitable
feedback mechanisms opens up different variants of operation.
The most commonly used detection method, generally referred to as slope
detection, involves driving the cantilever at a fixed frequency ω slightly off
resonance. According to Equation 9, a change in ∂ F/∂z gives rise to a shift in
the resonant frequency of 1ω and, according to Equation 5, to a corresponding
shift 1δ in the amplitude of the cantilever vibration. 1δ is maximum at that
point of the amplitude-versus-frequency curve where the slope is maximum.
The sensitivity is ultimately determined by thermal noise. Careful analysis (10)
shows that the minimum detectable compliance is given by
µ ¶ s
∂F 1 2kTβ
= , 11.
∂z min δrms ω0 Q
where δrms is the root-mean-square amplitude of the driven cantilever vibration
and β is the measurement bandwidth. High Q values can be obtained by
operation in vacuum, reducing air damping (<10−3 mbar). It might appear
advantageous to maximize sensitivity by obtaining the highest possible Q. With
slope detection, however, increasing the Q restricts the bandwidth of the sys-
tem. If ∂ F/∂z changes during scanning, the vibration amplitude settles to a
new steady-state value after a sufficient length of time given by
2Q
τ= . 12.
ω0
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magnetic shape anisotropy, which forces the magnetization vector field near the
probe’s apex to predominantly align with the axis of symmetry of the probe.
On the other hand, sufficiently far away from the apex region, where the probe’s
cross-sectional area is almost constant, the more or less complex natural domain
structure obtained in a ferromagnetic wire is established. This domain struc-
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where Ms (r0 ) is the sample magnetization vector field and s0 an outward nor-
mal vector from the sample surface. The first two-dimensional integral covers
all surface charges created by magnetization components perpendicular to the
bounding surface, whereas the latter three-dimensional integral contains the
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where φs (r0 ) is given by Equation 13, and Mp (r0 ) is the magnetization vector
field of the probe. The resulting force is then given by F(r) = −∇ψ(r). This
ansatz is rigorously valid for any probe involving an arbitrary magnetization
field Mp (r). The first integral, taken over the complete surface of the probe,
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covers the interaction of the stray field with free surface charges, whereas the
latter volume integral involves the probe’s dipole moment, as well as possible
volume divergences. According to the pseudodomain model, Mp (r) is diver-
gence free, and the latter integral in Equation 14 reduces to the dipole response
exhibited by the probe.
In many cases of contrast interpretation, even further simplification of the
probe’s magnetic behavior yields satisfactory results. The effective monopole
and dipole moments of the probe, resulting from a multipole expansion of
Equation 14, are projected into a fictitious probe of infinitesimal size that is
located an appropriate distance away from the sample surface. The a priori
unknown magnetic moments as well as the effective probe-sample separation
are treated as free parameters to be fitted to the experimental data. This is
known as the point-probe approximation. The force acting on the probe, which
is immersed into the near-surface sample microfield, is given by
F = µ0 (q + m · ∇)H, 15.
which implicitly involves the condition ∇ × H = 0. q and m are the probe’s
effective monopole and dipole moments. However, this force is generally not
directly detected by MFM. Usually the instrument detects the vertical compo-
nent of the cantilever deflection. The detected force component is thus given
by Fd = n · F, where n is the outward unit normal from the cantilever surface.
Well-defined different orientations of the probe with respect to the sample then
allow the successive detection of lateral as well as vertical field components.
When Equation 15 is put into component form, one gets the more illustrative
result
à !
X 3 X3
∂ Hk
Fd (r) = µ0 n j q Hj + mk , 16.
j=1 k=1
∂x j
which is the basis for contrast modeling if the MFM is operated in the static
mode. However, the instruments are usually operated in the dynamic mode,
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0
Fd (r) = µ0 ni n j +q H j (r)
i=1 j=1
∂ xi ∂ xi
3 µ ¶ #
X ∂m k ∂ ∂2
+ + mk Hk (r) , 17.
∂ xi ∂ x j ∂ xi ∂ x j
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k=1
which involves, apart from monopole and dipole moment components, pseu-
p p
dopotentials φ j = ∂q/∂ x j and pseudocharges qki = ∂m k /∂ xi . ∇q = I could,
of course, also be associated with a pseudocurrent and ∇ · m = V ∇ · M with
a pseudodivergence of the probe magnetization within the volume V. How-
ever, in the context of Equation 17, the component form is emphasized, and
the denotations pseudopotential and pseudocharge are thus preferred. These
pseudocontributions result from the fact that the actual magnetic response of
a real probe of finite size clearly depends on its position with respect to the
sample surface (12). This aspect has often been completely neglected in the
interpretation of MFM results. In the present context the most important con-
sequence is that in dynamic mode MFM, it is not only the second derivatives
of the field components that contribute to the ultimately observed contrast but,
according to Equation 17, also the first derivatives, as well as the field compo-
nents themselves. The number of field derivatives entering Equations 16 and
17 is reduced by ∇ × H(r) = 0, leading to
∂ Hj ∂ Hi ∂ 2 H j ∂ 2 Hi
= , = . 18.
