VBE Note

PTU/BOS/AE/101/20-12-2007/Batch 2005
AE – 304 VEHICLE BODY ENGINEERING

Introduction
Classification of automobiles on different basis. Types of vehicle bodies.
Car body details
Types: Saloon, convertibles, Limousine, Estate Van, racing and sports car,etc. Car body construction types –
frame and unitary (monocoque). Various body panels and their constructional details. Methods of improving
space in cars.
Bus body details
Types: Mini bus, single and double decker, two level, split level and articulated bus, Bus body lay out, Floor
height, Engine location, Entrance and exit location, Seating dimensions, Constructional details: Frame
construction, Double skin construction, Types of metal section used, Regulations, Conventional and integral type
construction.
Commercial vehicle details
Types of commercial vehicles. Commercial vehicle body details, flat platform, drop side, fixed side, tipper body,
tanker body, tractor trailer.
Body loads
Idealized structure, structural surface, shear panel method, symmetric and asymmetric vertical loads in a car,
longitudinal load, and different loading situations.
Body materials, trim and mechanisms
Steel sheet, timber, plastic, GRP, properties of materials, Corrosion, Anticorrosion methods, Scalation of paint
and painting process, Body trim items, Body mechanisms.
Safety:
Safety aspects in vehicle bodies. Safety equipments for cars – Anti roll bars, Roll over bar, Collapsible steering,
multistage bumpers, side impact beams in doors, collision crumple zones. Seat belts, Air bags, Bucket seats with
headrest. Laminated/toughened glasses. Anti jamming door locks. Fibre fuel tanks.
Testing the vehicle bodies for the safety.
Special Purpose vehicle details
Various types, Needs and constructional details - Fire station vehicle: tankers, pumping vehicles, ladder vehicle;
Concrete mixer transport vehicles; Ambulance; Towing vehicle; Road trains. Off road vehicles.
Vehicle aerodynamics
Objectives - Vehicle drag and types -various types of forces and moments - Effects of forces and moments - Side
wind effects on forces and moments - Various body optimization techniques for minimum drag – Wind tunnel
testing: Flow visualization techniques, Scale model testing, Component balance to measure forces and
moments.
Ergonomics
Man machine system, anthropometry data, and anthropometric considerations in the design of seat, controls and
displays, gear lever, steering wheel, foot controls, etc. Dimensions of driver's seat in relation to controls. Visibility:
regulations, driver's visibility, tests for visibility, methods of improving visibility in vehicles. Effect of Noise,
vibration and heat, on human body and their control, Driver Cab design
Text Book:
1. Braithwaite.J.B., " Vehicle Body building and drawing ", Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London,
2. Sydney F. Page, “Body Engineering”, Chapman & Hill Ltd., London,
3. Dieter Anselm, “The Passenger Car Body” SAE Store
4. Jason C Brown, “Motor Vehicle Structures”, SAE Store
5. J Fairbrother, “Fundamentals of Vehicle Body work”, Hutchinson, London.
6. John Fenton, “Handbook of Automotive Body and Systems Design”, Wiley.
7. J Powloski, “Vehicle Body Engineering”, Business Books Ltd., London.
8. Aerodynamics of Road vehicles by Hucho W H, Butterworths Co Ltd
9. Automotive Aerodynamics by Brian Peacock and W Karwowski, Taylor and Francis Ltd, London
10. Noise and vibration in road vehicles by Mathew Harrison, SAE store
11. Vehicle Noise and Vibration; Recent Engg developments, SAE store
29
CHAPTER – 1 CAR BODY DETAIL
CAR BODY –:
The main purpose of the body work is to provide comfortable accomodation for
the driver and passangers, with suitable protection against wind and weather. The
degree of comfort provided will naturally depend upon type of car and its cost.
Car body is very important part of the vehicle and it complete the vehicle .
CAR BODY TYPES -:
SALOON -:
A fully enclosed body which is typicalyly able to carry four or more people. Saloon
cars gernally have either two or four passanger doors. The common shape of
body shell is based on three ‘boxes’; the front box forms the engine
compartment, the centre section for container for the occupants or passangers
and the rear box for a storage space and it is known as boot or trunk for the
luggage. The three box are blended together to give a pleasing appaerance and
are shaped to enable the car to move through the air with the minimum drag.
Saloon is the British name of Sedan it is also known as the three box car . In
a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in
separate compartments for engine, passenger and boot . A sedan seats four or
more people and has a fixed roof that is full-height up to the rear window.
Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 01

Types of sedan - :
1. Notch Back Sedan .

2. Fastback Sedan .
3. Hardtop Sedan .
4. Hatch Back Sedan.
5. Chauffeured Sedans
1. Notch Back Sedan - A notchback sedan is a three-box sedan, where the

passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle
(when seen from the side). The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to
the ground, the rear window at a sharp angle to the roof, and the trunk lid
is also parallel to the ground. Example of notchback car is Swift Dzire,
Mahindra verito , Chevrolet sail.
1962 Chevrolet Impala, Maruti Suzuki swift Dzire
2. Fast Back Sedan - A fastback sedan is a two-box sedan, with continuous

slope from the roof to the base of the decklid, but excludes
the hatchback feature. Marketingterminology is often misleading in this
area - for example, Daimler AG calls the Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class sedan
a four-door coupé because its semi-fastback design tries to give the
impression of a coupé. Certain sedans are edging close to being one-

box vehicles, where the windshield is steeply raked from the hood/bonnet
and the rear window slopes toward almost the end of the car, leaving just a
short rear deck that is part of the trunk lid - the 2006 4-door JDM Honda
Civic is an example of this. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline
changes from the roof to the rear deck. Their steeply raked rear windows
end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead,
their rear ends are tall - sometimes in a Kammback style - to increase trunk
space.
1941 Plymouth fastback sedan
3. Hardtop sedan- In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around

the door windows, while the hardtop has frameless door glass. A
true hardtop sedan design also has no center or "B" pillar for roof support
behind the front doors).[2] This pillarless body style offers greater
visibility.[3] However, it requires extra underbody strengthening for
structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately (i.e., a
vehicle can be simply called a four-door hardtop), or it can be called a
hardtop sedan. During the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often
sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were
among the top selling body styles. During the 1980s, automakers in the U.S.
focused on removing weight and increasing strength, and their new four-

door sedans with B-pillars were called pillared hardtops or pillared sedans.
The sport sedan term has since been appropriated for other uses. In Japan
the hardtop design was used for several luxury-type sedans during the
1990s.
1958Ambassador hardtop sedan
4. Hatch back sedan - Hatchback (a.k.a. liftback) sedans typically have

the fastback profile, but instead of a trunk lid, the entire back of the vehicle
lifts up (using a liftgate or hatch). A vehicle with four passenger doors and a
liftgate at the rear can be called a four-door hatchback, four-door
hatchback sedan, or five-door sedan. An example of such is the Chevrolet
Malibu Maxx and Audi A5 Sportback. There can also be two-door hatchback
sedans (three-door sedans), by the same technical explanation for two-
door sedans. Examples of this design are the Volkswagen Golf,
and Chevrolet Chevette & Maruti Suzuki Swift , Toyota Liva .
Chevrolet Malibu Maxx Toyota Etios Liva

5. Chauffeured Sedan - Strictly speaking limousine sedans have a separate
compartment for the driver and the passenger compartment is long enough
to contain at least two comfortable, forward-facing bench seats. Vehicles
used for these means are usually Lincoln Town Car, Cadillac, Mercedes,
or Rolls-Royce or Maybachfor the more wealthy. The term limousine can
refer to a large sedan, especially if hired from a service. Chauffeured
limousines are primarily used by individuals for weddings, businesses for
meetings, as well as for airport and sightseeing
transportation. Chauffeurs are professional drivers, usually with experience
in the transportation industry or tourism industry. Chauffeured sedans are
owned either by private owners, livery services, or corporations. Large
corporations as well as governments commonly provide luxury sedans to
top executives, as well as VIP guests. Chauffeured sedans, such as the
Lincoln Town Car, may also be stretched into limousines that are capable of
seating up to twenty people.
Lincoln town car I chauffeured
Convertabiles -:
Also called a cabriolet or drop head coupe , this car can be changed into an oepn
car by either removimg a rigid roof or lowring a collaspsble fabric roof . Prior to
the intro duction of air conditioning this type of car is widely used in hot cuntries .
Many modern convertables have want is effectively a rigid roof that can be
collased and stored in a relativelly small compartment behind the seats. Such

example often make use of electric motors or other mechanism to fold and hide
away the roof.
A convertible is a type of automobile of various automobile body styles that

can convert from open-air mode to a provisional enclosed (roofed) mode.
Contemporary roofs are often hinged to fold away, either into a recess behind the
rear seats or into the boot or trunk of the vehicle. The roof may operate either
manually or automatically via hydraulic or electrical actuators, and the roof itself
may be constructed of soft or rigid material. Soft-tops are made of vinyl, canvas
or other textile material, while hard-tops are made of steel, aluminum, plastic or
other rigid materials.
Convertibles may also be called drop top, rag top, roadster, cabriolet or cabrio.
Hard-top convertibles may be called coupé cabriolet, coupé
convertible, retractable hardtop or, when equipped with two seats, coupé
roadster/roadster coupé.
. CONVERTIBLES TYPE CARS

