第 38 卷 第 6 期 新 型 炭 材 料 （中英文） Vol. 38 No.

6
2023 年 12 月 NEW CARBON MATERIALS Dec. 2023
Cite this : New Carbon Materials, 2023, 38(6): 997-1017 DOI: 10.1016/S1872-5805(23)60785-1

Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous

generation of water vapor and electricity
QIU Zi-han1,†, ZHAO Guan-yu1,†, SUN Yang2, WANG Xu-zhen1,*, ZHAO Zong-bin2, QIU Jie-shan3
（1. School of Chemistry, Liaoning Key Lab for Energy Materials and Chemical Engineering,
Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China;
2. School of Chemical Engineering, Liaoning Key Lab for Energy Materials and Chemical Engineering,
Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China;
3. College of Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering,
Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China）

Abstract： Solar-driven interfacial vapor generation (SIVG) is increasingly used for fresh water production, having the advant-
ages of low energy consumption, eco-friendliness, and high efficiency. Carbon-based photothermal materials (CPTMs) can introduce
temperature and salinity gradients in the SIVG process because of their outstanding photothermal conversion properties, which have
given SIVG great potential for both steam and power generation. Various kinds of CPTMs for clean water and electricity generation
are discussed in this review. The basic principles and key performance indices of SIVG are first described and the photothermal and
SIVG performance of various CPTMs including graphene oxides, carbon nanotubes, carbon dots and carbonized biomass are then
summarized. Finally, current research concerning water/electricity cogeneration and ways to deal with the problems encountered are
presented, to provide some guidelines for the use of multifunctional CPTMs for simultaneous steam and electricity generation.
Key words: Photothermal material；Carbon-based material；Solar-driven interfacial vapor generation；Water/electricity cogeneration

1 Introduction age. As an implementation of solar thermal techno-

Freshwater resources and electric energy are two
intertwined indispensable cornerstones for human
civilization and sustainable development. However,
the increasing mismatch between growing global pop-
ulation and region-unbalanced freshwater/electric sup-
ply poses a great challenge to today’s society. Re-
markably, up to now, the technological development
of producing freshwater[1–2] and green electricity[3–4]
has been taking separate and independent pathways.
In the field of water treatment, compared with enorm-
ous energy-requiring water production technology
(e.g., membrane distillation[5], reverse osmosis[6]), de-
salination of seawater using natural solar energy takes
advantage of two abundant resources, and offers a
sustainable and eco-friendly path to fulfill the require-
ment of low-energy water production.
Solar thermal technology is a method of directly
harvesting solar energy for heating and energy stor-
logy, solar-driven seawater evaporation is a straight-
forward water production process, that is, the brine is
directly evaporated by solar energy and then con-
densed into distilled water[7]. In conventional solar-
driven evaporator, heat is concentrated at the bottom
of the container or in the bulk of water, and steam ap-
pears elsewhere of the system. The separation of heat
and steam causes unnecessary temperature drop on the
evaporation surface, resulting in a large amount of
heat loss, and ultimately leading to relatively low
evaporation efficiency (30%-45%) of the systems[7–10].
A recently emerging new strategy of solar-driv-
en interfacial vapor generation (SIVG)[11–14] relies on
thermal localization, and its ultimate driving force is
solar energy. It has been demonstrated possessing the
potential for portable, passive, and high-efficiency
solar desalination. Compared with the traditional sys-
tems, SIVG localizes the solar-thermal conversion

Received date： 2023-09-03； Revised date： 2023-10-24

Corresponding author： WANG Xu-zhen, PhD, Professor. E-mail: xzwang@dlut.edu.cn
Author introduction： †QIU Zi-han and †ZHAO Guan-yu contributed equally to this work.
 · 998 · 新 型 炭 材 料 （中英文） 第 38 卷

section at the air-liquid interface. The localized en-
ergy selectively heats water molecules in the region of
evaporation, not the entire body of water, thereby
greatly improving the heat utilization rate and water
evaporation rate. This approach minimizes the use of
photothermal materials while avoiding volume heat-
ing, and provides a method for dynamically adjusting
evaporation performance, such as evaporation steam
flux and steam temperature[7,15–16]. Because of these
advantages, the SIVG system expands the application
of solar thermal technology in assembled, stand-alone
and portable solar desalination technologies, making it
one of the most promising sustainable solutions to the
freshwater crisis.
As the core component of the SIVG system, the
photothermal material is mainly responsible for har-
vesting solar energy and subsequently converting it
into heat, thus promoting water evaporation in the li-
quid-gas interface. Therefore, expanding the light ab-
sorption range of photothermal materials and enhan-
Hence, this review focuses on CPTMs in the
field of solar-driven interfacial evaporation for both
water and electricity production, as shown in Fig. 1.
First, the basic principles and key evaluation indices
of SIVG system from the aspects of evaporation rate,
solar absorption, photothermal conversion and heat
loss are introduced. Then, the photothermal and SIVG
performance of various CPTMs are summarized, in-
cluding graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, carbon
dots and carbonized biomass materials. Finally, the
current researches concerning water/electricity cogen-
eration and the strategy to challenges have also been
discussed, aiming to provide some guidelines of mul-
tifunctional carbon-based photothermal materials for
simultaneous steam and electricity generation.
Therm
o-e
tem lec
ys t
s

ro
rfacia l va
tric

e po

ch
int
cing their photothermal conversion capability are key

em
Thermoelec

rg
Sola riven

ical system
ene on
indicators for upgrading SIVG technology. Over the
r-d

Carbon-based

past decades, various materials have been employed
as efficient photothermal conversion materials, includ-
ing plasmonic metals[17–19], semiconductors[20–22], small
[23]
organic molecules , metal-organic frameworks
[24]
(MOFs) , carbon-based photothermal materials
(CPTMs) and their composites.
Among various photothermal conversion materi-
als, CPTMs are regarded as the most promising can-
didate for practical SIVG device because of not only
perfect broad-spectrum solar light absorption ability,
excellent antifouling properties, and corrosion resist-
ance, but also tunable surface wetting properties as
well as stable physical and chemical properties[25–27].
In addition, owing to the thermal localization func-
tion in SIVG system, temperature/salinity gradients
are normally formed between solar absorber and bulk
brine, which is particularly advantageous for electric
generation[28]. Therefore, enormous multi-functional
solar-powered vapor/electric generators with thermo-
electric, thermo-electrochemical, and salinity gradient
effects have recently caught some interest.
rati
materials
Sa
li n i
ty p o w e r s yst
em
Fig. 1 Carbon-based photothermal material for solar-driven interfacial
vapor generation and electricity generation simultaneously
2 Solar-driven interfacial vapor genera-
tion
2.1 Basic principle of SIVG
Solar energy can be converted into various forms
of energy through photovoltaic, photochemical and
photothermal processes. Among them, the photo-
thermal conversion process provides the best conver-
sion efficiency. The basic principle of solar photo-
thermal conversion is shown in Fig. 2a[29]. The light-
induced electric field drives the moving carriers in-
side the material crystal, and the energy obtained by
the carriers is converted into heat, which diffuses out
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······
of the material, resulting in an increase in the temper-
ature of the surrounding medium.
The photothermal effect is a surface-dependent
process. And solar energy is converted into thermal
energy by photoexcitation at the air-water interface. In
general, high-efficiency SIVG system should meet the
demands of the following 3 aspects: (1) high solar ab-
sorption capacity of photothermal materials over the
full solar spectral range (250-2500 nm)[30], (2) heat
loss minimization of water evaporation interface[31],
and (3) sufficient water supply for continuous steam
· 999 ·
2.2 Performance evaluation indices of SIVG sys-
tem
2.2.1 Evaporation rate
The evaporation rate (υ) of water in SIVG sys-
tem is normalized by the mass of water lost and the il-
luminated surface area of photothermal material. In
the initial stage of SIVG process, in order to provide
sufficient latent enthalpy to ensure the occurrence of
water-vapor phase transition on the surface of the
evaporator, the surface of the evaporator needs to col-
lect more incident photons and converts them into

generation on the surface of the photothermal conver-
sion materials[32]. Therefore, the SIVG system is gen-
erally divided into 3 parts, and its basic structure is as
follows (Fig. 2b)[33]:
(1) The photothermal absorption layer is com-
posed of photothermal conversion materials for col-
lecting solar energy and then converting it into heat
energy to boost water evaporation at the liquid-air in-
terface.
(2) The thermal insulation layer is composed of
materials with low thermal conductivity, which con-
tributes to thermal localization at evaporation zone.
(3) The water transport layer sucks water to
thermal interface for ensuring the continuous genera-
tion of steam.
Obviously, carbon materials can achieve the syn-
ergy of the above 3 parts by regulating the pore struc-
ture, surface hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity, as
well as gradient structure, which is difficult for any
other photothermal materials.
heat energy, so the initial evaporation rate will be
gradually increased[34]. According to the research, it
generally takes 2 000 s for the SIVG system to reach
steady state or equilibrium under a standard simulated
light source irradiation (1 kW·m−2). As a result, the
evaporation rate is generally obtained by linear fitting
the slope of the water mass loss curve under steady
state. The calculation formula of evaporation rate is as
following[35]:
1 dm ṁ
v= = (1)
Aproj dt Aproj
where, m represents the mass of evaporation water, t
is the illumination time, Aproj is the projection area of
the evaporator, and ṁ is the mass flux of the evapor-
ated water, representing the slope of the mass loss
curve obtained by linear fitting.
2.2.2 Photothermal conversion efficiency
The photothermal conversion efficiency (η) is
defined as the ratio of the energy consumed by water
evaporation at the gas-liquid interface (Qevap) to the in-
cident light power (Qs) in SIVG system. The calcula-