∂ xi ∂ x j ∂ xi2 ∂ xi ∂ x j
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The increasing demand for cantilevers with integrated sharp tips, manufactured
reproducibly and available in large numbers led to the development of micro-
fabrication techniques based on the machining of Si-related materials. Today,
a variety of cantilevers with different geometries, mainly finger- and V-shaped,
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For instance, electron holography offers the possibility to obtain some quan-
titative information about the magnetic stray field produced by MFM probes
(14). Figure 1 gives two examples of electron holograms acquired near the apex
of probes of different geometries and magnetic coatings, respectively. The in-
formation is displayed as a set of lines, where two successive black or white
ones enclose a magnetic flux quantum h/e. It is obvious that the total magnetic
flux generated by the probes can be obtained quantitatively from the holograms.
Furthermore, by comparing the experimental holograms with modeled ones it is
possible to obtain some information about the local stray-field variation close
to the probe’s apex and thus ultimately about local variations in the probe’s
magnetization (14, 15).
The spatial resolution obtained by MFM is clearly related to both the mag-
netized part of the probe, which is actually exposed to the sample stray field,
and to the probe-sample distance. Thus in order to improve lateral resolution,
it is necessary to decrease the magnetically sensitive part of the probe to the
smallest possible size and to operate the probe at close proximity to the sample
surface. This can be realized if the effective volume of the probe is restricted
to a very small particle of magnetic material located at the probe apex. The
fabrication of such a probe is schematically depicted in Figure 2. A standard
cantilever is coated from the front with a 50–100-nm thick magnetic film of a
suitable material (Figure 2a–c). At this point, a conventional thin film MFM
probe is achieved. In the next step the cantilever is transferred into a scanning
electron microscope and the electron beam is focused onto the tip apex for a
duration of 10–15 min. Due to cracking of residual hydrocarbons by the elec-
tron beam, a tiny carbon tip is deposited right at the apex of the cantilever’s tip
(Figure 2d ). In a further processing step, the carbon tip is used as an etch mask
during Ar+ iron milling of the cantilever’s front side. The etching time and
the ion flux are adjusted such that the exposed magnetic material is completely
removed from the cantilever while the carbon tip is not completely etched away
(Figure 2e). This prevents the magnetic coating underneath the cap from being
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Figure 1 Electron holograms of thin film MFM probes. The scale of the images is 2.35 × 1.5 µm.
(a) Equiphase lines for a conical probe covered by a 30-nm thick Co film; (b) a corresponding result
for a pyramidal tip covered by a 16-nm thick CoCrPt film (sample preparation, Univ. Saarbrücken;
holograms, G Matteucci, Univ. Bologna).
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attacked. The result of the whole procedure is a cantilever that exposes a tiny
magnetic particle at the probe’s apex rather than the complete magnetic coating
(16). Scanning electron microscope images of such a cantilever are displayed
in Figure 3. The carbon tip visible there has a diameter of approximately 50 nm
and a length of 100 nm.
The advanced magnetic probes have the potential to produce a much im-
proved lateral resolution in comparison with conventional MFM probes.
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Figure 4 shows results acquired in the dynamic mode of MFM operation with
conventional CoCrPt thin film probes and with the advanced probes consisting
of the same magnetic coating. A standard longitudinal recording medium with
two tracks of bit patterns (periodicities 1 and 2 µm, respectively) was used as
a test sample. From both the appearance of the MFM images and the detailed
cross-sectional profiles, it is obvious that the advanced probes produce a much
improved lateral resolution. Not only the bit transition zones but also the grainy
structure of the recording medium are visible in great detail.
Electron-beam–produced magnetic supertips represent the state of the art.
The ultimately obtainable lateral resolution depends on the dimensions of the
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Figure 4 MFM images taken on standard hard disk recording tracks of 1 and 2 µm periodicity.
Image (a) was recorded with a standard MFM probe, (b) was obtained with a magnetic supertip,
and (c) and (d ) represent experimental cross-sectional profiles along the 2 µm track. Panels (e) and
( f ) represent results of model calculations that account for the varying sharpness of the probes. It
is obvious that the supertips produce a much better lateral resolution, which permits resolution of
the grainy structure of the recording medium.
residual magnetic particle at the probe’s apex. A physical lower limit for its
dimensions arises because an ultra-small particle becomes superparamagnetic.
Technical limitations result from the resolution of the lithographic process and
from the signal-to-noise ratio that clearly drops for decreasing magnetic dimen-
sions of the probe.
