INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL/MODULE

Engineering Data Analysis

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 MODULE 1

Definition of Statistical Concepts

and Principles

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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To understand the basic concepts

used in statistics and to analyze the
basic terms in probability.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Probability is a chance of something will happen.

Definition 1: The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical

experiment is called the sample space and is represented by the
symbol S. Each outcome in a sample space is called an element, or a
member of the sample space, or simply a sample point.
If a sample space has a finite number of elements, we may list the
members separated by commas and enclosed in braces. Thus, the
sample space S, of possible outcomes when a die is tossed may be
written

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Probability
Probability is the likelihood or chance of an event occurring.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

For example, the probability of flipping a coin and it being heads is

½, because there is 1 way of getting a head and the total number of
possible outcomes is 2 (a head or tail).
We write P(heads) = ½ .

The probability of something which is certain to happen is 1.

The probability of something which is impossible to happen is 0.
The probability of something not happening is 1 minus the
probability that it will happen.

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 Terms

Experiment – is used to describe any process that generates a set of

data

Event – consists of a set of possible outcomes of a probability

experiment. Can be one outcome or more than one outcome.

Simple event – an event with one outcome.

Compound event – an event with more than one outcome.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Example 1: Consider an experiment

of flipping a coin, what are the
possible outcomes?
S = {H,T}

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Example 2: Suppose that three items are selected at random from a
manufacturing process. Each item is inspected and classified defective D, or
non-defective N. List the elements of the sample space.
S ={DDD,DDN,DND,DNN.NDD,NND,NDN,NNN}
D
D
D N D
N
D N
D
N DN
N
8
N
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 Basic Concepts of Probability

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
In Figure 2.1, the sample space is represented by the rectangle and the events by the circles inside the rectangle.
The events A and B (in a to c) and A, B and C (in d and e) are all subsets of the
sample space S

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Sample Space and Relationships among Events

Sample space is the set of all possible outcomes or

results of a random experiment.
Sample space is represented by letter S. Each outcome
in the sample space is called an
element of that set. An event is the subset of this sample
space and it is represented by
letter E. This can be illustrated in a Venn Diagram.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Difference between Sample Space and Events
As discussed in the beginning sample space is set of all possible
outcomes of an
experiment and event is the subset of sample space. Let us try to
understand this with
few examples. What happens when we toss a coin thrice? If a coin is
tossed three times
we get following combinations,
HHH, HHT, HTH,THH, TTH, THT, HTT and TTT
All these are the outcomes of the experiment of tossing a coin three
times. Hence,
we can say the sample space is the set given by,
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH,THH, TTH, THT, HTT, TTT}

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Difference between Sample Space and Events

Now, suppose the event be the set of outcomes in which there are only two heads.
The outcomes in which we have only two heads are HHT, HTH and THH hence the event
is given by,
E = {HHT, HTH, THH}
We can clearly see that each element of set E is in set S, so E is a subset of S.
There can be more than one event. In this case, we can have an event as getting only
one tail or event of getting only one head. If we have more than one event we can
represent these events by E1, E2, E3 etc. We can have more than one event for a Sample
space but there will be one and only one Sample space for an Event.
If we have Events
E1, E2, E3, …… En as all the possible subset of sample space then we have,
S = E1 ∪ E2 ∪ E3 ∪ …….∪ En

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
We can understand this with the help of a simple example. Consider an
experiment of
rolling a dice. We have sample space,
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Now if we have Event E1 as getting odd number as outcome and E2 as getting
even number as outcome for this experiment then we can represent E1 and E2 as
the following set,
E1 = {1, 3, 5}
E2 = {2, 4, 6}

So we have

{1, 3, 5} ∪ {2, 4, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Or S = E1 ∪ E2
Hence, we can say union of Events E1 and E2 is S

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Null space – is a subset of the sample space that contains no elements and is
denoted
by the symbol Ø. It is also called empty space.