(a) (b)
Incident
light Reflectid light
π 2π 4π 6π ...
Steam

n1 Solar light Steam Photon

Light-trapping
Photon

Water microstructure

0 Solar
Heat

absorber
n 2= layer
x Absorbing film Localized heating Water flow Water flow

n2+iκ2
d Thermal
insulation
Material with
low thermal
Reflective coating n3=n3+iκ3 layer conductivity Channel
Unheated water
Substrate

Fig. 2 (a) Schematic diagram of the solar photothermal conversion process[29] (Reprinted with permission by Springer Nature, Copyright 2012);
(b) The basic structure diagram of solar-driven interfacial water evaporation device[33] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier, Copyright 2016)
 · 1000 · 新 型
tion formula is as follows[36]:
Qevap
η=
Qs
Qevap = ṁ · ∆HLV
Qs = Copt · I · Aproj
where, Copt is the optical intensity of incident light, I is
the standard intensity of direct sunlight (1 kW·m−2).
ΔHLV is the total enthalpy of the phase change at the
liquid-vapor interface, including the sensible heat
caused by temperature rise and the latent heat caused
by phase change. The calculation process is as fol-
lows[37]:
∆HLV = Cp · ∆T + ∆Hvap
where, Cp is the specific heat capacity constant of wa-
−1 −1
ter (4.18 J·g ·K ), ΔT is the difference between the
water vapor temperature and the ambient temperature,
and ΔHvap is the latent heat of steam at the correspond-
ing temperature. After the normalization of Formula
(2), the calculation formula of the photothermal con-
version rate of the solar interface water evaporation
system can be summarized as follows:
ṁ(Cp · ∆T + ∆Hvap )
η=
Copt · I · Aproj
It is worth noting that the transient photothermal
conversion efficiency can more accurately reflect the
working state of the solar interface water evaporation
system. Therefore, it can be defined as the total en-
ergy used for water evaporation in a certain illumina-
tion time interval divided by the input energy of incid-
ent solar energy. The calculation formula is as fol-
lows:
wt
ṁ(Cp · ∆T + ∆Hvap )dt
η= 0
wt
Copt · I · Aproj dt
0
Or expressed as:
∆m · (C p · ∆T + ∆Hvap )
η=
Copt · I · Aproj ∆t
where, Δm refers to the quality change of evaporated
water during the illumination time Δt.
2.2.3 Light absorption rate
The light absorption efficiency of photothermal
conversion materials is the basis of SIVG system.
Therefore, the light absorption rate (α) is a key met-
rics of the ability of photothermal conversion materi-
炭 材 料 （中英文） 第 38 卷
als in the SIVG system. α is determined by the ratio of
the absorbed solar radiation to the incident radiation.
(2)
The total solar absorptivity at a given incident angle θ
(3)
is obtained by weighting the spectral absorptivity of
(4)
the photothermal conversion materials with the spec-
tral irradiance distribution of the standard solar spec-
trum (AM 1.5) and integrating the solar radiation
within the wavelength range reaching the surface of
the solar absorber, and then expressed as the ratio of
the total solar irradiance. When the incident angle of
the light source is θ, the total solar absorptivity α(θ) of
the solar interface water evaporation system can be
(5)
calculated by the following equation[38]:
w λmax
[1 − R(θ, λ )] · A(θ, λ)dλ
λmin
α (θ) = w λmax (9)
A (λ) dλ
λmin
where, λmax and λmin are 0.3 and 2.5 μm, respectively, θ
is the light incident angle measured from the surface
normal of the SIVG system, and A(λ) is the solar spec-
tral irradiance related to the wavelength. R(θ, λ) is the
total reflectivity at wavelength λ.
(6) 2.2.4 Heat loss
In the SIVG system, the heat energy converted
by solar energy mainly acts as the continuous output
of steam under the equilibrium condition of the sys-
tem, while the remaining energy is lost by convection,
conduction and radiation, resulting in heat loss (Q).
Specifically, the energy consumption in the evapora-
tion process is mainly composed of 3 parts[39]: (1) the
heat required to evaporate water, and (2) conduction
heat loss with water, and (3) radiation heat loss and
(7) convection heat loss with water vapor. The energy
balance in the SIVG system can be expressed as the
following formula:
QSIVG = QEvap +QConduction
Water + QConvection
Vapor + QRadiation
Vapor (10)
(8)
First of all, QSIVG is the energy absorbed by the
photothermal materials in the system, where the en-
ergy loss caused by the reflection and scattering of the
incident light at the interface should be subtracted,
which can be expressed as:
QSIVG = α · Copt · I · Aproj (11)
where, α represents the light absorption rate of the
photothermal conversion material.
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······
The conduction heat loss between the SIVG sys-
tem and the water body can be defined as the energy
required to heat up the bulk water body after sunlight
exposure, which can be calculated by the following
equation:
QConduction
Water = CP · m1 · ∆T 1 (12)
where, m1 refers to the quality of the remaining water
body after evaporation, ΔT1 is the rising temperature
of the water body before and after evaporation.
The convective heat loss between SIVG system
and water vapor can be defined by Newton’s law of
cooling[7]:
QConvection
Vapor = h · Aevap · (T evap − T vap ) (13)
where, h represents the convective heat transfer coef-
ficient of the system, Aevap is the evaporation area of
the evaporator, Tevap and Tvap are the surface temperat-
ure of the evaporation device and the surrounding
steam temperature, respectively.
The radiative heat loss between SIVG system
and water vapor is calculated by Stefan-Boltzmann
equation[40]:
QRadiation
Vapor = σ · ε · Aevap · (T evap
4
− T vap
4
) (14)
where, σ and ε represent the Stefan-Boltzmann con-
stant (σ = 5.670373 × 10−8 W·m−2·K−4) and the
emissivity of the system in the wavelength range of
2.5-25 μm, respectively. The emissivity depends on
the characteristic of the material. The ε of photo-
thermal conversion materials is calculated by the fol-
lowing formula[41]:
w 25µm
[1 − R (λ)] PB (λ) dλ
2.5µm
ε= w 25µm (15)
PB (λ) dλ
2.5µm
where the denominator is the total emissivity power of
the blackbody, while the molecule is the total energy
emitted by the photothermal conversion material in
the wavelength range of 2.5-25 μm. R(λ) and PB(λ) are
the reflectivity and the spectral emissivity of the
blackbody, respectively, at the measured temperature
given by Planck’s law.
It should be pointed out that the researchers
found that most of the reported SIVG systems were
tested under open conditions. The fluctuations of am-
bient temperature and humidity, the measurement er-
· 1001 ·
ror of thermocouples on steam and ambient temperat-
ure, and the improper selection of thermal conductiv-
ity have caused certain errors in energy balance and
heat transfer in the current SIVG system. That is, the
sum of each part of the energy consumption in the
system (energy consumed by water evaporation, con-
duction heat loss, radiation heat loss and convection
heat loss) is greater than or less than 100%. Therefore,
it is extremely important to establish a constant exper-
imental environment, where temperature, humidity
and pressure remain stable, and to unify the standard
measurement methods and evaluation criteria of the
SIVG system. It is worth mentioned that, assuming no
additional energy input, the evaporation rate is lim-
ited by the photothermal conversion efficiency, that is,
the maximum evaporation rate of water under
1 kW·m−2 light intensity (room temperature 25°C, hu-
midity 45%) is 1.59 kg·m−2·h−1. By optimizing the
structure design, the external environment can be used
for additional energy input, so that the total evapora-
tion of the system is higher than the limit evaporation
rate under the same solar intensity[42]. Therefore, in
practical applications, the evaporation rate is more im-
portant than the photothermal conversion efficiency
when evaluating the performance of the SIVG system.
3 Carbon-based SIVG system
As a solar absorber, the photothermal conversion
material (PTM) is a key component of SIVG systems.
The performance of a SIVG system is mainly decided
by the photothermal conversion performance of the
PTM. The design principle of PTMs is focused on the
high photothermal conversion efficiency and high
light absorption rate in the full solar spectral range of
0.3–2.5 μm[30]. Over the past decade, PTMs with ex-
cellent light absorption capabilities have been extens-
ively studied over a wide range of solar spectra. They
can absorb incident light via light excitation and turn
it partially or completely into thermal energy, in
which moving carriers obtain energy under the driv-
ing of light-induced electric field and convert it into
heat energy.
In recent years, carbon-based PTMs (CPTMs)
 · 1002 · 新 型
have attracted widespread attention owing to their
high abundance, favorable chemical stability, and effi-
cient light absorption abilities. The photothermal con-
version effect of CPTMs is mainly caused by 2 as-
pects. From the microscopic point of view, carbon
materials typically contain a great quantity of 6-
membered ring-based lattices, where delocalized π
bonds are spontaneously formed by unbound free
electrons. These rich electrons with weak interactions
are excited from their highest occupied molecular or-
bitals to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals
through energy-matched incident photons. In addition,
heat will be released during the stages of relaxation .
From the meso- and macroscopic points of view,
CPTMs have complex inner hole/slit/channel struc-
tures and relatively rough surfaces. These characterist-
ics promote the multiple scattering of light, thereby
improving the light utilization rate and reducing the
[44–46]
transmittance loss . So far, a variety of CPTMs
have been explored, such as graphene oxide (GO) ,
[48]
reduced graphene oxide (rGO) , graphite , carbon
[50] [70]
nanotubes (CNTs) , carbon dots (CDs)
bonized biomass materials[51]. These materials have
their own advantages in the application of solar-
powered interfacial vapor generation process.
3.1 Graphene-based SIVG system
Graphene-based materials are ideal materials for
solar-driven evaporation, purification, and desalina-
tion as a result of their excellent solar energy absorp-
tion properties, large specific surface area, and con-
trollable thermal conductivity. Various graphene-
based PTMs including graphene metamaterials , ver-
[53]
tically aligned graphene films , GO films , redox
[55]
graphene composite aerogels and layered graphene
[56]
foams have been investigated. These materials ex-
hibit excellent photothermal conversion efficiency
owing to their controllable structure properties. For
[57]
example, Qu’s group prepared defect-abundant
graphene aerogel (DAGA) by a freeze-drying process.
They used the laser reduction method to replace the
traditional thermal annealing treatment of GO, so that
GO can be partially reduced while maintaining the
oxygen-containing groups and defects on its surface,
炭 材 料 （中英文） 第 38 卷
improving the hydrophilicity, thermal insulation and
solar absorption ability of the system. The DAGA
aerogel obtained a water evaporation rate (υ) of 1.78
kg·m−2·h−1 and a photothermal conversion efficiency
(η) of 91% (Fig. 3a). Subsequently, Qu’s group[53] pre-
pared vertically aligned graphene sheet membrane
(VA-GSM). Ethanol was added as antifreeze to affect
the growth direction of ice crystals and accurately
control the freezing direction (Fig. 3b). The vertical
channels can effectively serve as a light trap for solar
harvesting and a water path for facilitating water
transport, enabling 85.6% photothermal conversion
[43]
efficiency under one standard solar intensity.
Using graphene and its derivatives to modify the
surface of porous materials is another strategy to pre-
pare efficient PTMs for SIVG. Yang’s group[58] con-
ducted a comprehensive analysis and discussion on
this issue. As shown in Fig. 3c, a bridge-arched hol-
low melamine foam/rGO composite (BHMG) was re-
[47]
ported, where melamine foam (MF) was used to trans-
[49]
port water molecules and rGO served as solar ab-
and car- sorber. BHMG exhibited a high photothermal conver-
sion efficiency (η ≈ 92.9%) and water evaporation rate
(υ ≈ 1.476 kg·m−2·h−1) under a standard solar irradi-
ation. Liu’s group[59] constructed a composite SIVG
system by fixing rGO and Ag nanoparticles on
melamine sponge skeleton (rGO/AgNPs-MS) through
a coating method (Fig. 3d). The modified sponge not
only retained high water absorption of the original
matrix, but also showed excellent photothermal con-
version performance and hydrophobicity, achieving a
[52]
high η of 86.8%. And the rGO/AgNPs-MS also
[54]
showed outstanding sorption capacity for organic
solvents and low viscosity oil.
It is also a feasible method to construct a three-
dimensional (3D) porous graphene-based SIVG
device by mixing graphene derivatives with other
functional materials. In this case, graphene derivat-
ives are not only used as photothermal absorbing ma-
terials, but also as structural supporting materials. As
shown in Fig. 4a, Peng’s group[60] prepared a hierarch-
ical graphene foam (h-G foam) with continuous pores
by adding the secondary micro-nano structure of
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······ · 1003 ·
(a) (b)