68 HARTMANN
continuously increase the areal bit density of recording devices have made MFM
the industry’s most powerful method. Technical breakthroughs such as the em-
ployment of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) reading heads in hard disk drives
or the use of blue lasers in magneto-optical recording dramatically decrease
the size needed to store one bit of information. Chraracteristic dimensions are
already far below 1 µm.
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Figure 5 Standard MFM image of recorded tracks on a hard disk. With MFM it is possible to
analyze the sharpness of the transitions and the characteristic track profile, which are the result of
the pole-piece geometry of the writing head. The image size is 12 × 12 µm.
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Figure 6 MFM image of written tracks on a digital audio tape (DAT). The image size is 120 ×
120 µm. Even for the relatively high areal bit densities achieved, standard MFM is capable of
visualizing the most important characteristics of the recorded pattern.
70 HARTMANN
MICROMAGNETIC INVESTIGATIONS
Macroscopic magnetic phenomena, usually detected by magnetometers, have
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their origin in the actual topology of the involved magnetic domains and its
modification under the influence of an externally applied magnetic field. The
domains are subdivided by interdomain boundaries of a certain finite width. In
most cases this width ranges between 1 and 100 nm. For in-plane magnetized
samples, the interdomain boundaries are the only sources of the magnetic stray
field that could be externally detected by MFM, provided that the sample does
not contain inner and surface defects that usually also produce stray-field varia-
tions. In the vicinity of the interdomain boundaries, the interplay of the material-
dependent energy contributions usually causes interior divergences of the mag-
netization vector field. Additionally, surface magnetic charges can be pro-
duced at the intersection between interdomain boundaries and sample surfaces.
In turn, if the domain magnetization has a considerable component oriented
perpendicular to the sample surface, extended surface charges determine the
exterior stray field of the sample. Numerous methods have been developed for
the analysis of magnetic microstructures (17). The advantages of MFM are that
magnetic microstructures can be imaged at fairly high lateral resolution with
a minimum amount of preparation and a maximum variety of environmental
conditions.
Samples with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy produce extended surface
charges that correspond to the upward and downward pointing domain mag-
netization. In this case, the near-surface stray field of the sample is directly
related to the domain topology, as shown for the example of a 500-nm thick
Tb30 Fe62Co8 film in Figure 7.
Although interdomain boundaries produce a much less extended stray field
due to their small size compared with that within domains, it is nevertheless
possible to image their topology in a routine way with state-of-the-art instru-
ments. Figure 8 shows the example of an intersection of two 90◦ Bloch-type
walls with a 180◦ Bloch wall in an Fe bulk single crystal. Apart from the over-
all wall topology, even fine structures of the walls become apparent owing to
distinct differences in their stray fields. These fine structures have their origin
in the underlying global flux-closure behavior. Another interesting example
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Figure 7 A 5 × 5 µm MFM image of the natural domain arrangement in a Tb30 Fe62Co8 film with
perpendicular magnetic anisotropy. The 500-nm thick film was deposited on a glass substrate and
coated with a 100-nm thick Si3N4 film for surface protection. The surface coating does not affect
the MFM measurement but restricts the probe-sample separation.
for an internal Bloch wall structure is the subdivision of 180◦ walls into tilted
segments of opposite magnetization rotation. For a wall in an Fe bulk crystal
(Figure 9), the opposite chirality of the successive segments can be imaged by
MFM through the alternating positive and negative surface charges.
Numerous important applications of magnetic materials depend on device
configurations involving lithographically structured magnetic thin films. In
this field the main task is to image the domain topology at a particularly
small scale given by the dimensions of the respective thin film elements. An
example of such an application is given in Figure 10. Arrays of polycrys-
talline Permalloy dots deposited on Si/SiO2 substrates were prepared by X-ray
lithography. The diameter of the dots is 1 µm and the thickness 50 nm. The
nearest-neighbor distance (Figure 10a) is 1 µm and is decreased to 100 nm
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(Figure 10b). The respective MFM images show that the dots obviously exhibit
a heterogeneous magnetic structure. However, that structure is totally disor-
dered for the larger interdot separation (Figure 10a), whereas for the smaller
lattice constant (Figure 10b), a magnetic superlattice is clearly visible (18). The
MFM analysis clarifies the manifestation of the interdot magnetostatic coupling
and the resulting domain closure configuration.
In general, the inverse problem of deducing a concrete arrangement of inner
and surface magnetic charges from the overall stray field they produce is not
solvable. MFM can, however, be used to compare the experimentally detected
stray-field variation of a micromagnetic object with that obtained from certain
model calculations. Thus it is frequently possible to at least classify the mag-
netic object under investigation. One such example is the analysis of different
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Figure 10 Arrays of 50-nm thick Permalloy dots of 1 µm diameter. The nearest-neighbor spacing
is 1 µm in (a) and 100 nm in (b). Although the domain walls within the dots are randomly oriented
for the larger dot spacing (a), all walls are aligned for the smaller one in (b).