1. Flexible or rigid roofs – Roof designs vary widely, but a few characteristics are
common to all convertibles. Roofs are affixed to the body of the vehicle and
are usually not detachable. Instead the roof is hinged and folds away, either
into a recess behind the rear seats or into the boot or trunk of the vehicle. The
roof may operate either manually or automatically via hydraulic or electrical
actuators; the roof itself may be constructed of soft or rigid material. Soft-tops
are made of vinyl, canvas or other textile material; hard-top convertibles have
roofs made from steel, aluminium, carbon fibre or plastic materials.
2. Folding textile roof - The collapsible textile roof section (of cloth or vinyl)
over an articulated folding frame may include linings such as a sound-
deadening layer or interior cosmetic headliner (to hide the frame) – or both –
and may have electrical or electro-hydraulic mechanisms for raising the roof.
The erected top secures to the windshield frame header with manual latches,
semi-manual latches, or fully automatic latches. The folded convertible top is
called the stack.
3. Cons - Convertibles offer the flexibility of an open top in trade for:
 Potentially reduced safety.

 Poor break-in protection.
 Deterioration and shrinkage of the sun-exposed textile fabric over time.
 Problems with trunk floor pan rust-through due to leakage of a poorly
maintained top.
 A heavier vehicle and higher curb weight due to additional structure required
to restore both torsion and flexure stiffness normally provided by a metal roof
and (in some cases) door window frames, and additional weight from
motorized mechanisms (where provided). Body-on-frame styles usually
included an entire X-brace within the conventional ladder frame.
 A narrower rear seat due to space required by the folded side rails.
 Rear visibility deterioration if a plastic rear window is used.
 Diminished rear visibility, from a large roof structure, small rear window, or
obstructed rear window – or all of these: e.g., Mini convertible
.
4. Tonneau covers - Folding textile convertible tops often do not hide completely
the mechanism of the folded top or can expose the vulnerable underside of

the folded top to sun exposure and fading – in which case
[[Tonneau|tonneau] covers of various designs snap or secure into place to
protect the folded roof and hide the mechanicals. Detachable foldable, rigid
or semi-rigid covers require space-consuming storage inside the vehicle – and
sometimes complicated installation from outside the stationary vehicle.
Foldable vinyl and cloth covers can be prone to shrinkage, further
complicating installation
MG TD with Tonneau cover
Evolution of the tonneau cover
 The tonneau of a car is the rear part of an open car, usually passenger seats,
other times just a luggage well. A tonneau cover protects that area when not
in use. The tonneau cover may also extend over the folded roof and an unused
front passenger seat and further extend over the entire passenger
compartment particularly for an open car without side-weather-protection
(windows sliding down into the doors). It then provides complete weather
protection for the entire passenger compartment and some sense of security
to the owner.
 The MKI (first generation) MGB (1963) roadster could be supplied with a
foldable vinyl tonneau cover, often supported by a light detachable tube
installed to span behind the seats, the cover being attached to the car with a
series of twenty press fit snaps. The standard cover was a permanent vinyl or
cloth roof or convertible top – fixed to a relatively complex manually erected

convertible frame. Weather-proof erection required the use of those same
snaps from outside the car if a tonneau cover had just been removed.
 Convertibles such as the Chrysler LeBaron (c. 1988) used sleeve and groove
systems to anchor a foldable vinyl tonneau cover, again installed manually
from outside the car. Later textile convertibles used semi-rigid plastic tonneau
covers, e.g., the first generation Audi TT and Cadillac Allanté.
 Convertibles such as the fifth generation of the Cadillac Eldorado featured a

detachable two-part, fully rigid, manually installed tonneau sufficiently strong
to support a seated person – also known as a parade boot.
 Convertibles such as the second generation Mercedes SL popularized the

integral manually operated self-storing rigid tonneau cover – in its case
accompanied by a separate removable hardtop. In either case, the design
required manual operation from outside the stationary vehicle.
 Convertibles such as the first Porsche Boxster,[4] Toyota MR2 and third-
generation Mazda MX5 (NC) featured Z-fold (aka zig-zag fold[4]) tops, whereby
the exterior of the neatly retracted fabric roof also protected the remaining
roof from sun exposure – eliminating the aesthetic or protective need for a
tonneau cover.
 Convertibles such as the second-generation Ford Thunderbird (1958)

convertible and the fourth-generation Mercedes SL popularized the complex
electro-hydraulic roof mechanism that automatically secured the folded top
under a rigid tonneau – button activated by a seated driver – and later more
routinely available on convertibles such as the Volvo C70, Chrysler
Sebring andMitsubishi Eclipse Spyder.
 The contemporary retractable hardtop convertible such as the BMW E93 3-

series include tonneau covers that "self-store" the roof assembly.
5. Convertible windows - Side windows non-existent in open cars which may

have detachable side screens, are manually or power operated glass side
windows as in a saloon or sedan. Rear-windows have evolved similarly, with
plastic rear-windows appearing as late as the first generation Porsche Boxster.

Contemporary convertibles and retractable hardtops feature heatable
glass rear windows to maximize visibility – though rear windows often can
compromise visibility by their size, as with the case of the very small rear
window and restricted visibility of the Mitsubishi Eclipse Spyder. Plastic
windows can degrade, fade, yellow and crack over time, diminishing visibility.
6. Retractable hardtop roof - A retractable hardtop, also known as coupé

convertible or coupé cabriolet, is a type of convertible that forgoes a folding
textile roof in favor of an automatically operated, multi-part, self-
storing hardtop where the rigid roof sections are opaque, translucent or
independently operable. The first retractable hardtop was from France when
in 1934 Peugeot introduced the 601 Éclipse, designed by Georges Paulin. The
retractable hardtop solves some issues with the soft-top convertible, but has
its own compromises, namely mechanical complexity, expense and more
often than not, reduced luggage capacity
Peugeot 402 with retractable hardtop Volvo c70 with retractable hardtop
Construction - Retractable hardtops can vary in material (steel, plastic or

aluminum), can vary from two to five in the number of rigid sections and often
rely on complex dual-hinged trunk (British: boot) lids that enable the trunk lid to
both receive the retracting top from the front and also receive parcels or luggage
from the rear – along with complex trunk divider mechanisms to prevent loading
of luggage that would conflict with the operation of the0 hardtop.

Limousine -:
Any of various large passenger vehicles, especially a luxurious automobile usually

driven by a chauffeur and sometimes having a partition separating the passenger
compartment from the driver's seat. A van or small bus used to carry passengers
on a regular route, as between an airport and a downtown area.
Limousine
Estate Van -:
The Estae body is also known as the a station wagon in some countries has the
roof line extended to the rear of the body to inlarge its internal capacity. Folding
the rear seats down gives a large floor area for a carriage of luggage or goods . A
tailgates rear doors inables bulky or long object to loaded easily . Stronger
suspension spring are fitted at the rear to support the extra load. Estate van is
multipurpose vehicle wich is used for the two different types of purpose for
passenger and also for loading a vehicle . example of the estate van is maruti
Suzuki Omani, Maruti Suzuki varsha, Nissan Evalia, Tempo travel etc

Hatchback -:
The hatchback design are gernally used on a saloon body but with boot or trunk
area are blended into the centre section of the body. The hatchback is there fore
halfway between a saloon and a estae car. This type of car is also known as the
two box car and this type of car is very popular due to its versatility and style.
Mainly the hatchback is that car in which the pasanger and the boot space are
joint that are known as hatchback car. Such example of hatchback car are- Maruti
suzuki 800, Maruti Alto , Hyundayi - i10,i20 .

