Topic 7: Communication

7.1 Definition of communication

Communication
- Process of exchanging information which involves sending and receiving information.

Interpersonal communication
- Involves the process of sending and receiving messages among individuals and
groups when people talk, write, and use body language in exchanging information.
- Communication between two or more people.

Organizational Communication will cover 7.4.2

- All the patterns, networks, and systems of communications within an organization.
- https://status.net/articles/organizational-communication-informal-formal-vertical-
horizontal/
- https://haiilo.com/blog/organizational-communication-9-steps-to-create-a-successful-
strategy/

7.2 Functions of communication

• Control - Formal and informal communications act to control individuals’ behaviors in

organizations.
• Motivation - Communications clarify for employees what is to be done, how well they
have done it, and what can be done to improve performance
• Emotional Expression - Social interaction in the form of work group communications
provides a way for employees to express themselves.
• Information - Individuals and work groups need information to make decisions or to do
their work.

7.3 The communication process

The communication process involves activity of sending a message from sender to receiver.

In order to understand the communication process, we need to know the primary components
involve in a basic communication model.

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 Noise
Noise

Social Context

Channel

Sender Encoding Message Decoding Receiver

Channel

Communication Feedback
Noise Noise

Social Context
- The social context is the setting in which the communication takes place.
- The setting has an impact on the other components of the communication process.
- For example, managers will receive different level of distraction and feedback if they
communicate with the subordinates in the manager’s office compared to at the health
club.

Sender
- Sender initiates the communication process.
- Sender is anyone who has an idea or concept and wants that information known to
someone else.
- In an organization, sender can be the managers, subordinates, customers, suppliers
and competitors.

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Encoding
- Encoding is a process of converting sender’s ideas or concept into symbols.
- By encoding, a sender translates his ideas, thoughts and feelings through languages,
words, symbols or gestures that subordinates able to understand.
- An example of encoding is when someone smiles to show his or her happiness.

Message
- Message is the tangible forms of coded symbols that give meaning to the information.
It is resulted from the encoding process.

Channel
- Channel is the carrier of the message or the medium by which the message is sent.
- Message can be sent through variety of channels such as face-to-face communication,
web sites, telephone, bulletin boards, memos and fax.
- Nevertheless, the richest channel communication is face to face communication as it
can provide immediate feedback from the recipients.

Decoding
- Decoding is a process by which receivers interpret and translate the received message
into meaningful information.
- This process is performed by the person receiving the message.
- The more the receiver’s decoding matches the sender’s message, the more the
effective the communication has been.

Receiver
- Receiver is the person to whom the sender directs or sends the message.
- If the message does not reach the receiver, communication has not taken place.

Feedback
- Feedback is receiver’s response or reaction to sender’s message.
- Feedback helps sender to verify whether the message decoded by receiver is what the
sender really meant to relay.

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Noise
- Noise is any internal or external interference that distract the communication. It can
occur of any part in the communication process.
- Examples of noise are message is written in an unclear way, and air conditioning is
not working during a class lecture.

7.4 Formal vs. informal communication

Formal channel
There are 2 main channels of organizational communication
Informal channel

7.4.1 Formal Channel

A. Definition - Formal communication is an official communication network that follows

the chain of command and used by organizations to transmit information within
and outside organization.

Downward Comm
B. There are 2 types of formal communication channels : Vertical
Upward Comm

communicat
Horizontal
ion
1. Vertical communication - A communication system in which
communicat move
messages
downward (downward communication) and upward (upward communication) :-
ion

a. Downward communication
i. In downward communication, messages flow from individuals at higher
level of the organization to those at the lower level

ii. The most common examples of downward communication are meetings,

official memos, procedures and company publication.

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 iii. Information that normally sends downward may include new policy, job
instruction and feedback on performance.

Vertical communication (downward)

b. Upward communication
i. Upward communication is the flow of information moves from lower to
higher level in the organization’s hierarchy.

ii. Upward communication enables manager to get suggestions and know

employees’ problems, accomplishment and attitudes.

iii. Examples of common devices that can be used in upward communication

include suggestion box and group meeting.