GO suspension Ethanol
Ethanol GO suspension
Freeze casting Freeze drying
Laser reduction Freeze casting Freeze drying

Annealing

100 μm 10 μm 10 μm 1 μm 1 μm

(c) (d)
Upper surface
Reactor lining
Ag+ AgNPs
GO+KOH Dip
AgNO3
GO MS
Hydrothermal
Taken out Reduction
reaction Side surface
Initial MF
DI water GO solution GO/Ag+ solution GO/Ag+-MS rGO/AgNPs-MS
Bottom surface
100

Evaporation efficiency/%
100 Solar ~86.8
152 simulator 80
BHMGp
80 39.7 oC 51.1 oC 74.8 oC 97.4 oC
MF ~58.8 ~59.7
Data logger 60
Absorption/%

Mh-5 PC
60 BHMG 30.0 oC 36.4 oC 44.6 oC 57.7 oC Sample ~36.7
BHMG 40
Water
40 ~21.6
MF 20
Commercial 31.2 oC 38.0 oC 46.6 oC 61.0 oC Thermocouples
20
0
13
Electronic balance

-M Ps
er

-M

-M
o

at
0 C

gN

S
o
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Hot Stage 50 C 70 oC 100 oC 130 oC

Ps

/A
rG
lk

O
Bu
Wavelength/nm

Ag

rG
Fig. 3 Preparation process diagrams and cross section SEM images of (a) DAGA[57] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Ltd., Copyright 2018)
and (b) VA-GSM[53] (Reprinted with permission by American Chemical Society, Copyright 2017). Schematic diagram of
(c) BHMG synthesis process and optical properties[58] (Reprinted with permission by Royal Society of Chemistry, Copyright 2013)
and (d) SIVG device and evaporation efficiency with rGO/AgNPs-MS[59] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier, Copyright 2019)

graphene to the primary structure of the macroscopic
graphene 3D skeleton via vapor deposition. The light
trap’ phenomenon can reduce reflection and transmis-
sion of incident light, thereby achieving an excellent η
about 93.4% and a high υ of 1.42 kg·m ·h . At the
[61]
same time, Yu’s group
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hybrid hydrogel with capil-
larity-facilitated water transport. Since interaction
between the polymer network and the rGO additive,
the hydrogel exhibited a synergistic function of cus-
tomizing water transport, effective energy limitation
and reduction of water evaporation enthalpy (Fig. 4b).
This novel design allowed solar steam generation
−2 −1
rates up to 2.5 kg·m ·h . In addition, various advant-
ages of rGO-PVA hybrid hydrogels including anti-
fouling function, low cost and scalability further en-
sured their great application potential in practical en-
vironment.
For the material selection of solar absorbers, the
patterning of graphene and its derivatives is also one
of the factors affecting the water evaporation rate. Yu’s
group[62] studied the evaporation properties of
graphene-coated hydrogels with different customized
surface morphologies, that is, flat, grooved, and obvi-
ously depressed surfaces. The results showed that the
−2 −1
surface with obvious depression had the highest υ (≈
first designed an rGO- 2.6 kg·m−2·h−1) and η (≈ 91%) values (Fig. 4c). Qu’s
group[63] constructed a highly vertically aligned GO
pillar array (HGPA) with a high-precision laser, which
was based on freeze-dried GO aerogel coupled with
polystyrene foam and wicking cotton. The increased
contact area can promote the water/steam escape pro-
cess, thereby achieving the υ of 2.02–2.10 kg·m−2·h−1
and the η of 95% (Fig. 4d). It can be seen that materi-
als such as GO not only have excellent photothermal
properties of carbon-based materials, but also are rich
in a large number of oxygen-containing groups.
Therefore, they can be combined with other materials
to form CPTMs with stable structure. In addition, a
reasonable design of geometric structure can reduce
the energy loss caused by light reflection, thereby im-
proving the photothermal performance of CPTMs and
 · 1004 · 新 型 炭 材 料 （中英文） 第 38 卷