Racing and sports cars –:
Racing and sports car both are haaving different types of body . A race car is only
used for going round a track, and the sports car can be a turned up ordinary
saloon or a two seater car with the lots of performance. Such examples of racing
cars and sports cars are – formula1 is the example of racing cars and the Jaguar
XKR-SGT, Ferrari LaFerrari, Porsche 911 GT3 etc.
An automotive equipped for racing especially an aerodynamically shaped one or

two passangers sitting capacity and the vehicle having a low centre of gravity
and steering and suspension designed for precise control at high speed.
Formula 1 racing car Ferrari sports car
Car body construction types – frame and unitary (monocoque)
Mainly two types of body construction –
1. Chassis or frame
2. Chassis less or unitary construction
1. Chassis or frame – The components parts of a vehicle need a structure of

some kind on to which they can be attached. Medium to heavy commercial

vehicles use a rectangular steel frame made up of two long side members
which are linked togetherby number of cross members. The assembly
without the body is called chassis and the frame alon the chassis frame. Up
until the mid – 1950s, most light cars were also constructed using a chassis
onto which the body was mounted .
2. Chassis less or unitary construction – The chassis-less structure is mutch

lighter than the separate chassis construction , so is now the normal
method of construction for light vehicles. The chassis less system is often
referred to as a unitary or monocoque construction.
The unitary construction system uses a specially designed
body shell on which all of transmission system, suspension and engine are
mounted. The shell itself must therefore be able to withstand the various
loads of the components and stress that occur when the car is in use.
Various Body Panels and construction details –
Body panels – A panel is a steel or plastic sheet stamped or molded into a body
parts. Various panels are used in a vehicle. Usually, the name of panel is self –
explanatory; hood panel, fender panel , trunk lid panel or roof panel.
Construction – During manufacturing , these complexly contoured panels are

stamped out of sheet metal using a huge multiton, drop forger. The gaint
machine crush the thin flat sheet metal in die machined to match the shape of
diesigned body panel. Body panels usually have compound curves formed in them
to increase stiffness. With unibody construction , these panels are welded
together to form the uni body frame at vehicle assembly plant.

CHAPTER – 3 BUS BODY DETAIL
TYPES OF BUS BODIES
MINIBUSES – :
A Minibus gernally define as a motor vehicle with more than 8 and not more than
16 passanger seats . They are often based on the van bodies and have been
adapted by specialist coach-bilding firms, although some manufacturers produce
builts vehicles . The controls are usually simillar to those on cars.
Mini buses is a small buses and it is mainly used for the carrrying the passangers
and mini buses also uses for ambulances also.
Mini bus
A next generation approach to the van-derived or cutaway chassis approach, is

for manufacturers to produce an integral design, where the whole vehicle is
purposely designed and built for use as a minibus. This is usually done by an
integral bus manufacturer, although large automotive groups also produce their

own models. These designs are often available in long high capacity versions, and
may attract different designations, such as midibus, or light bus.
Examples of purpose built minibuses are:
 Hino Liesse
 Isuzu Journey
 MCW Metrorider (also termed a midibus)
 Nissan Diesel RN
 Nissan Civilian
 Mitsubishi Fuso Rosa
 Toyota Coaster
 Hyundai County
 Tata winger
These are the some examples of the minibuses and the minibuses is that type of
buses which are small in size as compare to other.
Single & double decker buses -:
SINGLE DECKER -
A single-decker bus or single-decker is a bus that has a single deck for passengers.
Normally the use of the term single-decker refers to a standard two-axled rigid
bus, in direct contrast to the use of the term double-decker bus, which is
essentially a bus with two passengers decks and a staircase. These types of single-
deckers may feature one or more doors, and varying internal combustion
engine positions.
In regions where double-deckers are not common, the term single-decker may
lack common usage, as in one sense, all other main types of bus have a single
deck. Also, the term may become synonymous with the name transit bus or
related terms, which can correctly be applied to double-deckers too.
With the exception of regions of major double deck or articulated bus operation,
usually urban areas, the single decker is the standard mode ofpublic transport bus
travel, increasingly with low floor features.
With their origins in van chassis, minibuses are not usually considered single-
deckers, although modern minibus designs blur this distinction.Midibuses can also

be regarded as both included with and separate from standard single-deckers, in
terms of full size length and vehicle weights, although again design developments
have seen this distinction blurred. Some coach style buses that do not have
underfloor luggage space can also be correctly termed as single-deckers, with
some sharing standard bus chassis designs, such as the Volvo B10M, with a
different body style applied.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
 Dennis Falcon
 Dennis Lance
 Leyland-MCW Olympic
 Leyland-MCW Olympian
 Leyland National
 Leyland Lynx
 Mercedes-Benz O305
 Mercedes-Benz O405
 Mercedes-Benz Citaro
 Volvo B7R
 Volvo B7L
 Volvo B7RLE
 Volvo B10R
 Volvo B10B
 Volvo B10L
 Volvo B10BLE
 Volvo B10M

DOUBLE DECKER - the double decker is that type of body which have two floors.
something with two decks, tiers, or the like, as two beds one above the other, a s
hip with two decksabove the water line, or a bus with two decks.

Double Decker
A double-decker bus is a bus that has two storeys or decks. Red double-decker buses are used for
mass transit in London. Double-decker buses are also used in other cities in Europe, Asia, and
former British colonies and protectorates such as Hong Kong and Singapore.
Almost all double-deckers have a single, rigid chassis.

Articulated bus
An articulated bus (either a motor bus or trolleybus) is an articulated vehicle used in public
transportation. It is usually a single-deckdesign, and comprises two rigid sections linked by a pivoting
joint. This arrangement allows a longer legal overall length than single-deckerrigid-bodied buses, and
hence a higher passenger capacity, while still allowing the bus to maneuver adequately on the roads of its
service route.
Around the English-speaking world, articulated buses have acquired several different synonyms that
allude to their articulated design, such as bendy buses, bending buses, tandem buses, stretch
buses, double buses, banana buses, slinky buses, wiggle
[citation needed]
buses,caterpillar buses, accordion buses or vestibule buses . Due to their high
passenger capacity, articulated buses are often used as part of bus rapid transit schemes, and can
include mechanical guidance
Used almost exclusively on public transport bus services, articulated buses are approximately 18 metres
(59 ft) in length; standard rigid-construction buses are usually 11 to 14 metres (36 to 46 ft). The common
arrangement of an articulated bus is to have a forward section with two axles leading a rear section with a
single axle, with the driving axle mounted on either the front or the rear section. Some articulated bus
models have a steering arrangement on the rearmost axle which turns slightly in opposition to the front
steering axle, allowing the vehicle to negotiate turns in a crab-like fashion, similar to hook-and-ladder fire
[1]
trucks operating in city environments. A less common variant of the articulated bus is the bi-articulated

bus, where the vehicle has two trailer sections rather than one. Their capacity is around 200 persons, and
their length about 25 metres (82 ft).
Advantages and Disadvantages

The main benefits of an articulated bus over the double-decker bus are rapid simultaneous boarding and
disembarkation through more and larger doors, much larger passenger capacity (120+ versus 80−90),
increased stability arising from a lower centre of gravity, smaller frontal area gives less air resistance than
double decker buses thus better fuel efficiency, often a smaller turning radius, higher maximum service
speed, and improved accessibility for people with disabilities and the elderly.
One disadvantage that is sometimes experienced with some articulated models is the insufficiency of the
effective motive power available to them. It is common for articulated buses to use the same engine type
as non-articulated buses (for example, the Hungarian Ikarus 260 solo and IK 280 bendy share a common
10,350cubic centimetres (631.6 cu in), 192 brake horsepower (143 kW; 195 PS) inline six diesel engine).
The extra weight of the bendy bus gives rise to a slower speed and acceleration. When used in cities built
on numerous inclines (e.g. Vancouver, B.C. or San Francisco, California) the vehicle is prone to
overheating. This may lead to stalling, or in the worst situations to a full-fledged fire if the bus is powered
[citation needed]
by a diesel engine. During late 2003 and early 2004, a series of onboard fires on newly
delivered Mercedes-Benz Citaros led to Londoners humorously nicknaming the vehicles chariots of fire.
Mercedes-Benz quickly addressed the problem, although the vehicles were out of service for a
[3]
period. However, no overheating or fire-related incidents have ever been recorded in Vancouver's
articulated electric trolley buses from a similar cause. Vancouver's articulated trolley buses were
specifically chosen for the higher torque output of their electric motors, which typically outperform diesel-
based low-floor buses.
Use:-
Articulated buses have been used in most European countries for many years. Until 1980, they were
illegal on the UK's roads. A 1979 experiment bySouth Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive with
buses manufactured by MAN and Leyland-DAB led to a change in the law, but the experiment was
abandoned in 1981 because double-decker buses were generally considered less expensive both to
purchase and to operate. The cost and weight of the strengthened deck framing and staircase of a
double-decker was lower than the cost and weight of the additional axle(s) and coupling mechanism of an
articulated bus. Modern technology has reduced the weight disadvantage, and the benefits of a
continuous low floor allowing easier access plus additional entrance doors for smoother loading have led
to reconsideration of the use of articulated buses in the UK.
Articulated buses became popular in mainland Europe due to their increased capacity compared with
regular buses. In many cities, lower railway bridge clearances have precluded the use of double-deck
vehicles, which have never achieved great popularity there. Overhead wires for trams, trolleybuses etc.

are not really relevant issues, as the minimum normal clearance above road level is standard across the
EU and is well in excess of the height of a double-deck vehicle. (Otherwise many freight vehicles would
encounter severe problems in the course of normal operation.)
Bi-articulated buses
Main article: Bi-articulated bus
Since the late 1980s, the concept of the articulated bus has been extended further with the addition of a
second trailer section that extends the bus almost to tram length and capacity, to create abi-articulated
bus. The Chinese manufacturer Zhejiang Youngman (Jinhua Neoplan) has developed the 25 metres
(82 ft) JNP6280G bi-articulated bus, deemed the "world's largest", which will be used in Beijing. Bi-
articulated buses are still rare, having been trialled and rejected in some places. Because of their length
they have a role on very high-capacity routes, or as a component of abus rapid transit scheme.
Double-decker articulated buses
A 1992 (redesigned) Neoplan Jumbocruiser
A few attempts have been made to design a double-decker articulated bus. NEOPLAN Bus GmbH built a
handful of Neoplan Jumbocruisers between 1975 and 1992. In these models, only the upper deck allows
movement between the two sections, so each section has its own doors and set of stairs.