Vertical communication (upward)

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 2. Horizontal communication (Lateral communication)
a. Definition – Movement of information between individuals on the same level.

b. Example – Production manager may require more information regarding sales

of company and he obtains from marketing manager.

c. It is mostly used among co-workers to share information.

Horizontal communication

7.4.2 Informal Channel / Grapevine communication

A. Informal communication or known as grapevines is an informal method of

communication described as the wandering of messages throughout the
organization.

B. Grapevines flourished from the social relationship that develops in an

organization.

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C. According to Davis (1953), there are 4 types of informal communication which are
single strand, gossip, probability and cluster.

Single Gossip Probability Clusters

strand
1. Single strand
a. Single strand represents how one person passes a message on to another,
who passes it to another, to another and so on in one long series of
communication.

b. As information reaches the last person, the news is already inaccurate

because information that moves from one to another are omitted or
distorted and passed in a way that sender would find it interesting.

c. For example, Mr. A will tell Mr. B something about the organization and Mr.
B then tells Mr. C, Mr. D and so on down the line.

A B C D E

2. Gossip
a. It is used to deliver information that is non-job related.

b. The information must be interesting to hear.

c. For example, when Datuk Siti Nurhaliza knows that her husband is having
an affair with his secretary, she tells everyone that she met in the
organization.

B C E F G

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3. Probability
a. Information conveys may not be interesting but useful to some people.

b. Sender will only convey information to an individual who will benefit from
the news and may not convey to other people.

E F
C
B
D

4. Clusters
a. A person may convey information to a few chosen individuals.

b. These individuals then pass on the information to a few more selected

individuals whom they trust.

c. The information conveys is interesting, job-related and most up-to-date.

d. Cluster is the most popular grapevine pattern being used in the

organization.

e. An example of cluster is employees discussing topics related to things

happening in the organization during golf game or inter-departmental
football matches.

B C

F
A
D
G

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7.5 Direction of communication

Refer 7.4.1

upward and downward communication

7.6 Networks of communication

The vertical and horizontal flows of organizational communication can be combined into
variety of patterns called communication networks.

Refer 7.4.1

7.7 Communication in the internet and social media age

7.7.1 The 24/7 work environment

IT has significantly improved a manager’s ability to monitor individual and team performance,
has allowed employees to have more complete information to make faster decisions.

In addition, IT has made it possible for people in organizations to be fully accessible, at any
time, regardless of where they are. Employees do not have to be at their desk with their
computers running to communicate with others in the organization.

7.7.2 Social media

Creating a video portal like on YouTube or Vimeo, but for internal audiences only is an
excellent way for employees to stay up to date on colleagues, new products, and company
messages. For example, Textron has established an internal video portal.

“It is our internal YouTube. It is the watering hole for employee-driven content. We
use it for videos about product demos, to celebrate employee achievements, and to
highlight advice from company leaders”

A recent survey found that nearly 90 percent of employees say they check social media at
work. And nearly one in five said they checked social media ten times or more during the

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workday. Unfortunately, most of those ‘checks’ are undoubtedly external sites and have
nothing to do with employee work responsibilities.

Finally, it may called ‘social media’, but another communication challenge posed by the
internet age is the lack of personal interaction. Even when two people are communicating
face-to-face, understanding is not always achieved. However, it can be especially challenging
to achieve understanding and collaborate on getting work done when communication takes
place in virtual environment. Young people in Generation Z in particular have come to prefer
texting, email, and social media to face-to-face communication. This can create problems in
the workplace when digital channels are used to convey messages that have an emotional
component or sensitive information. There is a time and place for digital communication, but
they are not a substitute for face-to-face communication when, for instance, the message is
complex, sensitive in nature, requires confidentiality, or demands explicit feedback of
understanding. Face-to-face also is preferred when it is important to build trusting
relationships.

7.7.3 Cybersecurity

Sony Pictures Entertainment was the target of hackers who successfully obtained sensitive
information about employee pay, financial information, and confidential communications about
particular movie stars.