Operations with Events

Intersection of events
The intersection of two events A and B is denoted by the symbol A ∩ B. It is the
event containing all elements that are common to A and B.
For example,
Let A = {3,6,9,12,15} and B = {1,3,5,8,12,15,17}; then A ∩ B = {3,12,15}
Let X = {q, w, e, r, t,} and Y = {a, s, d, f}; then X ∩ Y = Ø, since X and Y have no
elements in common.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Intersection of two given sets is the largest set which contains all the
elements that are common to both the sets.
To find the intersection of two given sets A and B is a set which
consists of all the elements which are common to both A and B.
The symbol for denoting intersection of sets is ‘∩‘.
For example:
Let set A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and set B = {3, 5, 7, 9}

In this two sets, the elements 3 and 5 are common. The set
containing these common elements i.e., {3, 5} is the intersection of
set A and B.
The symbol used for the intersection of two sets is ‘∩‘.
Therefore, symbolically, we write intersection of the two sets A and B
is A ∩ B which means A intersection B.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Mutually Exclusive Events
We can say that an event is mutually exclusive if they have no elements in
common.
This is illustrated in Figure 2.1 (b) where we can see that A ∩ B = Ø.

Let V = {a,e,i,o,u) and C = {l,r,s,t} then it follows that V∩C =Ф,

that is, if A and B have no elements in common.

Two events A and B are mutually exclusive, or disjoint, if A∩B = Ф, that is, if A and B
have no elements in common.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Union of Events
The union of events A and B is the event containing all the elements that belong
to A or to B or to both and is denoted by the symbol A ∪ B. The elements A ∪ B
maybe listed or defined by the rule A ∪ B = { x | x ε A or x ε B}.
For example,
Let A = {a,e,i,o,u} and B = {b,c,d,e,f}; then A ∪ B = {a,b,c,d,e,f,i,o,u}
Let X = {1,2,3,4} and Y = {3,4,5,6}; then A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

Example: Let P be the event that an employee selected at random from an oil drilling
company smokes cigarettes. Let Q be the event that the employee selected drinks alcoholic
beverages. Then the event PUQ is the set of all employees who either drink or smoke or do
both.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Compliment of an Event
The complement of an event A with respect to S is the set of all elements of S that
are not in A and is denoted by A’.
The shaded region in Figure 2.1 (e) shows (A ∩ C)’.
For example,
Consider the sample space S = {dog, cow, bird, snake, pig}
Let A = {dog, bird, pig}; then A’ = {cow, snake}

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

A B
1. Determine the following: 2
a)A U C 7 6
b) B’∩A 1
4 3
c) A∩B∩C
d) (AUB)∩C’
5

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 Intersection and Union

► Therefor, Union of the sets A and B , denoted A ∪ B

, is the set of all objects that are a member of A , or
B , or both. The union of {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3, 4} is the
set {1, 2, 3, 4} . Intersection of the sets A and B ,
denoted A ∩ B , is the set of all objects that are
members of both A and B .

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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 1 : If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for each
of these ways a second operation can be performed in n2 ways, then the
two operations can be performed together in n1n2 ways.
Example: How many sample points are there in the sample space when a
pair of dice is thrown once? N1=6, n2=6 6(6) = 36 samples
Example: A developer of a new subdivision offers prospective home
buyers a choice of Tudor, Rustic, Colonial and Traditional exterior styling
in ranch, two-story, and split level floor plans. In how many different ways
can a buyer order one of these homes?
N1= 4, n2= 3 4(3) = 12 ways
Example: If a 22-member club needs to elect a chair and a treasurer,
how many different ways can these two to be elected?
N1 = 22, N2 = 21 22(21) = 462 ways
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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 2: If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for
each of these a second operation can be performed in n2 ways, and for
each of the first two a third operation can be performed in n3 ways,
and so forth, then the sequence of k operations can be performed in
n1n2...nk ways.
Example: Sam is going to assemble a computer by himself. He has
the choice of chips from two brands, a hard drive from four, memory
from three, and an accessory bundle from five local stores. How
many different ways can Sam order the parts? 2(4)(3)(5) = 120 ways
Example: A drug for the relief of asthma can be purchased from 5
different manufacturers in liquid, tablet, or capsule form, all of which
come in regular and extra strength. How many different ways can a
doctor prescribe the drug for a patient suffering from asthma?
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5(3)(2) = 30 ways
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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 3: A permutation is an arrangement of
all or part of a set of objects. The number of
permutation of n objects is n!
A permutation is a word that describes the
number of ways things can be ordered or
arranged. With permutations, the order of the
arrangement matters.