Types of buses
[1]
Articulated buses can be of "pusher" or "puller" configuration. In pusher buses, only the rear C-axle is
powered by a rear-mounted internal combustion engine, and the longitudinal stability of the vehicle is
maintained by active hydraulics mounted under the turntable. This modern system makes it possible to
build buses without steps and having low floors along their entire length, which simplifies access for
passengers with limited mobility.
In puller articulated buses, the engine is mounted under the floor between the front and middle A- and B-
axles, and only the B-axle is powered. Some consider this an outdated design, as it prohibits floor levels
lower than approximately 750 millimetres (30 in), and can produce passenger discomfort due to
high noiseand vibration levels. On the other hand, the puller bus is cheaper to manufacture, and can be
used in very narrow or severely potholed streets. This type of bus also performs better in snowy or icy
conditions, as the thrust from the driving wheels does not cause the vehicle to jacknife. Also, the
unpowered C-axle is much simpler and carries no engine weight, facilitating the installation of counter-
steering mechanisms to further decrease the turning radius
BUS BODY LAYOUT

SEATING DIMENSION
Most school buses have roughly 75 seats for students. As you know there is a
short bus, which has about 1/3 the capacity, and a medium bus.
Bus Manufacturing
Bus manufacturing had its earliest origins in carriage building. Other bus manufacturers had their origins
in truck manufacturing. Historically, bus chassis were shared between truck designs, but in later years
specific bus chassis have been developed, and the midibus saw the introduction of a lighter weight bus
chassis than normal trucks.
Bus manufacture historically developed as chassis and body builds. Often, large bus operators or
authorities would maintain separate stocks of bus bodies, and would routinely refurbish buses in a central
works, and refurbished chassis might receive a different body. One of the first integral type bus designs
combining the body and chassis was the Routemaster.

Types of construction
A Mercedes-Benz O405 integral bus
There are three basic types of bus manufacturer:
 Chassis manufacturer - builds the underframe in a body-on-frame type construction

 Body manufacturer - builds the coachwork a body-on-frame type construction
 Integral manufacturer - builds entire buses, often using no underframe at all
Manufacturers may also be a combination of the above, offering chassis only or integral buses, or offering
bodywork only as used on integral buses.
The splitting of body and chassis construction allows companies to specialise in two different fields. It also
allows differing offerings of product to customers, who might prefer different chassis/body combinations.
For the manufacturers, it lessens the exposure if one or the other goes out of business. Larger operators
may also split orders between different body/chassis combinations for shorter delivery schedules.
Sometimes, a chassis and body builder will offer an exclusive combination of one body on one chassis,
as a 'semi-integral'. This combines the expertise of the two companies, and saves the cost of making their
chassis/body usable on different products.
Often builders, such as Duple Metsec will assemble products into kits, for export and local assembly at a
partner site.
Large users of transit buses, such as public transport authorities, may specify specific features that a bus
design must feature. This practice was notable in the Transport for London bus specification, and
predecessors.

Chassis
A Volvo B10M chassis, bodied worldwide as a single decker bus,articulated bus, double decker bus, and coach
The chassis combines:
 A structural underframe
 Engine and radiator
 Gearbox and transmission
 Wheels, axles and suspension
 Dashboard and steering wheel and driver's seat
Chassis will often be built as complete units, up to the point of being drive-able around the factory, or on
the public highway to a nearby bodybuilder. The chassis can be front-engined, mid-engined, or rear-
engined. Most chassis will mount the radiator at the front, irrespective of engine position, for more
efficient cooling.
Chassis products will often be available in different standard lengths, even produced in articulated
variants, and often be used for both bus and coach bodywork, such as the Volvo B10M. The same
chassis may even be used for single- or double-decker bus bodywork. Chassis builders may also offer
different options for gearbox and engine suppliers. Chassis may also be built in multiple axle
configuration.

Bodywork
Interior of the Alexander ALX500bodywork as applied to the 3-axle Volvo Super Olympian
The bus body builder will build the body onto the chassis. This will involve major consideration of:
 Usage
 Seating capacity
 Staircase position/design (double-decker buses)
 Number and position of doors
Bodywork is built for three general uses:
 Bus
 Dual Purpose
 Coach
Bus bodywork is usually geared to short trips, with many transit bus features. Coach bodywork is for
longer distance trips, with luggage racks and under-floor lockers. Other facilities may include toilets and
televisions.
A dual purpose design is usually a bus body with upgraded coach style seating, for longer distance travel.
Some exclusive coach body designs can also be available to a basic dual purpose fitment.
In past double-deck designs, buses were built to a low bridge design, due to overall height restrictions.

General design issues
Bus manufacturers have to have consideration for some general issues common to body, chassis or
integral builders.
 Maximum weight (laden and unladen)

 Stability - often a tilt test pass is required
 Maximum dimensions - length and width restrictions may apply
 Fuel consumption
 Emissions standards
 Accessibility
In the 1990s onwards, some bus manufacturers have moved towards making transit bus interiors more
comparable to private cars, to encourage public transport ridership. Other additions have seen multimedia
and passenger information systems, and CCTV systems. With these developments, bus designs have
been increasing in weight, which is a concern for operators with the rising price of fuels in the 2000s
(decade)
Double skin construction

DOuble skin because it has to carry a long and heavy roof also for insulation purposes. So for strength
and insulation. Usually sheet steel metal.

Fig. 4.101. A) traditional spider with fabric soft top; B) spider–coupe with rotating
top; C) spider/cabrio with retractable hard top.
The delivery specifications for the hard top are similar to those for the soft
top without, of course, top cloth testing.
4.10 Commercial Vehicle and Trucks

Large and small trucks, articulated lorries, vans and pick-ups belong to this
family of vehicles. They can carry a rear open or closed cargo area, and the
smallest vehicles in the family be derived from car platforms.
4.10.1 Articulated Vehicles

These vehicles comprise a tractor , featuring a frame, a cabin, a power train,
driving wheels and a turntable hitch or fifth wheel, where a semi-trailer coupling
pin or king pin is linked; the semi-trailer includes a complete chassis with wheels
and brakes, carrying containers of various sizes. Articulated lorries can be multi-
trailers (Fig. 4.102).
The tractor can have 2,3 or 4 axles, whereas trailers can have from 2 to 3,4
and more.
Regarding the body, the cabin, chassis frame and closed cargo vans are exam-
ined below.
Cabin
We will refer to a semitrailer cabin as a unitized construction made of stamped
sheets; this clarification is needed because some manufacturers (for instance,
Notes By Sandeep Sivia (1181591, AE) 30

Fig. 4.102. Example of articulated vehicle: A) tractor; B) semi-trailer; C) trailer.
ASTRA) are used to construct the cabin with a tubular steel space frame com-
pleted by bonded fiberglass panels.
Moreover, it must be remembered that a cabin is pneumatically suspended
and can tilt forward thanks to two front fitted hinges and two rear lifters.
Cabin assembly (Fig. 4.103) includes 5 main sub-assemblies:
A) floor assy;
B) back panel assy;
C) windshield frame;
D) RH and LH side frame.
It can be observed that the cabin assembly does not include the roof panel,
because it is usually made in three sizes fiberglass, then bonded to the cabin
assembly.
The windshield frame (Fig. 4.104) is related to the front cabin style, by outer
windshield pillar RH and LH (1) and cowl top (2); windshield header (3), header
boxing (5) and reinforcement (4) are assembled as front roof cross member.
RH body side (Fig. 4.105) can be split in two sub-assemblies: a front door
opening frame and a rear frame (rear cabin pillar) that is connected to the floor
and back panel assembly; upper outer panel (6) boxes upper side frame and
defines side cabin style.
Fig. 4.106 shows the complete set of RH floor rail parts, where the main
member is the longitudinal floor rail. The RH side floor provides support for the
passengers feet, while the floor reinforcement carries four threaded plates for the
seat frame fittings. Some brackets shown in the figure stiffen the floor rail where
the front cabin support is connected.
Fig. 4.107 shows the 6 cabin versions designed for the reference truck, with
their basic dimensions (width and length); instead the height can be chosen
across a range of values. Modularity is achieved in the following way:
• The door opening assembly is standard, therefore body side assembly and
doors are the same for all versions (Fig. 4.105).