(a) (b)
Sunlight Solar
Reflection Water evaporation Heat concentration in
radiation
molecular meshes

CTH

Heat

Bulk
wate
r
Transmission Heat
G foam h-G foam Water transport:
Capillary pumping PVA rGO
Osmotic swelling Crosslinking point
60 Without h-G foam
0 34
Mass change/(kg·m−2)

50 Light 100.00
Absorbance/%

32

Temperature/oC
GNP AVG length

Absorption/%
40 −1 CTH1
150 nm CTH2
CTH3 30
without GNP GNPs 45o GNPs 90o 200 nm CTH1 W-CTH1
30 99.95 CTH4 CTH2 W-CTH2
−2 350 nm AM1.5G 28 CTH3 W-CTH3
20 CTH4 W-CTH4
qi=1 kW/m2 400 nm 26
−3
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 99.90 24
Wavelength/nm Time/min 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Wavelength/nm Time/min

(c) Designed surface topography of hydrogel (d) High precision laser

Laser pen
GO suspension
Ethanol

F-SH G-SH D-SH

Hydrogel a1 a2 a3 a4
solar evaporator
Micron pores

hv

10 μm

298 K 303 K 298 K 303 K 1 mm 500 μm

Seawater

Fig. 4 (a) Photothermal conversion difference diagram of ordinary graphene foam and h-G foam[60] (Reprinted with permission by WILEY-VCH Verlag
GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Copyright 2017); Schematic illustrations of (b) hydrogel-based antifouling solar evaporator and solar absorption of
rGO-PVA hybrid hydrogel[61] (Reprinted with permission by RSC Publishing, Copyright 2008), (c) surface-modified hydrogel for solar vapor
generation[62] (Reprinted with permission by American Chemical Society, Copyright 2019), and (d) preparation and structure of HGPA[63]
(Reprinted with permission by Royal Society of Chemistry, Copyright 2013).

improving the evaporation efficiency. eration of solar vapor, enabling its υ of 1.48 kg·m−2·h−1.
3.2 Carbon nanotubes-based SIVG system Similarly, Ding’s group[65] designed CNTs@SiO2 nan-
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess high light ab- ofibrous aerogels (CNFAs) (Fig. 5b) for efficient sol-
sorption coefficient and low thermal capacity. When ar-driven water evaporation. This double-layer materi-
strong coupling occurs between incident photons and al consisted of the top of hydrophobic CNTs and the
surface electrons of CNTs, a large amount of heat will bottom of hydrophilic porous silica substrate, obtain-
be generated in CNTs. Therefore CNTs have been ing an excellent light absorption rate of about 98%. In
widely used as CPTMs in SIVG systems, in which addition, owing to the synergistic effect of excellent
CNTs are usually compounded with hydrophilic sub- light absorption performance and tubular structure of
strates to improve light absorption capability of the CNTs, CNFA aerogels exhibited excellent evapora-
entire SIVG system. tion performance (υ ≈ 1.50 kg·m−2·h−1). Liu’s group[66]
[64]
Xie’s group fabricated a CNTs-modified flex- designed an arch evaporator based on CNTs modified
ible wood membrane (F-Wood/CNTs) SIVG system polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) hollow fiber (Fig. 5c).
(Fig. 5a). By embedding CNTs into the wood with CNTs were coated on the film to enhance sunlight ab-
highly ordered porous structure, the ultra-high solar sorption. The heteromorphic arch-like evaporator dis-
absorption rate of CNTs (～98%) and the natural water played a light absorption rate of 94.5% and an indoor
transport channel of wood were conducive to the gen- evaporation rate of 2.15 kg·m−2·h−1.
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······ · 1005 ·
Nanofber suspension Frozen suspension SNFAs CNFAS
(a) (a)
CNT layer 1 sun 3 sun 5 sun 7 sun CNTs
Freezing Freeze-drying depositing
Channels
Calcination
12 10 sun 12
Light on F-Wood/CNTs

E.R./(kg m−2 h−1)

E.R./(kg m−2 h−1)
10 10 Blank
Solar simulator 8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 2 4 6 8 10
Times/min Copt
5 100
Enhancement factor

81%
4 80 77%
72%

Efficiency/%
Vapour 65% 67% Compressive
Wood/CNTs. 3 60 Steam

Release
2 40
E.R.(floxible wood/CNTs)
1 E.F.=
20
Water E.R.(blank)

0 0 Recover
0 2 4 6 8 10 1 3 5 7 10
Copt Copt

Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

(c) &CNT
0 (d) 100
1.4

Solar-vaper efficiency/%
HKUST-1
−1
Mass change/(kg m−2)

90
−2 1.2

Etching
Hydropluilic modification Solar coating
−3 HSGM 80
1.0
Capillarity −4 Templated pores
70
−5 Pure water (0 sun) 0.8
Evaporation rate 60
−6 1 HFC (0 sun)
Solar-vaper efficiency
Water supply 1 HFC/PS foam (1 sun) 0.6
−7 1 HFC/PVDF membrane (1 sun) 50
1 HFC/Carbon cloth (1 sun) H 2O
−8 SGM SGM-3 SGM-0 SGM-3-NH
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Cation

Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

Time/min Anion 1.5 100

Solar-vaper efficiency/%
Energy density/(W m−2 nm−1)
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

Evaporation rate/(kg m−2)

100 2.0 Gelatin 1.4 90

16
5 1.3 80
This work 14 Sunny day 80 PE foam Gelatin fused SWCNT
Absorption/%

4 Hierarchically nanostructured gel 12 HFCwet 1.5 1.2 70

10 Cloudy day 60 SGM-3 SGM-3-NH Pure water 1.1 60
3 8 HFC-dry 1.0
1 sun illumination 40 1.0 50
6
2 4 HFH-wet 0.5 0.9 40
20 Evaporation rate
2 0.8 Solar-vaper efficiency 30
1 HFH-dry
0 0 0 0.7 20
1 sun+Environment encrgy 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 Time/day Wavelength/nm Time/hrs

Fig. 5 Schematic diagrams of solar vapor generation using (a) F-Wood/CNTs membrane[64] (Reprinted with permission by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim, Copyright 2017), (b) CNFAs[65] (Reprinted with permission by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KgaA, Weinheim, Copyright 2020), (c)
PTFE/CNT hollow fiber arrays[66] (Reprinted with permission by Royal Society of Chemistry, Copyright 2013),
and (d) SWCNT/gelatin membrane[67] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Ltd., Copyright 2019)

Blending with polymeric hydrogel matrix is also standing light absorption performance of CNTs with
a common method to construct CNTs-based SIVG other materials, the structure and steam generation
[67]
system. Peng’s group used copper hydroxide nano- ability of composite materials can be effectively im-
chain solution (CHN), single-walled carbon nan- proved.
otubes (SWCNT), and gelatin to fabricate a compos- 3.3 Carbon dots-based SIVG system
ite SIVG system based on SWCNT/gelatin membrane Carbon dots (CDs), an integral member of car-
(Fig. 5d). The light absorption efficiency (α ≈ 97.3%) bon family, have gained interests from researchers in
of this SIVG system endowed it with a rapid υ of 1.39 the field of SIVG owing to their inherent properties,
−2 −1 [68]
kg·m ·h . In another case, Huang’s group embed- including non-toxic, easy functionalization, low
ded CNTs into PVA molecular network to prepare thermal conductivity, abundant surface functional
CNTs/PVA hybrid hydrogel (CPG). CNTs showed groups and excellent light capture capability[69]. As an
excellent dispersibility in the PVA polymer network, emerging photothermal agent, CDs possess broad-
and some crosslinking points also appeared, which band absorption result from tightly packed energy
helped improve the flexibility and mechanical proper- level of loosely p electrons, which excites electrons
ties of the CPG. Furthermore, molecular network of and relaxes to the ground state, accompanied by local
CNTs wrapped by PVA polymer network can limit heating of the lattice and the release of phonon trans-
the converted energy to reduce heat loss. The hybrid port energy[70]. Hence, CDs have been widely con-
gel had the α of more than 90% and the υ of 2.06 sidered as potential alternatives in solar absorber of
−2 −1
kg·m ·h . Obviously, the properties of the complex SIVG systems[71–73].
materials are generally coordinated with each com- Up to now, combining with their unique proper-
ponent to enhance the water evaporation efficiency of ties of water-solubility and excellent biocompatibility,
the photothermal interface. By combining the out- CDs have been widely integrated with hydrophilic
 · 1006 · 新 型 炭 材 料 （中英文） 第 38 卷