In another example, hackers penetrated the federal government’s human resources

databases from which they obtained information about security clearances and health care
records. These security breaches are a reminder that computer networks are not
impenetrable. Corporate computer and email systems should be protected against hackers
and spam mail. These serious issues must be addressed if the benefits of communication
technology are to be realized.

Today, almost everything an organization does is transacted digitally. And much of this is
sensitive information – employee information, customer data, financial records, and
intellectual property. Between smartphones, the cloud, and the Internet of Things,
organizations are vulnerable to hackers. This puts a premium on cybersecurity. While it is
impossible to completely eliminate this risk, certain actions are a must. These include using
secure passwords; being suspicious of external downloads and emails, backing up data,
securing Wi-Fi; and installing and renewing a complete antivirus, antispyware, and firewall
package on every computer.

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Topic 8: Group and Team

8.1 Definition of a group

• Group - two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to
achieve specific goals.
– Formal groups
• Work groups defined by the organization’s structure that have
designated work assignments and tasks
• Example:

– Informal groups
• Groups that are independently formed to meet the social needs of their
members

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8.2 Stages of a group development

1. Forming:
● Characterized by a great deal of uncertainty (not clear) about the group’s purpose
(objective to be achieved), structure (who is going assign for specific task), and
leadership (appoint leader).
● Members are trying to determine what types of behavior are acceptable.
● Stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a
group.

2. Storming:
● One of intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group (ice breaking
session), but there is resistance to constraints on individuality.
● Conflict over who will control the group. (appoint leader to lead the group)
● When complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership (organization
chart) within the group.

3. Norming:
● One in which close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness.
● There is now a strong sense of group identity

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 ● Stage is complete when the group structure solidifies (fix, strong) and the group has
assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior.

4. Performing:
● The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted (members will be given job
description)
● Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand each other to
performing.
● For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their development.

5. Adjourning:
● For temporary committees, teams, task forces, and similar groups that have a limited
task to perform, there is an adjourning stage.
● In this stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. Attention is directed toward
wrapping up activities.
● Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are upbeat, basking in the
group’s accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and
friendships.
● The group will be disbanded

Conclusion for Stages of Group Development

✔ Many assume that a group becomes more effective as it progresses through the first
four stages. While generally true, what makes a group effective is more complex.
Under some conditions, high levels of conflict are conducive to high group
performance.
✔ Groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Sometimes several
stages go on simultaneously, as when groups are storming and performing. Groups
even occasionally regress to previous stages.
✔ Another problem is that it ignores organizational context. For instance, a study of a
cockpit crew in an airliner found that, within ten minutes, three strangers assigned to
fly together for the first time had become a high-performing group.
✔ The strong organizational context provides the rules, task definitions, information, and
resources needed for the group to perform.

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8.3 Factors determining group performance and satisfaction

8.3.1 External conditions imposed on the group

Work groups are affected by the external conditions imposed on it, such as the organization’s
strategy, authority relationships, formal rules and regulations, availability of resources,
employee selection criteria, the performance evaluation system and culture, and the general
physical layout of the group’s workspace.

For instance, a quality-improvement group at Boeing has to live with Boeing’s corporate hiring
criteria, budget constraints, company policies, and employee evaluation system.

https://www.citeman.com/100-external-conditions-affecting-the-work-group.html

8.3.2 Group member resources

A group’s performance potential depends to a large extent on the resources each individual
brings to the group. these resources include knowledge, abilities, skills, and personality traits,
and they determine what members can do and how effectively they will perform in a group

Example:

1. Interpersonal skills - especially conflict management and resolution, collaborative

problem solving, and communication-consistently emerge as important for high
performance by work groups
2. Personality traits also affect group performance because they strongly influence how
the individual will interact with other group members. For instance, car review website
Edmunds.com uses the results of personality testing as one consideration for
assembling its executive team.

8.3.3 Group structure

Work groups are not unorganized crowds. They have an internal structure that shapes
members’ behaviour and influences group performance. The structure defines roles, norms,
group size, and group cohesiveness.