Example: In how many ways can 5 examinees be

lined up to go inside the testing centers? 5! = 120
ways
Example: In how many ways can four dating
reviewees be seated in the review center without
restriction? 8! = 40320 ways
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 Counting Sample Points

Theorem 4: The number of permutations of n

distinct objects taken r at a time is

Example: In one year, three awards (research,

teaching and service) will be given to a class of 25
graduate students in a statistics department. If each
student can receive at most one award, how many
possible selections are there? N = 25, r = 3
25P3 = 13800 ways

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 Counting Sample Points

Theorem 5: The number of permutations of n

object arranged in a circle is (n-1)! Permutation
that occur by arranging objects in a circle are
called circular permutations.
Example: In how many ways can 6 students be
seated in a round dining table? (6-1)! = 120 ways

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 Counting Sample Points

Theorem 6: The number of distinct permutations of

n things of which n1 are of one kind, n2 of a second
kind,..., nk of a kth kind is

Example: In a college football training session, the

defensive coordinator needs to have 10 players
standing in a row. Among these 10 players, there are
1 freshman, 2 sophomores, 4 juniors and 3 seniors.
How many different ways can they be arranged in a
row if only their class level will be distinguished?
10!/(1!x2!x4!x3!) = 12600 ways
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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 7: The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into
r cells with n1 elements in the first cell, n2 elements in the second, and
so forth, is

Example: In how many ways can 7 graduate students be assigned to 1

triple and 2 double hotel rooms during a conference?
7!/(3!x2!x2!) = 210 ways

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 Counting Sample Points

Theorem 8: The number of combinations of n

distinct objects taken r at a time is

In a combination, the elements of the subset can be

listed in any order

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 Counting Sample Points

Example: How many ways are there to select

3 applicants from 8 equally qualified CIE’s for
a Capacity Planner position in a
Semiconductor company.

8!/3!(8-3)! = 56 WAYS
8C3 = 56 ways

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 Probability of an Event

The probability of an event A is the sum of the weights of all sample

points in A. Therefore,

P(Ф) = 0P(S) = 1

Furthermore, if A1,A2,A3,... is a sequence of mutually exclusive

events, then
P(A1UA2UA3) = P(A1) + P(A2) + P(A3) + ...

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 Probability of an Event
Example: A coin is tossed twice. What is the probability that at least
1 head occurs? S = {HH,HT,TH,TT} = ¼ + ¼ + ¼ = ¾ = 0.75 = 75%
Example: A die is loaded in such a way that an even number is twice
as likely to occur as an odd number. If E is the event that a number
less than 4 occurs on a single toss of the die, find P(E).
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}{2,4,6}
E = {1,2,3} P(E) = 1/9 + 2/9+1/9 = 4/9 = 0.44 = 44%
Theorem 9: If an experiment can result in any of N different equally
likely outcomes, and if exactly n of these outcomes correspond to
event A, then the probability of event A is

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 Probability of an Event

Example: A statistics class for engineers consists of 25 industrial, 10

mechanical, 10 electrical and 8 civil engineering students. If a person
is randomly selected by the instructor to answer a question, find the
probability that the student chosen is (a) an industrial engineering
major (b) a civil engineering or an electrical engineering major.
N = 25+10+10+8 = 53
a.P(IE) = 25/53 = 0.47

b.P(CE or EE) = 8/53 + 10/53 = 18/53 = 0.34

If or = addition
If and = multiplication
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 Probability of an Event
Exercise:
1.The manager of the store wishes to create a four digit pin for his employees, How many
different cards can be made if she uses the digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and repetitions are
permitted? If repetitions are not permitted?
A. 6(6)(6)(60 = 1296 ways b. 6(5)(4)(3) = 360 ways
2.In a beauty pageant, there are six finalists. How many ways can three winners be selected?
6P3 = 120 ways
3.The letters in the word COMMITTEE can be arranged in how many ways?
9!/1!x1!x1!x2!x2!x2! = 45360 ways
4.From a standard deck of cards, how many 5-card hands will have 2 queens and 3 aces?
4C2 x 4C3 = 24 ways
5.From 6 biologist and 7 chemists, a committee of 3 biologists and 3 chemists is to be
formed. How many committees can be formed if one particular biologist cannot be on the
committee? 7C3 x 5C3 = 350 ways

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