matrix for SIVG systems as solar absorbers. Hu’s
[74]
group designed CDs-grafted cellulose nanofibrils
(CNFs@CDs) for SIVG (Fig. 6a). The integration of
CDs with cellulose nanofibers derived from biomass
waste not only achieved a fast υ of 2.5 kg·m ·h
under one sun irradiation, but also possessed long-
term salt-rejection ability under solar desalination.
Hu’s group
modified
(Fig. 6b). The introduced CDs played a significant
role in solar evaporation performance from 2 aspects:
(1) CDs were beneficial to the polymerization and car-
bonization of starch chains, thus regulating the struc-
ture and components of C-CDSA. (2) By virtue of the
introduced CDs with abundant oxygen-containing
functional groups, C-CDSA exhibited super hydro-
philicity and water activation ability. C-CDSA
achieved the υ of 2.29 kg·m ·h
addition, Hu’s group
CD assemblies (CDs@Wood) for solar-vapor genera-
tion (Fig. 6c). The micropores of CDs@Wood effect-
ively reduced vaporization enthalpy of water. Mean-
while, hydroxyl groups ingrafted on surface of CDs
mainly contributed to high solar-vapor efficiency in
comparison with the other oxidized functional groups
(carboxyl and carbonyl). As a result, CDs@Wood dis-
−2 −1
played a fast υ of 2.27 kg·m−2·h−1, along with the η of
92.5% (solar to vapor).
CDs can not only be used as a single phototherm-
[75]
also constructed a carbonized CDs- al agent, but also be coupled with semiconductor ma-
starch aerogel (C-CDSA) for SIVG terials to form heterostructures for efficient photo-
thermal conversion. Wang’s group[77] fabricated a
self-desalinating, ultra-flexible SIVG system
(MnCDs@PPy), which was established by in-situ
polymerization (polypyrrole) of CDs modified MnO2
nanowires coated on cotton fabrics (Fig. 6d). The de-
fect chemistry of functionalized CDs promoted elec-
tron migration between CDs and MnO2, enhancing the
superior solar absorption and form of heat. These ex-
−2 −1
with η= 93.5%. In cellent solar-thermal conversion behaviors ensure the
[76]
designed the wood-supported high υ (1.68 kg·m−2·h−1).
Overall, CDs-based SIVG system exhibits excel-
lent solar absorption, tunable surface chemistry and
easy-to-assemble ability, favoring the highly SIVG

(a) Millimeter-scale channels 2.8 CNFs@CDs

(b) Starch CDs

CS1 Gelatinization Retrogradation Freeze-drying Garbonization

Mass change/(kg m−2)

2.4
Absorbance/(a.u.)
90 oC, 15 min Freeze-thwa Ar, 270 oC, 1 h
2.0
1.6 C-SA
Efficient solar
Salt rejection process water evaporation 1.2 C-CDSA
0.8
0.4 AM 1.5G
l
Ge 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
s+ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
al CD Wavelength/nm
mic +
Che ent Dye adsorption Time/min :CDs :Stareh chains :Hydrogen bomds
tm
trea
2.8 15 mg mL−1 CDs
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

3 hours 10 mg mL−1 CDs 45 oC 100 5

Mass change/(kg m−2)

2.4
3 5 mg mL−1 CDs Ref.12 Ref.29 This work
6 2.0 80 4 Ref.13 Ref.31
ER/(kg m−2 h−1)

2
Eifficiency/%

2.5 mg mL−1 CDs

1.6 60 Ref.17 Ref.37
2 0 mg mL−1 CDs 3
4 Foam Ref.19 Ref.38
1.2
Light off

40 1 Ref.23 Ref.41
0.8 Cottom 2 Ref.24
1 2 20
0.4 20 oC 1
Water 0 0 78 81 84 87 90 93
0 0 0 SA CDSA C-SA C-CDSA Water
1 2 3 4 5 6 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Efficiency/%
Cycle number Time/min

(c) (d) 2.00

CB e− CB e−
LUMO 1.75
O-Related CB A Heat
Steam 1.50
Band gap

groups Reduction
Water A− Heat
Light 1.25
D + Heat Assembly Evaporation rate (Kgm−2 h−1)
Oxidation of CDs 1.00
Carbon h+ VB D h +
HOMO 50
dot
VB Semiconductor VB Interface states
Carbon dots 40
100
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

1.5 Current work 95 MnCDs@PPy

1.8 90 30
Mass change/(kg m−2)

Surface temperature
Solar absorbance/%

2.0 78 Nanofibers 80
Evaporation rate

1.2 CDs R15 1.5 Evaporation rate

Efficiency/%

96 Integrated solar shsorber Eiffieiency 70 1000

CDs/N2H4 R9 R10
0.9 1.2 60
CDs/PH
1.5 R5 R7 94 Melamine fuam 750
CDs/BA R11 R14 0.9 50
0.6 CDs/BrPE R13 90 Polymer foam
R8 40 500
R2 R4 R6 96 Carbon aerogel 0.6
0.3 1.0 R12 30
R1 R3 250
90 Sugareane@PPy 0.3 20 Solar intensity (kWm−2)
0 10 0
0 10 20 30 40 60% 68% 76% 84% 92% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
10 0
11 0

12 0
01 0
01 0
02 0
0
11 0
12 0

Water Polsurethane MnCDs MnCDs@PPy

:0
:3

:0
:3
:0
:3
:0
:0
:3

Compressive strain/%
10

Time/min Energy efficiency,η

Fig. 6 Schematic diagrams of solar vapor generation using (a) CNFs@CDs[74] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Inc., Copyright 2022), (b) C-CDSA[75]
(Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Ltd., Weinheim, Copyright 2021), (c) CDs@Wood hollow fiber arrays[76] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Ltd.,
Copyright 2019), and (d) MnCDs@PPy[77] (Reprinted with permission by Royal Society of Chemistry, Copyright 2013).
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······ · 1007 ·
performance. However, large-scale synthesis of CDs perior water holding capacity of cellulose hydrogels
material with low thermal conductivity is still a chal- and excellent solar absorption ability of CNTs, the
lenge. Heteroatom doping and defect engineering CNTs-CH performed the average υ of 1.52 kg·m−2·h−1
would be the way to further enhance its photothermal and the solar-steam conversion efficiency of 92%. On
properties. the basis of cost-effective materials such as cellulose
3.4 Biomass-based carbon for SIVG system and carbon black, Zhang’s group[79] prepared a tripod
Natural plant species possess ingenious and com- porous wood-mimetic cellulose evaporator by 3D
plex structures owing to their evolution through mil- printing process (Fig. 7b). The evaporator had a wide-
lion years. The multi-channel water transport struc- band solar absorptance as high as 97%, and an ex-
ture in biomass materials provides water transport tremely low thermal conductivity (0.075 W·m−1·K−1).
channels for transpiration. In addition, biomass mater- In addition, the υ can reach 5.79 kg·m−2·h−1 under 5
ials, as a renewable precursor, have the characteristics solar irradiations. Pan’s group[80] prepared biomass-
of low cost and wide sources. Plant biomass mainly based hydrogel evaporator by forming a hydrogel lay-
consists of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In par- er between cellulose-lignin composite hydrogel
ticular, cellulose-based biomass materials are ideal (LCG) and lignin-derived carbon (LC) (Fig. 7c).
candidates for SIVG system substrates owing to their Lignin diminished the vaporization heat of water, thus
good hydrophilicity and low thermal conductivity. increasing the evaporation rate. LC also had abundant
Therefore, researchers have combined cellulose micropores and ultra-high specific surface area. The
and carbon materials with good performance to pre- double-layer hydrogel evaporator exhibited a high υ of
pare a series of evaporators. Wang’s group[78] con- 1.84 kg·m−2·h−1 and the η of 86.5% under one sun illu-
structed a composite cellulose hydrogel coupled with mination.
CNTs (CNTs-CH) (Fig. 7a). Benefiting from the su- In addition to using the extracted cellulose from

Thermal conductivity/(W m−1 K−1)

6% cellulose solution
(a) Homemade cellulose
−12 oC Light-absorbing Chamical Geleltion
CNTs-CH (b) Conventional 3D printed evaporator 0.20
7% NaOH/ materiais crosslincer x decrease light abaarption
12% ares x resist water transport 0.16

0.12

0.08

0.04
Unimocal porous
Salt accumulates on surface Salt blocks the
Cellulose Cellulose & CNTs Cellulose & CNTs & EPI Crosslinked network structure 0
channels Unimodal Tripcdal
Salt-rejecting 3D printed evaporator
Cellulose Carbon nanotube (CNT) Epichorohydrin (EPI) 100
CH Efficlent evaporation
Power intdensity/(W m−2 nm−1)

100 0.02%CNTs-CH 2.0 40 80

2.0
Absorption/%

CH 0.2%CNTs-CH
0.02%CNTs-CH 1.0%CNTs-CH
80 1.6 35 60
Temperature/oC
Reflectance/%

0.2%CNTs-CH
Intensity/(a.u.)