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8.3.3.1 Roles

A role refers to behaviour patterns expected of someone occupying a given position in a social
unit. In a group, individuals are expected to do certain things because of their position (role)
in the group. These roles are generally oriented toward either getting work done or keeping
up group member morale.

Example:

1. If you focused on getting work done, then you were performing a task accomplishment
role.
2. If you are concerned that group members have opportunities to offer ideas, and that
they were satisfied with the experience, then you were performing a group member
satisfaction role.

8.3.3.2 Norms

All groups have norms, in which standards or expectations are accepted and shared by a
group’s members. Norms dictate things such as work output levels, absenteeism, promptness,
and the amount of socializing on the job.

Example:

1. Norms in Korean culture pressure workers to ‘pull late nights’ because they feel they
need to please their superiors.
2. In Korea, drinking together helps build workplace camaraderie and trust.
3. Dress norms frequently dictate what’s acceptable to wear to work. It the norm is more
formal dress, anyone who dresses casually may face subtle pressure to conform.

8.3.3.3 Group size

One important research finding related to group size concerns social loafing.

Social loafing refers to the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working
collectively than when working individually.

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8.3.3.4 Group cohesiveness

Group cohesiveness - is the degree to which group members are attracted to one another and
share the group’s goals.

8.3.4 Group processes

Next we look at the processes that go on within a work group. These processes are important
to understanding work groups because they influence group performance and satisfaction
positively or negatively.

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8.3.4.1 Group decision making

8.3.4.2 Conflict management

Conflict - perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition.

8.3.5 Group tasks

8.4 Differences between a group and a team

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8.5 Types of work teams

8.5.1 Definition of work teams

Groups whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive
synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills.

8.5.2 Types of work teams

• Problem-solving team - a team from the same department or functional area that’s
involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems.
• Self-managed work team - a type of work team that operates without a manager and
is responsible for a complete work process or segment.
• Cross-functional team - a work team composed of individuals from various functional
specialties.
• Virtual team - a type of work team that uses technology to link physically dispersed
members in order to achieve a common goal.

8.6 Creating effective work teams

Page 377 (text book)

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8.6.1 Clear goals

High-performance teams have a clear understanding of the goal to be achieved. Members are
committed to the team’s goals, know what they are expected to accomplish, and understand
how will work together to achieve these goals.

8.6.2 Relevant skills

Effective teams are composed of components individuals who have the necessary technical
and interpersonal skills to achieve the desired goals while working well together. this last point
is important because not everyone who is technically competent has the interpersonal skills
to work well a team member.

8.6.3 Mutual trust

Effective teams are characterized by high mutual trust among members. That is, members
believe in each othe’s ability, character and integrity.

8.6.4 Unified commitment

Unified commitment is characterized by dedication to the team’s goals and a willingness to

expend extraordinary amounts of energy to achieve them. Members of an effective team
exhibit intense loyalty and dedication to the team and are willing to do whatever it takes to
help their team succeed.

8.6.5 Good communication

Not surprisingly, effective teams are characterized by good communication. members convey
messages, verbally and nonverbally between each other in ways that are readily and clearly
understood. Also, feedback helps guide team members and correct misunderstandings.

8.6.6 Negotiating skills

Effective teams are continually making adjustments as to who does what. This flexibility
requires team members to possess negotiating skills. Because problems and relationships
regularly change within teams, members need to be able to confront and reconcile differences.

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8.6.7 Appropriate leadership

Effective leaders are important. They can motivate a team to follow them through the most
difficult situations. How? By clarifying goals, demonstrating that change is possible by
overcoming inertia, increasing the self-confidence of team members, and helping members to
more fully realize their potential. Increasingly, effective team leaders act as coaches and
facilitators. They help guide and support the team but do not control it.

8.6.8 Internal and external support

The final condition necessary for an effective team is a supportive climate. Internally, the team
should have a sound infrastructure, which means proper training, a clear and reasonable
measurement system that team members can use to evaluate their overall performance, an
incentive program that recognizes and rewards team activities, and a supportive human
resource system. The right infrastructure should support members and reinforce behaviours
that lead to high levels of performance. Externally, managers should provide the team with the
resources needed to get the job done.

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