Fig. 4.103. Stamped sheet main sub-assemblies of a truck cabin: A) floor assembly;
B) back panel assembly; C) windshield frame; D) RH and LH side frame.
• The engine compartment cover (central floor panel, as in Fig. 4.103) is unique
as well as floor rails.
• The windshield frame has standard pillar outer panels, while cross members
relate to cabin width.
• Cross elements, back panel assy and front cabin assy, are related to width.
• Different cabin lengths are obtained by adding cross floor panels relating to
width and additional rail extension. Moreover, the rear side pillar is replaced
by side stiffened panels, and assembled to the door opening and back panel.
Chassis
The chassis configuration is nominally ladder shaped, with two main longitudinal
rails (usually constant cross section for small trucks and variable section for
heavy duty semitrailers) and a number of cross members (Fig. 4.108).
The chassis rails and cross member can be steel cold or hot rolled or aluminum
extruded profiles, welded in the case of tapered section. Rails and cross members
can be joined using arc or spot welding, fasteners, bolts, screws. The assembling
technology used is often not related just to engineering or design analysis but to
the available plant facilities and common practice of the manufacturer. It should

Fig. 4.104. Example of stamped elements for a truck windshield frame: 1) pillar outer;
2) top cowl; 3) windshield header; 4) header reinforcement; 5) header boxing.
be borne in mind that arc welding seams, mainly those between aluminum pro-
files, must be certified with x-ray images and 100% process parameters control.
Trucks specifications
The following list summarizes the most common specifications for these vehicles,
according to commercial vehicles targets.
• Modal analysis of complete body: identification of resonance frequencies and

associated torsion, bending and mixed vibration modes.
• Chassis acceleration measurement in vehicle mission targeted tracks and fol-
lowing frame fatigue test by bench three-axial loading: during durability test-
ing, the cabin and suspended masses are missing.
• Chassis vertical acceleration in road targeted driving and following excitation
in a climatic chamber, together with temperature cycling between –30◦C and
+ 80◦ C, to verify cabin and trimming durability.
• Cabin frame resonances; resulting seats and steering wheel vibrations.
• Strength and deflection of roof composite panel under snow and concentrated
mass load.
• Stiffness and strength of frame extensions, insert, reinforcement and rear pillar
panel under concentrated load.
• Durability test of step sides, front fender and fender extension: verification of
resistance to concentrated load and insert strength.

Fig. 4.105. Sheet stamped elements of a truck cabin side frame: 1) RH outer side
frame; 2) RH inner side frame; 3) outer rear pillar; 4) rear pillar boxing; 5) rear pillar
reinforcement; 6) RH upper side outer panel.
Fig. 4.106. Sheet stamped elements of a cabin RH floor: 1) RH side floor; 2) RH floor
reinforcement; 3) RH rail; 4) RH rail extension; 5) RH rail front end brace; 6) RH rail
rear end bracket.

Fig. 4.107. Range of cabins assembled from modules of different length and width.
Fig. 4.108. Example of semi-trailer chassis with tapered section rails.

• Structural test on hood and front grille (local load resistance, insert pull-out
loads, durability of gas lift anchorages and operation cycling).
• Aerodynamics add-on devices characterization.
• Test on roof trap-door (durability, effraction load, operation torque on opening

handle, emergency device effectiveness).
• Strength test of transported cargo hooks and durability of luggage clamping

devices (according to DIN 75410).
• Allowed noise level inside cabin.
• Fatigue strength of steering wheel (in torsion and bending), steering wheel
adjustment device, steering column and handbrake assy mounting devices.
• Cabin door stiffness in all directions.
• Stiffness and fatigue resistance of sliding door in operation and slamming

cycles.
• Performance and durability of door hinges, door brakes, door handle and roof
handle.
• Performance and fatigue resistance of composite materials auxiliary doors and

cabin console.
Of course, the body should also comply with all relevant regulations imposed
in the country of the customer (regarding safety, visibility, etc.).
4.10.2 Pick-Up
These vehicles result from the union of a cabin for 2÷5 passengers (usually a
derivation from a sedan or a SUV) with a rear bed for cargo (mostly open top
with additional textile cover but sometimes sold in version closed by a hard
cover).
A pick-up body relates principally to the reference vehicle frame: if based on
a automobile platform, the underbody is not sufficiently stiff and strong to allow
a complete separation of cabin and rear bed. Therefore an integral body side is
needed incorporating the rear bed; this type is also called coupe utility pickup.
If derived from a SUV or an off-road vehicle, usually the cabin and rear bed can
behave as independent self supporting assemblies mounted on a common chassis.
The cabin can have 2 or 4 doors and short or long bed matching different
chassis frame lengths.
The structural design of the cabin to bed union is the most critical detail of
such vehicles, both in the case of integral and split body sides. In the first, the
discontinuity of section and stiffness between the cabin and rear bed are the

Fig. 4.109. Details of a pick-up or commercial cabin shielding frame, to protect the
back cabin panel from forward freight motion.
most common cause of fatigue cracks on paved tracks; it is therefore necessary

to avoid small radii and sharp stiffness change from boxed to open sections.
In the other case, due to lack in synergism of cabin and bed, the body stiffness
in the interface region is conferred to the chassis frame, usually consisting in
longitudinal rails and cross members and therefore the local stress is higher in
this region.
As concerns the specifications and design criteria, the cabin has the same
target as the reference vehicles, while the beds are similar to commercial vehicles
and therefore have the following characteristic specifications:
• safety and stability of freight: for this purpose, the cabin back includes ad-
equate trusses and shielding frames (Fig. 4.109) whereas the bed includes a
number of hooks for goods clamping (Fig. 4.110);
• safety for other road users: side and rear protection bars are provided for this
purpose (Fig. 4.111);
• warping and bending resistance of bed side walls and tailgate;
• absence of road noise, squeaks and rattles;
• resistance to environment-induced corrosion;

Fig. 4.110. Details of freight clamping devices in a pick-up bed: G) hooks; P) bed
floor; B) frame; SP) bed wall; CA) bed.
Fig. 4.111. Examples of side (A) and rear (B) protection for other road users. CA)
pick-up bed; AU) chassis; BA) side protection bar; BP) rear protection bar; LB) un-
derbody rail; G) ground.

Fig. 4.112. Map of bed walls supporting devices and typical section of rail and cross
member intersection. SP) side wall; CS) wall lock; CE) wall hinge; LO) platform rail;
TI) intermediate cross member; PC) frame; TA) wall stop bott; ST) outer brace for
platform fitting; PI) cantilever brace, one side zinc coated (cantilever side); ME) can-
tilever, one side zinc coated (interface with rail and brace); LS) upper rail, inner side
zinc coated; SE) diaphragm between rails, two sides zinc coated.
• resistance to electrochemical or galvanic corrosion, mainly depending on the

materials used for underbody, bed and fittings (Fig. 4.112);
• resistance to abrasion;
• fatigue resistance of rear bed to underbody fittings.
4.10.3 Commercial Vehicles, Vans

Vehicles belonging to this family are mid-sized vehicles in the range between
cars and trucks, usually featuring a unibody offering performance closer to cars
than to trucks.
The speed of these vehicles is similar to cars, while the cargo capacity and
large side/rear opening dimensions cause an overall stress condition which is
much more severe than in the automobile body. Underbody design is usually
ladder shaped, with longitudinal rails and cross members welded to the floor;
these parts are usually bent or rolled or stamped when required. The upper
frame includes a cabin (usually featuring a line of three seats) and a cargo
volume, separated from the cabin by a protection panel. The body side is made
from a drawn outer panel and inner members stamped or curved as rings in the
vertical plane, made from rolled or cut and bent steel sheets. The most critical
part of this assembly is the rear end frame, ring shaped and strongly boxed.
The roof, commonly stamped in steel, is welded to the body sides with con-
ventional automotive tools and stiffened by bows similar to cars. For some high

or raised roofs, due to the lower production rate, fiberglass hand lay-up or resin
transfer molding can be used instead of steel.
According to structural analysis, the most stressed areas of the body in these
vehicles are the shock absorbers to underbody attachments (mainly due to the
wide weight range of the transported goods which does not facilitate the op-
timization of shock absorbers setting), side door opening frame edges (due to
door dimension and square shape, for comfort loading) and tailgate opening
frame.
Another critical part is often the windshield glass, larger than in cars; the
windshield opening frame stiffness, uniformity of bonding adhesive seam, ade-
quate gap between body sheets and windhshield to avoid direct contact, are the
most effective options to increase glass reliability.
With reference to materials and technologies, this family of vehicles has a
more rapid rate of innovation and evolution than trucks and is more similar to
that of cars: competition is fierce and customers are usually very attentive with
respect to costs, insisting on added value provided by innovation. The annual
average distance travelled is typically much higher than for cars and therefore,
the durability of these vehicle must be higher than with automobiles; the renewal
rate is no longer than 3÷4 years. As a consequence, innovation transfer from
automobile to vans is frequent. In future more extensive use of aluminum in
these vehicles body can be expected: in fact, the increase of payload with the
same total weight due to a body weight reduction of 30% can quickly pay back
the higher purchase price of an aluminum van.
Commercial vehicles specifications