1.0%CNTs-CH 1.5
60 1.2 30 40
1.0
40 0.8 25 Pure water 20
CH
20 0.5 0.4 0.02%CNTs-CH
20 0.2%CNTs-CH 0
1.0%CNTs-CH Tripodal porous No salt accumolates on surtace Rerresh via the big 500 1000 1500 2000
0 0 0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 structure channel Wavelength/nm
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

Wavelength/nm Wavelength/nm Time/min

6.0 2.0
Evaporation/(kg m−2 h−1)

37.7 oC
5.5 1.5 1 kW/m2

5.0 1.0
32.6 oC 36.2 oC 37.4 oC
17.6 oC 4.5 3D Printed evaporator 5 sun 0.5
Control sample
4.0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 20 40 60 80 100
23.0 oC 0 min 10 min 30 min 60 min Time/h Time/h

0.7
(c) LC LC@LCG
2.0 0.6
Thermal conductivity/(W/m·K)
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

1.83
1.64
1.54 0.5
1.5 1.47
0.4
Lignin
1.0 0.3

0.2
ECH 0.5 0.4
LC@LCG 0.1
500 μm
LCG 0 0
Cellulose Pure water 15 mg 30 mg 45 mg 60 mg Water CG LCG LC@CG LC@LCG
C H O Cl

Fig. 7 (a) Preparation flow chart and photothermal properties of CNTs-CH composite cellulose hydrogel[78] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier B.V.,
Copyright 2023). (b) Graphic description and performance of wood-mimetic cellulose composite evaporator[79]
(Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Ltd., Copyright 2023). (c) The synthesis diagram and evaporation performance of
LC@LCG evaporator[80] (Reprinted with permission by Wiley-VCH GmbH, Copyright 2022).
 · 1008 · 新 型 炭 材 料 （中英文） 第 38 卷

biomass, biomass can also be directly carbonized. the thermal conductivity of mesoporous wood in-
Biomass carbonization can not only retain the advant- creased the temperature of the evaporation zone,
ages of pore structure, but also increase the light ab- which meant that the conduction heat loss to the bulk
sorption performance. Carbonized wood with modi- water was reduced. Xue’s group[83] designed a SIVG
fied surface is the most common biomass-based PTMs system consisting of chemically-treated carbonized
in SIVG systems, owing to its rich channel structure, wood (TCT-wood) (Fig. 8b). The system not only had
good processing performance and cost-effectiveness. a high υ about 1.85 kg·m−2·h−1, but also showed high
In 2017, Hu’s group[81] first proved that the suitable adsorption capacity for metal ions and excellent reuse
carbonization process of wood can retain the natural ability. It was proved that the concentration gradient
porosity of wood, thus promoting water delivery. At of metal ions and the local temperature field in the
the same time, the influence of pore structure between small channel, caused by the evaporation of water, can
different types of wood (softwood and hardwood) on improve the adsorption capacity of the system to-
the performance of SIVG was discussed in detail. As wards heavy metal ions. It was also verified that SIVG
shown in Fig. 8a, the wood structure with high poros- technology was an effective strategy to enhance the
ity is more efficient owing to the fast water transport removal efficiency of heavy metals. Hu’s group[84] de-
channel retained by carbonization and low thermal signed a new type of Janus wood evaporator. The
[82]
conductivity. Subsequently, Hu’s group developed evaporator had asymmetric wettability, which en-
an efficient solar steam generator in 2018, which was sured good salt resistance, thermal insulation, and
composed of graphite sprayed on a natural, vertically evaporation efficiency when treating high-concentra-
cut medium-hole basswood block. The anisotropy of tion brine.

100
(a) Natural wood Solar steam generation (b)
80 Poplar
Absorptance/%

Pine
60 Cocobolo T-wood CT-wood TCT-wood

40
Fast water transport

20
Poplar Pine Cocobolo
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Wavelength/nm
1.0 15 2.0
12 T-wood
Water

Mass change/(kg m−2)

0.3
Mass change/(kg m−2)

CT-wood
10 Poplar 0.5 1.5
E.R./(Kg m−2 h−1)

Pine TCT-wood 10
8
ΔT/oC

ΔT/oC

Cocobolo 0.2
0 1.0
6
4 5
−0.5 0.1 0.5
1: T-wood
Hydrophilicity 2 2: CT-wood
3: TCT-wood
Porous structure 0 −1.0 0 0 0
Thermal insulation 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Time/min Time/min
Copt

1.6 100 10 0
(c) (d)
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)
Solar radiance/(Wm−2 nm−1)

1.4 Solar rediance 90

Natural mushroom 8 2
1.2 Carbonized mushnoom 80
Ehanced factor

Suppressed radiation 2.31

Absorption/%

2.85 2.73
and convection loss 1.0 6 4
70 3.87
0.8 Sheet array 4.49
Vapour 4.16
60 4 3.40 6
0.6 5.41
50 2.29
0.4 1.59
2 8
0.2 40

0 30 0 10
Mushrooim 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.4
Wavelength/nm Solar irradiation intensity/(kw m−2)
2.0
Efficiency Ref.20
4
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)
Evaporation rate/(kg m−2 h−1)

80 Evaporation rate under 1-sun Ref.22

Evaporation rate in the dark field 1.6 Ref.23
Ref.24
Eifficiency/%

60 3 Ref.24
1.2 Ref.28
Micro channels Ref.27
Supporting foam Supporting foam 40 2 Ref.22
0.8 Ref.26
Micro channels Ref.20 Ref.21
20 0.4 1 Ref.24
Water supply Ref.22
by 1D path our work
Suppressed conduction
less py 1D path 0 0 0
Water Natural Carbonized 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
50 μm Evaporation efficiency/%
mushroom mushroom

Fig. 8 (a) Digital photos and SEM images of wood solar evaporator[81] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Inc., Copyright 2017). Schematic of biomass
derived carbon-based SIVG systems: (b) TCT-wood[83] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier B.V., Copyright 2020),
(c) mushroom[85] (Reprinted with permission by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Copyright 2017),
and (d) c-corncob[88] (Reprinted with permission by Elsevier Ltd., Copyright 2021).
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······
Apart from wood, other biomasses are also em-
[85]
ployed as SIVG systems. Zhu’s group confirmed
the practicability of carbonized mushroom as solar
water evaporator. The umbrella structure separated
evaporator from the water channel, enhancing its
thermal localization. The υ of 1.48 kg·m−2·h−1 was ob-
tained under a standard solar irradiation (Fig. 8c).
Similarly, carbonized rice stalk[86] had the υ of
1.2 kg·m−2·h−1. Chen’s group[87] also demonstrated the
possibility of using bamboo-derived carbon as interfa-
cial solar water evaporator, which provided the υ of
1.522 kg·m−2·h−1. Recently, Zhao’s group[88] designed
a 3D corncob-derived monolithic carbon (C-corncob)
with well interconnected hierarchical micro/nano pore
structures. The unique pore structure on the side
around the monolith carbon allowed the occurrence of
side evaporation and the input of environmental en-
ergy, thus enhancing a high υ of 4.16 kg·m−2·h−1 at
one sun illumination (Fig. 8d).
The above natural structures have their own ad-
vantages and disadvantages. After proper modifica-
tion of the material, its photothermal conversion per-
formance can be greatly improved. In particular, the
preparation of porous carbon materials by carboniza-
tion of biomass can improve surface chemical proper-
ties, microstructure, wettability and light absorption,
so as to achieve more efficient evaporation of upper
water. It can be seen that SIVG technology provides a
sustainable solution for clean water production
through seawater desalination and wastewater purific-
ation. Excellent photothermal conversion efficiency
can be achieved by using the porous structure of car-
bon materials and the interface evaporation device.
Build an interface system for solar-driven water evap-
oration, and improve thermal insulation effect of the
interface system to achieve high evaporation effi-
ciency. For another thing, this method also provides
tremendous potential for steam or power generation.
Water collection devices based on solar photothermal
conversion systems usually involve sundry physical
phenomena during operation, namely local high tem-
perature, local high salt concentration, vapor genera-
tion, and condensate flow. These phenomena are con-
· 1009 ·
ducive to the SIVG system using solar energy to
achieve multi-functional uses, namely power genera-
tion, thermal insulation, thermal dissipation, and va-
por condensation, thereby promoting the synergistic
enhancement of SIVG system for vapor and electri-
city generation.
4 Solar-driven vapor/electric co-genera-
tion systems
Water and electricity are 2 valuable resources
closely related to social development. Some advanced
technologies using solar energy as energy source have
been explored for power generation by photovoltaic,
photochemical, and photothermal processes[89–90].
With the rapid development of SIVG technologies, an
innovative integrated solar hybrid system[28,91–93],
which combines electric generation with water-vapor
phase transition for the co-production of electric and
water, is considered as a potential route to resolve the
freshwater and energy scarcity. The existence of solar
evaporation-induced temperature/salinity gradients
between the evaporation region and water body is
used to produce electricity via thermoelectric, thermo-
electrochemical, or salinity gradient effects[94]. Thanks
to the concurrent production of energy and freshwater,
the overall efficiency of energy conversion could be
elevated in solar-driven vapor/electric co-generation
systems, shown as the following.
4.1 Thermoelectric system
The working principle of thermoelectric power
generation relies on the Seebeck effect[95]. That is,
when there is a temperature difference between the
two sides of different thermoelectric materials (n- and
p-type), the concentration of holes and electrons at the
hot-side will be higher than that at the cold-side. Driv-
en by the concentration difference, holes and elec-
trons spontaneously diffuse to the cold-side. In the
thermal equilibrium state, the temperature difference
between the hot-side and the cold-side determines the
generation of electric energy, and thermoelectric
devices utilize spatial temperature gradients to gener-
ate electrical energy. The operating temperature T and
thermoelectric figure of merit ZT determine the device
 · 1010 · 新 型 炭 材 料 （中英文） 第 38 卷