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Figure 11 MFM results and model calculations for domain boundaries in Fe films for two film
thicknesses. The experimental results have been obtained under UHV conditions. Comparison
between experimental and theoretical results clearly confirms that a 90◦ Néel wall is present for
the 10-nm film, whereas a 90◦ Bloch wall is present for the 80-nm film.
76 HARTMANN
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Figure 12 MFM image displaying the ripple structure in a 10-nm thick Fe film close to a 90◦ Néel-
type boundary observed under UHV conditions. The deduced wavy alignment of the magnetization
is indicated in the bottom of the image.
Figure 13 Complex domain arrangement in a 10-nm thick Fe film observed by MFM under UHV
conditions: (a) shows the experimental result, which is composed of numerous high-resolution
images; the deduced magnetization orientations are shown in (b); (c) shows the modeled wall
contrast, which is constructed from the magnetic charge of the individual walls.
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in Figure 13c.
Figure 14 A sequence of 100 × 100 -µm MFM images taken on YSmBiGaFe garnet film of 4.5 µm thickness in a varying
external field. The soft magnetic film has perpendicular anisotropy. A complete series of images can be used to obtain a local
hysteresis loop of the sample.
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Figure 15 Sequence of MFM images showing the pinning and nucleation of domains at a structural
defect in a 5 × (4 Å Co + 15 Å Pt) multilayer film with perpendicular anisotropy. The image size
is 7 × 7 µm. The structural defect is marked and the sequence starts with the upper left image and
is terminated with the lower right image.
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Figure 16 7.5 × 7.5 µm MFM images showing the internal reconstruction of a subdivided 180◦
Bloch wall in an Fe single crystal upon the application of an in-plane field. The magnetization
component perpendicular to the sample surface in the individual wall segments is indicated. The
external field causes motion of the wall to the left and, at the same time, a downward motion of the
transition between the adjacent wall segments.
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82 HARTMANN
and the related motion of Bloch lines can be an important contribution to the
coercivity of certain materials (17). However, microscopic processes at this
scale are not well understood.
Figure 17 UHV MFM data obtained for two adjacent domain boundaries in a 10-nm thick Fe
film: (a) shows the wall topology; (b) represents the cross-sectional variation of the wall stray field
at the indicated position when increasing the probe-sample separation from 50 to 250 nm; (c) dis-
plays some selected cross-sectional profiles at five different values of probe-sample separation.
84 HARTMANN
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Figure 19 A 25 × 25 µm MFM image obtained with a magnetic supertip on the garnet film
shown in Figure 18. The image has been taken at continuously decreasing probe-sample separation,
starting with 200 nm at the bottom of the image. At the top of the image a mechanical contact
between probe and sample had been obtained. The supertip does not cause any perturbation of the
sample magnetization.
any sample perturbation until mechanical contact between probe and sample is
achieved.
86 HARTMANN
for sufficiently strong field variations. Individual flux quanta have been detected
on superconductors. The spatial resolution is, however, not sufficient to detect
details of the magnetization rotation within interdomain boundaries. On the
basis of adequate model calculations, it is at least possible to distinguish be-
tween different wall types and to deduce other micromagnetic features hardly
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accessible to many analysis methods. The stray field produced at a local scale
by MFM probes can be used to induce magnetoresistance on suitable devices.
It can, on the other hand, seriously perturb the magnetization of a sample.
MFM is a well-established method with well-known limitations and short-
comings. For the future it cannot be expected that dramatic breakthroughs will
Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1999.29:53-87. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author thanks U Memmert and AN Müller (University of Saarbrücken) for
supplying most of the beautiful images. Part of the work presented here has
been supported by the German Research Association (SFB 277).
Literature Cited
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CONTENTS
What Next for Departments of Materials Science and Engineering? M. C.
1
Flemings
Modern Resonant X-Ray Studies of Alloys: Local Order and
25
Displacements, G. E. Ice, C. J. Sparks
Magnetic Force Microscopy, U. Hartmann 53
Skutterudites: A Phonon-Glass-Electron-Crystal Approach to Advanced
Thermoelectric Materials Research, G. S. Nolas, D. T. Morelli, Terry M. 89
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Tritt
Scanning SQUID Microscopy, John R. Kirtley, John P. Wikswo Jr. 117
COMBINATORIAL MATERIALS SYNTHESIS AND SCREENING:
An Integrated Materials Chip Approach to Discovery and Optimization of 149
Functional Materials, X.-D. Xiang
Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1999.29:53-87. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org