• Torsional stiffness between axles (target specified by vehicle manufacturer).
• Bending stiffness between axles (as above).
• Dent resistance of outer panels, due to manual push or forcing, to snow load
(hood and roof only) or to dynamic loads (hail, stones).
• Outer panel resistance to pumping (elastic instability under local pressure).
• Loaded cargo panels strength; absence of permanent deflection.
• Fatigue resistance of body and suspension, power train and auxiliary elements,
under a four post paved road excitation.
• Fatigue resistance of suspension and power train attachments in a bench sim-
ulated mixed track, including brake, acceleration, curve and road bump loads.
• Fatigue resistance of suspension and power train attachments to underbody
in a bench simulated urban track with heavy longitudinal stresses.
• Vertical elastic and permanent deflection of door, hinges and pillar system
under static loading.

• Modal analysis of elastically suspended body without movable parts, with the
purpose of finding torsion and bending, local and overall resonance frequen-
cies, to face risk of interaction with suspension resonance frequencies.
• Inertance measurements on body in white subsystems attachments and ver-
ification of transfer functions from road to cabin through wheels and body
frames.
• Static and fatigue resistance of tow device and related body attachments.
• Static and fatigue resistance of trailer tow hook, according to CEE 94/20
Directive.
• Static and fatigue strength of transport vehicle hooks and related body fitting
areas.
• Static and fatigue resistance of fuel filler flap and related fitting devices.
• Static and fatigue resistance of roof rack anchorages in a bench simulated
road track.
• Static door handles misuse and handles fitting strength.
• Hinges and door brakes resistance to strong wind blows.
• Door systems fatigue resistance to operation and slamming cycles.
• Static and fatigue resistance of all mechanical subsystems fittings (gear con-
trol, handbrake lever, steering column and gear, pedals housing).
• Static and fatigue strength of seats anchorage.
• Static and fatigue resistance of cargo clamps on body.
Of course, all existing safety regulations in the countries where the vehicles
are registered must be respected as well as ratings related to lock effraction and
insurance impact testing.

Because the front half of a light van is often identical, or
very similar to, the car from which the van is derived,
there is usually seating for the driver and a passenger.
Car-derived comfort systems can also be included in a
light van, such as air conditioning etc.
Medium-sized commercial vehicles
Larger vans or medium-sized commercial vehicles are
usually unrelated in general design to a passenger car.
Although the engine and transmission may be sourced
from a passenger vehicle, the structure and size of the
medium van is usually much larger than most
1.2.5 Light/medium commercial passenger cars and it is often the case that specially
vehicles designed or adapted engines are used. Since low cost
operation is an essential factor, most of these vehicles
Light to medium-sized commercial vehicles are used
are fitted with a diesel (compression-ignition) type
for the transportation of relatively light goods. They
engine.
are the type of vehicle used by tradesmen to carry their
The general construction of the medium sized van is
equipment or by shopkeepers to make local deliveries.
either a unitary construction or it may be constructed
Light commercial vehicles are, however, also used for
using a chassis onto which the body is attached.
long distance deliveries of light goods as well as for the
Manufacturers normally offer a number of different
more local use.
body shapes and sizes to suit the buyer’s needs. The
Although in the past a commercial vehicle that was
enclosed type of body may be offered in different
not classified as a ‘heavy goods vehicle’ was generally
lengths and heights (Figure 1.19). When a vehicle is
referred to as a light commercial, there is now such a
required for the transportation of bulky equipment (e.g.
wide range of commercial vehicles that there is
materials carried by builders and decorators) an open
justification in also using the term ‘medium commercial
body is often preferred. A light vehicle having this type
vehicle’.
of body is called a pick-up and an example of this type is
Light commercial vehicles (car derivatives) shown in Figure 1.20.
Smaller types of light commercial vehicle are usually
derived from a passenger car but with a different body
shape to provide increased carrying space. These
vehicles are usually called light vans and are typically
able to carry up to half a tonne in weight.
Many mechanical components and systems are
sourced directly from the car but note that components
such as clutches, braking systems and suspension units
are often uprated when they are used on commercial
versions; this ensures that the parts can withstand the
extra stresses. The loads carried by the van may exceed
the design limits of the car system, and although
stronger components can be used, it is also not
uncommon for the rear suspension system of the van to
be entirely different in design to that of the car.
Light vans may be fitted with a petrol engine but it is Figure 1.19 Medium-sized van
more common for a diesel engine to be specified by the
purchaser.
Figure 1.18 Car-derived light commercial vehicle (light van) Figure 1.20 Pick-up body mounted on a chassis

Suspension systems can be derived from car systems 4 × 4 recreational and executive vehicles
but due to the weights carried by the vans, they are This type of vehicle is generally regarded as having
more usually of a design specific to the vehicle. It is also originated in the early 1970s with the Range Rover, a
common for the rear axle to have twin wheels at each luxury version of the long established Land Rover.
side, again to better support heavy loads. The Land Rover had evolved from military
requirements of the 1930s and 1940s. It was a very
People carriers or mini-buses
spartan vehicle with four-wheel drive, intended for
The term mini-bus was traditionally used to describe
agricultural use and other applications where the four-
vehicles that carried up to 13 people including the
wheel drive system enabled excellent traction and grip
driver. In recent years, vehicles carrying from five to
on rough or loose surfaces.
eight people have usually been referred to as people
The Range Rover made use of the four-wheel drive
carriers, with the term mini-bus now referring only to
technology developed from the Land Rover, which was
larger passenger carriers.
still mounted on a traditional chassis frame. However, a
As is the case with light commercial vehicles, people
more luxurious body was mounted on the chassis and
carriers also fall into different categories. Many of the
the comfort levels within the Range Rover were more
recent, smaller sized people carriers are in fact a
like those of a luxury car than the Land Rover. The
passenger car platform onto which a different body
engines used in the Range Rover are also generally
shell has been attached. However, larger people carriers
much more powerful than those traditionally mounted
and mini-buses are more closely related to the medium-
in the Land Rover.
sized vans.
During the 1990s, many manufacturers launched
The larger people carriers are generally of unitary
competitors to the later versions of the Range Rover.
construction but with very little sourced from passenger
These competitors, along with the latest Range Rovers
cars, apart from possibly the engine and transmission.
are now very sophisticated vehicles that retain the four-
Mini-buses can be of unitary construction but as is the
wheel drive capability but are in effect luxury vehicles
case with the larger vans, chassis-based designs are also
in most cases. They are classed as being recreational
available.
vehicles and have the capability to go ‘off-road’.
Diesel engines are again a common feature of mini-
Construction of recreational vehicles is either based
buses and people carriers due to the fuel economy and
on a chassis frame with the body and mechanical
pulling power they offer.
systems attached to the chassis, or they are unitary in
construction. Engines are usually the same as (or
adaptations of) engines used in passenger cars, with
diesel engines becoming more popular.
Figure 1.22 A 4 × 4 recreational vehicle
1.2.6 Heavy goods vehicles, coaches

and buses
Heavy goods vehicles
Although this book concentrates mainly on light
vehicles, a review of some heavier vehicles is included
for comparison purposes.
Heavy commercial vehicles or trucks are in fact
Figure 1.21 Small and large people carriers generally referred to as heavy goods vehicles (HGVs).