efficiency (ηte)[96–97]. The calculation formula is as fol- maximum output power density of 11.39 W·m−2 un-
lows: der single solar illumination. Zhao’s group[100] created
√
Th − Tc 1 + ZT − 1 a 2D GONR-M paper, through the ring-opening and
ηte = √ (16)
Th Tc crosslinking reaction of graphene oxide nanoribbon
1 + ZT +
Th
paper (GONR) mediated by alkaline earth metal ions
σα2 T
ZT = (17) (M = Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ or Ba2+). The integration of
κ
where, σ represents the conductivity, α represents GONR with M produced a unique structure, showing
the Seebeck coefficient, TC and Th are the temperature excellent full-spectrum solar absorption, mechanical
of the cold-side and the hot-side, respectively, and κ is stability, and high hydrophilicity, resulting in the
the thermal conductivity . [98] GONR-M paper continuously produce clean water
The thermoelectric module can collect the low- from seawater with a η of ～ 91.5% under one stand-
grade heat loss during the evaporation of interfacial ard solar intensity. The υ of seawater was as high as
water through the Seebeck effect to realize the conver- 1.36 kg·m−2·h−1, revealing the feasibility of the materi-
sion of heat energy to electric energy. At the same al in actual seawater desalination. The simultaneous
time, it can also be used as a thermal insulator of the evaporation power generation device was composed
evaporation device for promoting the evaporation pro- of independent flexible GONR-M and thermoelectric
cess. The feasibility of synergistic SIVG and thermo- modules (Fig. 9b). The output power density of the
electric power generation is further demonstrated. system was about 0.11 W·m−2 under 1 kW·m−2 solar
Miao’s group[99] designed a thermoelectric-freshwater illumination, reflecting the synergistic effect of solar
cogeneration device composed of thermoelectric gen- evaporation and sustainable power generation.
erator (TEG) and starch-polyacrylamide (S-PAM) hy- 4.2 Thermo-electrochemical system
drogel (Fig. 9a). Owing to the use of scavenging en- The solar photothermal-electrochemical system
ergy, the TEG-based hybrid co-generator yielded a is a new type device that combines photothermal con-

(a) (b)

Evaporative latent heat Reusing

is unused waste
heat

Heat dissipates in the Utizing

bulk water eva poratve
latent heat

Eliminating
conductive
heat
The cold side heat loss
dissipates in the air

1 kW m−2
2 kW m−2
3 kW m−2
4 kW m−2
5 kW m−2

1250
I-V No BM No water P-V No BM No water I-V BM water P-V BM water 1114.4
I-V BM No water P-V BM No water I-V BM hydrogel-SP3 P-V BM hydrogel-SP3
1 kW m−2 1000
2 kW m−2
765.4 3 kW m−2
Power/μW

750
4 kW m−2

500
4 kW m−2 369.1
3 kW m−2 250
2 kW m−2 172.3
1 kW m−2
0

Fig. 9 (a) Schematic diagrams of the cogenerator based on TEG for electricity and water[99] (Reprinted with permission by The Royal Society of Chemistry,
Copyright 2022). (b) Performance of simultaneous desalination power generation device based on GONRs-M paper[100]
(Reprinted with permission by Royal Society of Chemistry, Copyright 2013)
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······ · 1011 ·
version with electrochemical energy conversion and where, R represents the gas constant, z represents the
storage. The device converts thermal energy into elec- ionic charge, κ is the thermal conductivity, Dlim de-
trical energy though temperature-dependent redox notes the diffusion coefficient, and c is the electrolyte
couple electrolyte and electrodes[101–103]. Redox reac- concentration[101].
tions occur on both the anode and cathode, and a tem- Solar photothermal-electrochemical devices
perature gradient is generated on the electrodes. The provide a series of new ideas for low-cost realization
reaction substances between the electrodes produce of solar cogeneration. Deng’s group[104] reported a
convection and migration transmission through the thermo-electrochemical cell (TEC) that improved
electrolyte, generating continuous current in the electrochemical performance by photothermal evapor-
thermal battery, thereby establishing a closed cycle re- ation (Fig. 10a). The cell used graphite felt as an elec-
action. In the redox A + ne− ↔ B, the Seebeck coeffi- trode material and solar-absorbing material, and I3−/I−
cient (S) is calculated as follows: as the redox electron. Under sun light, the potential
∆V ∆S B.A difference between the 2 pairs of electrodes was gen-
S= = (18)
∆T nF erated by the temperature gradient. During the thermal
where, V represents the voltage, n represents the num- process, the top graphite felt acted as a solar absorber
ber of electrons involved in the reaction, F denotes the to convert solar energy into heat energy, greatly in-
Faraday constant, ∆SB.A is the reaction entropy of elec- creasing the evaporation rate of TEC. Under 1.0 solar
trolyte. illumination, the maximum output power density
The cell performance can be expressed as: reached 1.3 mW·m−2, and the evaporation rate reached
( )
z2 F 2 S 2 Dlim c 1.1 kg·m−2·h−1, realizing the good integration of water
ZT ∗ = (19)
R κ evaporation and electrochemical power generation.

(a) (b)
One sun
Evaporation Convection Hydrothermal
rGO layer treatment Freeze-drying
35 °C +radiation
Graphite felt
Insulator
Graphite felt Graphite felt PET film Rice straw Suspension Aerogel
e− e− e−
Insulator Insulator

Electrolyte Conduction 1
80 Ω

Conduction 2
r Collect wire
α-CD
α-CD-F3 Fe (CN)4-4 Fe (CN)3-4
−
Graphite felt e− e e−
Graphite felt Graphite felt
25 °C
1.5
1.4 45 Hot side AE-H2.5
With TEC 8
Under one sun 0 AE-H2.5-foam
1.2 No illumination Without TEC 1.2
Power density/(mW/m2)
Current density/(A/m2)
Mass change/(kg/m2)

40
Temperature/°C

1.0 −0.1 6
Power/(mW/m2)

0.9
0.8 AE-H2.5
−0.2 35
AE-H2.5-foam 4
0.6 Cold side 0.6
−0.3 30
0.4
0.3 2
0.2 −0.4
25
0
−0.5 0 0
100 101 102 103 104 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 1 2 3 0 5 10 15 20 25
Resistance/Ω Time/min Time/h Voltage/mV

(c) CNT
2.0 1.5 Copt=1
Vapor
Power/(W m−2)

6 1.5 0.6
1.0 1.0
Nafion V
Water 0.5
supply 6
Power/(W m−2)

llluminated 24 h
Current/(mA cm−2)

0.5
Current/(mA cm−2)

AglAgCl 4 0.4
4
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Copt 2
Light absorber 2 0.2
CNT paper
0
Brine 0 40 80
AglAgCl AglAgCl
Voltage/mV
Seawater 0 0
Ion selective 0 40 80 0 6 12 18 24
membrane Voltage/mV Time/h