For long-distance transportation of goods a truck is
used and these come in various shapes and sizes. A
heavy vehicle has a load-carrying capacity in excess of
about three tonnes. Note that some slightly lighter
trucks are produced which have similar construction to
the heavy vehicles but they have been built at a lower
weight for licensing reasons.
A large, flat platform is needed to carry larger and
heavier loads, and because this can generally only be
provided above wheel height, no special effort is made
to lower the chassis frame. The chassis frame usually
consists of two straight and deep side-members joined
by several cross-members. The frame supports the main
components of the vehicle as well as the platform that Figure 1.24 A three-axle – six-wheel HGV (note that the twin
forms the basis of the body. The driver sits in a cab at wheels on the rear axles are classed as a single wheel)
the front of the vehicle, with the engine either forward
of the driver or, in most cases on modern heavy
vehicles, the drivers cab is actually on top and slightly but not always, driven, but no provision is made for
forward of the engine. steering them. Eight-wheelers have two front axles
The engine is usually a large capacity diesel, often (steered but not driven), and two rear axles (driven but
making use of turbo charging. The main requirements not steered).
for the engine are an ability to produce high levels of HGVs are allowed to tow a trailer on which an
pulling power (generally referred to as torque), additional load can be carried. There is, in addition, a
reliability and low fuel consumption. type of vehicle that consists of two parts: a four- or six-
To carry heavy loads the rear wheels either have twin wheeled tractor unit (which does not itself carry any
tyres, fitted side-by-side, or special wide-section single load) to which is attached a semi-trailer having two or
tyres. Vehicles exceeding a certain total loaded weight are four wheels at its rear end. The tractor unit is attached
required to have six wheels carried on three axles, whilst to the semi-trailer by a special turntable coupling
even heavier vehicles are required to have eight wheels, (sometimes referred to as a fifth wheel). With this
two on each of four axles. These legal requirements are arrangement, the tractor supports some of the weight
laid down in Construction and Use Regulations drawn up carried by the semi-trailer.
by Parliament. They are constantly liable to revision, so The combination of tractor and semi-trailer is called
readers seeking further details of maximum permitted an articulated vehicle. The trailer has retractable wheels
weights and dimensions of vehicles are advised to consult on which its front end can be supported: this enables
the regulations currently in force. Figure 1.23 shows a the tractor to be uncoupled and used with another
four-wheeled truck. trailer while its former trailer is being loaded or
unloaded. An example of an articulated vehicle is
shown in Figure 1.25. Many haulage companies use
articulated vehicles, as this type of vehicle is capable of
carrying large and heavy loads over long distances.
Figure 1.23 A two-axle – four-wheel HGV
When six wheels are used, the two extra wheels may be
carried on an additional axle at the rear of the vehicle,
as shown in Figure 1.24. These extra wheels are usually, Figure 1.25 An articulated HGV

Buses (omnibuses)
These vehicles are designed to transport numbers of
passengers, up to about forty of whom may be carried
on a single floor or deck. Figure 1.26 shows a single-
decker bus, which has its entrance to the front, where
the driver can observe passengers boarding or alighting
from the vehicle. The doors are normally power-
operated by the driver to prevent passengers getting on
or off when the bus is moving.
In towns and cities there are usually short distances
between stops, and speed of loading and unloading
passengers is very important. The entrance to the bus is
about 300 mm above ground level, an easy step up
from the edge of the pavement. From this platform
another step up leads up to the deck of the bus.
To make room for the front entrance and to help
reduce the floor height, the engine and transmission are Figure 1.27 A double-decker bus
placed at the rear of the vehicle.
A double-decker bus capable of seating about sixty
of this arrangement is that the driver is unable to see
passengers is shown in Figure 1.27. Construction and
passengers getting on and off except with the aid of
Use Regulations stipulate a maximum height for the
mirrors, which do not give an adequate view of people
vehicle and a minimum ceiling height for both upper
on the platform or those running to catch the bus. By
and lower decks. This means that the floor of the lower
placing the platform at the front the driver can have a
deck must be fairly close to the ground; the engine and
direct view of passengers boarding and alighting, as in
transmission are once again situated at the rear of the
the case of the single-decker bus shown in Figure 1.26.
vehicle.
Exit doors can be placed in the centre of the bus which
In older designs of double-decker bus the entrance
permits the entry and exit of the passengers at the same
was placed to the rear of the vehicle, the disadvantage
time, allowing a shorter stop to pick up and drop off
passengers.
Coaches
Vehicles of this type are designed to carry between
thirty and forty passengers over fairly long distances in
greater comfort than is generally provided by buses.
Speed of loading and unloading is less important, but a
large amount of luggage space is required. Modern
coaches are used for many purposes and therefore the
design and specification to which the coach is built
varies from a low level to a high level, and can even
include a toilet. The entrance is either at the front or
behind the front wheels.
Some buses and coaches are made with the body
structure forming the main frame; although this is not
very common it has the advantage of reducing overall
Figure 1.26 A single-decker bus weight.
Figure 1.28 A coach

1.3 VEHICLE STRUCTURE
1.3.1 Requirements of the vehicle Safety

Although safety was not a major issue in the earlier
structure days of vehicle design, modern vehicles must pass many
Conflicting requirements stringent safety checks and consumers expect safety to
The structure of a vehicle has to fulfil a number of be a fundamental design consideration.
requirements, some of which have conflicting In the past vehicle structure relied to a large extent
objectives. As an example, a stronger structure would on strong materials to provide safety in accidents.
be able to withstand general use more reliably and also Modern vehicle structures rely on clever design to
provide a safer environment for the occupants. achieve better results. Some parts of the vehicle
However, stronger structures mean more weight and structure (especially the front sections) are designed to
expense for the materials, thereby representing a collapse or deform in accidents, thus absorbing some of
conflict for which designers and manufacturers must the impact forces. The centre section containing the
find a compromise. occupants is, however, designed to maintain its original
Compromises can be achieved more easily now than shape thus protecting the occupants from the injury
in the past due to the use of different materials than that would occur if the centre section collapsed.
were available at a realistic cost a few years ago. In this way modern designs achieve high levels of
Additionally, computer-aided design provides the safety protection with a much lower weight of materials
designer with greater capability to make structures than was the case with older vehicle designs.
stronger, lighter and less expensive.
However, there are some primary requirements that
a vehicle structure must satisfy and these are detailed
below.
Locating the vehicle systems

The prime purpose of a vehicle structure must be to
provide a location for all the necessary vehicle systems
and components such as the engine, suspension and Figure 1.29 Collapsible vehicle structure
transmission.
The purpose of the vehicle (passenger, HGV, etc.)
will dictate the size and weight of the vehicle systems
and components and therefore the structure will be Weight
designed accordingly. A small passenger vehicle All vehicles are now built with weight as a major
generally makes use of a lightweight unitary consideration. Apart from more weight usually meaning
construction (combined chassis frame and body) that is more material and therefore greater cost, heavier
able to locate the relatively light vehicle systems and vehicles require more power to achieve the required
components, and provide sufficient space for the performance. More power requires more fuel and this
occupants. However, heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) results in increased emissions. Emissions and fuel
usually have a very strong separate chassis frame to consumption are therefore a prime motivation to reduce
locate its heavier, bulkier vehicle systems and the weight of a vehicle.
components. There then needs to be a separate body to Reduced weight helps to reduce wear on
accommodate the driver and provide sufficient space to components such as tyres, but also all of the main
carry and protect the loads that will be carried. vehicle systems (e.g. engine, transmission and
suspension) will be under less stress and strain. If a
component or system is under less stress or strain, it too
Locating the occupants
can be made lighter. If all the vehicle systems can be
Passenger vehicles (cars) have another prime
made lighter, then the net result is lower build costs and
requirement, which is to provide sufficient space and
a further reduction in fuel consumption and emissions.
comfort for a driver and passengers. Irrespective of
whether the car is a two-seat or six-seat vehicle, there Aerodynamics and style
are some general requirements that nearly always apply, Most modern cars are built with an integral chassis
such as location of comfort systems (e.g. heating) and frame and body. With such a structure many of the load-
the need to provide safe and comfortable seating etc. bearing elements are likely also to be visible. Body
Luggage space is also required, the amount of space styling is obviously important if vehicle manufacturers
depending on the type of passenger vehicle. A sports car and designers are to achieve sales. However the body
is not normally expected to have as much luggage space styling must be achieved alongside the requirement to
as a large saloon car. maintain strength and safety.