Fig. 10 Schematic diagrams of (a) an open TEC enabled by interfacial evaporation[104] (Reprinted with permission by Royal Society of Chemistry,
Copyright 2013), (b) preparation of straw fiber aerogel and power-voltage curve of the TEC[105] (Reprinted with permission by the Hong Kong Polytechnic
University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd., Copyright 2022), and (c) the hybrid system for solar salinity power extraction[109]
(Reprinted with permission by Royal Society of Chemistry, Copyright 2008)
 · 1012 · 新 型 炭 材
Xu’s group[105] designed a TEC device, which com-
posed of straw fiber aerogel, reduced graphite oxide
(rGO) photothermal layer, and Fe(CN)63−/4− redox
couple for collecting solar radiation heat and releas-
ing latent heat in SIVG devices (Fig. 10b). As an effi-
cient light absorption material, rGO nanosheets ad-
hered to bamboo paper by using agarose. The solar
absorption capacity of the prepared photothermal film
was > 90%. Furthermore, a sustainable temperature
difference can be maintained between the electrodes,
and the output power density of the designed TEC
reached up to 6.94 mW·m−2 under the light intensity
of 1 kW·m−2.
4.3 Salinity power system
Salinity gradient power is derived from the dif-
ference of the chemical potential between seawater
and freshwater or between 2 kinds of seawater with
different salinity. Salinity gradient energy is a green
energy with the largest energy density in ocean en-
ergy. The so-called “blue energy” is obtained during
the blending of seawater and fresh water. Theoretic-
ally, the Gibbs free energy ΔGmix can be used to calcu-
late the maximum work released in the mixing pro-
cess. The energy difference per unit volume of mix-
ing is calculated as follows:
[ ]
∆Gmix = RT cm ln (cm ) − χcS ln (cs ) − (1 − χ) cr ln (cr ) (20)
where, χ is the volume fraction of seawater, cm is the
concentration of mixed solution, cs represents the con-
centration of seawater, and cr represents the concen-
tration of river water[106–107]. In practical processes, the
useful work per unit is always less than ΔGmix due to
the inevitable generation of entropy[106,108]. Zhou’s
group[109] proposed a multifunctional photothermal
device by using a CNT modified hydrophilic filter pa-
per as a photothermal device. Meanwhile, a commer-
cial Nafion membrane was selected as an ion select-
ive membrane (Fig. 10c). Under one sun irradiation,
solar-driven seawater desalination with the η of 75%
and salinity gradient-induced power output about 1
W·m2 can be simultaneously achieved. Therefore, the
difference of ion concentration in the process of solar
seawater desalination was used to realize the conver-
sion of light, heat, and electricity. The power genera-
料 （中英文） 第 38 卷
tion principle of this device was different from that of
traditional photovoltaic (PV) cells, which promoted
the utilization of solar energy.
5 Conclusion and outlook
To sum up, this review provides a summary of
the current status and progresses of carbon-based ma-
terials in the subject of interfacial solar-driven vapor
and electricity generation. According to classification
of carbon species, some impressive progresses have
been summarized in the research of carbon-based
PTMs, which may have reference and guiding signi-
ficance for the design of new high-performance SIVG
systems. Meanwhile, according to the electricity gen-
eration mechanisms, various emerging carbon-based
water/electricity co-generators are discussed, paving
avenues for highly efficient solar evaporation applica-
tions.
Although some advanced researches have been
conducted, more extensive systematic investigation is
still needed to provide a reliable experimental and the-
oretical basis for the design of high-performance prac-
tical CPTMs, for simultaneous steam and electricity
generation. On the basis of the preliminary research in
this field, the challenges that need to be solved and the
corresponding strategies are proposed.
(1) Theoretical guidance
Although many strategies have been proposed for
improving the photothermal conversion performance
of carbon-based materials, there is still a lack of in-
depth understanding of the relationship between ma-
terial/structural engineering and the energy transfer
and flow of SIVG systems. The interactions of SIVG
including heat transfer, water transport, and vapor dif-
fusion may be synergistically influenced by specific
designs. In particular, it is difficult to quantify and
track the system energy in the energy conversion pro-
cess, when it exists in different forms of multifunc-
tional CPTMs and their interfacial water evaporation
performance patterns. Further understanding of the
energy flow of the system is beneficial not only to op-
timizing thermal management and evaporation effi-
ciency, but also to designing practical applications. In
 第6期 QIU Zi-han et al: Carbon-based photothermal materials for the simultaneous generation of······
addition, water transport and vapor diffusion are
mainly dependent on the porous structure of the solar
water evaporator. However, it is not yet clear how
these behaviors are affected by pore size, curvature,
partitioning, and distribution, and more comprehens-
ive theoretical and experimental validation is needed.
By introducing computer-aided simulations into SIVG
systems, standard theoretical models can be de-
veloped to elucidate the constitutive relationships
between water/heat transport and the composition and
structure of materials in SIVG systems, which can be
used to understand and predict the performance of in-
dividual components and even entire systems, and to
provide theoretical guidance for material preparation
and assembly.
(2) Experimental practice
The development of SIVG technology is still in
the laboratory stage. In practical applications, there is
still a large gap between the photothermal conversion
efficiency and water collection efficiency as one side
and their theoretical values as the other side. There-
fore, in order to ensure the highest possible rate of wa-
ter evaporation and stability of the system, the devel-
opment of new carbon matrix composites and new
structural design is essential. Different photothermal
conversion capabilities depend on not only various
types of PTMs, but also the different morphologies
and structures of the same material. Mimicking the
natural structures of organism can provide a new idea
for the structural design of solar evaporators. The con-
struction of efficient steam production structure, salt
deposition resistance structure and water condensa-
tion structure is expected to realize the continuous
practical application of SIVG technology. The coup-
ling of material properties and unique structures can
achieve synergistic advantages, while the coordina-
tion of material innovation and system-level engineer-
ing is also conductive to promoting the practical ap-
plication of SIVG purification technology.
In terms of the prospects for solar-driven
vapor/electric co-generation systems, despite intens-
ive efforts have been made to explore the feasibility of
co-generation of vapor and electricity in SIVG sys-
· 1013 ·
tem, elevating the clean water flux and power density
at the same time is still a great challenge. A few prom-
ising initiatives are proposed as follows: (1) develop-
ing and employing highly efficient CPTMs for light
harvesting, (2) optimizing comprehensive manage-
ment of thermal and mass transfer for reduction of
non-essential energy loss in coupled systems, (3) con-
structing co-generator of water and electricity net-
work for scaling up the system either in dimensions or
in quantity, and series and parallel devices for the im-
provement of open-circuit voltage and the short-cir-
cuit current, respectively, and (4) coupling with
photovoltaic technology or solar-concentrator for en-
hancing the integral energy input.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support
from projects funded by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (22179017 and 52172038), the
National Key Research and Development Program of
China (2022YFB4101600, 2022YFB4101601) and the
assistance of DUT Instrumental Analysis Centre.
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碳基光热材料用于同时产生蒸汽和发电
邱子涵1,†， 赵冠宇1,†， 孙 洋2， 王旭珍1,*， 赵宗彬2， 邱介山3
（1. 大连理工大学 化学学院, 辽宁省能源材料化工重点实验室, 辽宁 大连 116024；
2. 大连理工大学 化工学院, 辽宁省能源材料化工重点实验室, 辽宁 大连 116024；
3. 北京化工大学 化学工程学院, 化工资源有效利用国家重点实验室, 北京 100029）

摘 要： 太阳能驱动的界面水蒸发 (SIVG) 技术是一种新兴的淡水生产技术，具有低能耗、环保、高效等优点。碳基光热

材料 (CPTMs) 因其优异的光热转换性能，可以在 SIVG 过程中引入温度和盐度梯度，为 SIVG 系统中蒸汽和电力的产生提
供巨大的潜力。本文综述了用于清洁水和发电的各类 CPTMs 的研究进展。在阐述 SIVG 的基本原理和关键评价指标的基础
上，重点评述了包括氧化石墨烯、碳纳米管、碳点和炭化生物质材料在内的各种 CPTMs 的光热和 SIVG 性能，并对水电联
产的研究现状进行了分析，提出了应对挑战的策略，旨在为用于同时产生蒸汽和发电的多功能碳基光热材料的发展提供一
些指导。
关键词： 光热材料；碳基材料；太阳能驱动的界面水蒸发；水电联产
中图分类号： TK51 文献标识码： A

通讯作者：王旭珍，教授. E-mail：xzwang@dlut.edu.cn
作者简介：†邱子涵和†赵冠宇为共同第一作者
本文的电子版全文由 Elsevier 出版社在 ScienceDirect 上出版（https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/new-carbon-materials/）