● Lozenging, the term used when the rectangular
frame is pushed into a parallelogram shape as in
Figure 1.31c.
● Twisting due to a deflection at one corner of the
frame as in Figure 1.31d.
The body and frame must be as light as possible, yet
offer maximum resistance to these deflections.
Figure 1.31 a–d Distortion of a simple frame
Figure 1.30 Examples of an aerodynamic body and non- Frame sections

aerodynamic body The ideal frame section has a good resistance to
bending and torsional effects. The three main forms
Body style is also influenced by the need to achieve good shown in Figure 1.32 are in general use:
aerodynamics. An aerodynamic body shape requires less
● Channel
power to maintain any given speed, thereby helping to
● Tubular
reduce the amount of fuel used (especially at higher
● Box.
speeds) and also contributing towards improved
emission levels and performance. When a beam bends, the material is subjected to a
tensile and a compressive stress. Figure 1.33a shows the
top layers of the material being compressed, while the
1.3.2 Chassis frame construction bottom layers are extended. The mid-layer is not
subjected to tension or compression, and is known as
The chassis frame
the neutral axis. Some idea of the amount of stress can
Most modern cars do in fact combine the frame with the
be given by referring to the cross-section of the beam
body. This integral or unitary construction produces a
shown in Figure 1.33b; the length of each horizontal
stronger, lighter vehicle unit which is cheaper to
line represents the stress suffered by that layer.
produce when a large number of similar units are made.
From the above it will be seen that a slightly deeper
However, for heavier vehicle applications (such as
channel or box section can give the same resistance to
trucks) and some vehicles where limited numbers are
bending as a much heavier solid, rectangular section. In
produced, the chassis frame is a separate structural
a similar manner, the distance between the top
member to which the main components, such as the
compression member and the lower tension member is
engine, transmission and body, are attached, i.e. it
the main factor governing the strength of the tubular
forms the ‘skeleton’ of the vehicle.
frame shown in Figure 1.33c.
Whether in a car or a truck, a vehicle structure has
Whenever a hole has to be drilled in a chassis
to withstand various static and dynamic loads. The
member, either to reduce weight or to attach
deflections of a simple rectangular frame, consisting of
something, it should be positioned in a low-stress
two side-members connected together with two cross-
region, e.g. along the neutral axis.
members, are shown in Figure 1.31 These deflections
When a force is applied to the centre of a beam (see
are caused by the following forces:
Figure 1.33d) there is a tendency for the material to
1 The weight of the components and passengers gives break at its centre. This is because the stress is greatest
a bending action; this causes the frame to sag as in at this point, as shown in the diagram. In order to resist
Figure 1.31b. this stress, either the beam must have the same deep
2 Road shocks, caused by vehicle motion or impact section throughout its length, or a varying section of a
with an obstacle, produce two types of deflection in depth proportional to the stress suffered. The latter
the frame: design would be much lighter.

Figure 1.32 Frame sections
Figure 1.34 Frame for a light truck
Since the load at each point of the frame varies, a

Figure 1.33 a–d Effect of load on frame members reduction in weight can be achieved by either reducing
the depth of the channel, or having a series of holes
positioned along the neutral axis in the regions where
the load is not so great.
Frame design Lozenging of the frame is prevented by fitting gusset
Figure 1.34 shows a pictorial view of a frame suitable plates to reinforce the joins between the side- and cross-
for a light truck or minibus that uses a non-independent members, or by adding X–type (cruciform) bracing
suspension system. It consists of two channel-shaped between two or more of the cross members.
side-members, which are held apart by a series of cross- The frame shown in Figure 1.34 has a very poor
members. These are positioned at points of high stress resistance to torsion, so the body has to fulfil this role.
and are cold-riveted to the side-members. The depth of Often the body is not designed to resist these stresses,
the channel section must be sufficient to minimize and problems will therefore occur; these include
deflection. Most frames used on light vehicles are made movement between doors and pillars producing creaks
of low-carbon steel with a carbon content of during vehicle movement, broken windscreens and
0.15–0.25%. cracking of the body panels.

Body jigs for pressing integral bodies are very expensive, Most modern frames overcome this problem by
so it is common to use a separate chassis frame when the constructing the front and rear ends of the frame in a
production of a given model is on a fairly small scale. manner that allows them to absorb the main shock of
Since most cars constructed in this way have the impact. Body panels in the vicinity of these crumple
independent suspension, the frame needs to be zones are generally damaged beyond repair when they
extremely rigid at the points where the body and main suffer a substantial impact, but this is a small price to
components are attached. This is achieved by using box- pay for occupant safety.
section members welded together and suitably Figure 1.37 shows the principle of a frame designed
reinforced in the regions of high stress (Figure 1.35). to absorb the energy of front and rear end impacts.
Figure 1.35 A box section frame
A backbone frame, as shown in Figure 1.36, is an

alternative construction to the conventional rectangular
frame. This consists of two longitudinal, box-section
Figure 1.37 An energy-absorbing frame
members welded together at the centre and separated
at the front and rear so as to accommodate the main
components. A series of outrigger frame members are Frame repairs
welded to the spine to support the floor of the body. Whenever a vehicle has been involved in a major
collision, it is necessary to check its frame alignment. A
visual check generally reveals major misalignment, but
if this is not obvious a frame check will be required. This
is conducted as follows (also see Figure 1.38):
a Wheel base check Set the front wheels in the
straight-ahead position and check the wheel base on
each side.
b Alignment After checking to verify that the rear
wheels are parallel with each other, hold a cord or
Figure 1.36 A backbone-type frame straight edge against the rear wheel, then turn the
front wheel until it is parallel with the cord and note
the clearance (if any) between the wheel and cord.
This should be the same on both sides.
Energy-absorbing frame
c Plumb-line check Drop a plumb line from the
In the past it was considered that safety for the
outside of each fixed shackle of the spring to give
occupants of a car involved in a collision could be
eight chalk marks on the floor. Connect up the
improved by making the chassis frame very stiff. This is
points as shown; all diagonals should cross the
untrue because on impact a ‘tank-like’ structure subjects
centre line if the frame is correctly aligned.
the occupants to an extremely high deceleration. As a
result the forces acting on the human body as it smashes The tolerance for each check depends on the size of
into a hard surface are likely to cause death or serious frame, but 6 mm is often laid down as the maximum
injury. permissible deviation.
Figure 1.38 a–c Checking chassis alignment

The vehicle is normally placed on a vehicle jig (Figure development of the all-steel body made possible the
1.39), which is specifically designed to hold it when elimination of a separate frame. A suitably designed
carrying out these measurements. It is critical to ensure body shell was found capable of withstanding the
these measurements are accurate; any inaccuracy various frame stresses. This frameless or integral
during repair can affect the way the vehicle drives after arrangement gives a stiff, light construction, which is
the repairs have been carried out. Modern vehicle jigs particularly suitable for mass-produced vehicles, and
use laser measurement tools to ensure this accuracy is since the late 1940s and early 1950s nearly all light cars
achieved. have been built with this construction.
Frame straightening is carried out using jacks and Figure 1.40 shows some of the forces that act on a
chains, and is a specialized repair. Unless the frame has car body and the general manner in which the various
been heat-treated it is possible to heat the damaged body panels are arranged to form a unitary structure of
member to ease the straightening operation. sufficient strength to resist these forces.
Cracks can be repaired by welding, and when a The diagram shows that the weight of the occupants
reinforcement plate is fitted, it is advisable to taper the causes a sagging effect which is resisted by the floor and
end to avoid any sudden change in cross-sectional area. roof panels. Since these two members are widely
spaced, thin sheet metal can be used to form a box-like
structure that is both strong and light in weight.
1.3.3 Unitary/integral construction Torsional stiffness of the body is achieved by
strengthening the scuttle at the front and by using cross-
Frameless construction
ties, or fitting a ribbed metal panel behind the rear seat
In the previous section dealing with chassis frames, it
squab.
was stated that the body shell helps to resist the
The thickness of the material used depends on the
torsional movement of a simple frame, but defects in
stress taken by the panel. Structural members such as
the construction soon show up because the shell is not
sills, rails and pillars are often about 1.1 mm
designed to withstand these stresses. In the 1930s, the
(0.045 inch) thick, whereas panels such as the roof are
Figure 1.39 A vehicle mounted on a vehicle jig

Figure 1.40 Integral body construction

0.9 mm (0.035 inch) thick. Component attachment of this material means that structural members must be
points require reinforcement with thicker material, and stiffened by forming the thin steel sheet into intricate
in some cases a separate sub-frame is used to mount sections, and spot welding into position. Some idea of
such items as the engine and independent front the number of separate pressings can be gained by the
suspension (IFS) members. This frame is sometimes fact that approximately 4000 spot welds are used on a
connected to the body by rubber insulation mountings. modern car body.
A modified construction is needed when the roof
cannot be fully utilized as a compression member. This
occurs on convertible (drop-head coupé) models, and in
situations where either a sunshine roof, or very thin
door pillars are used. In these cases the required
strength is achieved by using a strong underbody frame.
In addition, extra stiffness is given to the body-shell
parts that are subject to torsion.
A body-shell is normally constructed in one of two
ways: it is either made by spot-welding the panels,
pillars and pressings together so as to form a strong box,
or by building a space frame (Figure 1.43). The latter
structure gives a skeleton of high structural strength on
to which is attached the steel, aluminium or glass-
reinforced plastic (GRP) body panels, doors, roof, etc.
Of the three materials used, steel is the most common
for vehicles made in high volume; this is because
Figure 1.41 Separate sub-frames
production costs are lower once the initial outlay on
expensive body jigs and robots has been recovered.
Since extremely good ductility is essential for the To avoid vibration of the panels, which gives an
pressing of the panels, a very low carbon (0.1%) steel is objectionable noise called drumming, a sound-damping
required. The low strength (278 MN m–2 or 18 tonf in–2) material is stuck on the inside of the panels.
Figure 1.42 Comparison of a saloon car with a convertible car
Figure 1.43 Space frame

Safety in the event of an accident windscreen, or thrust against the body fittings, when the
The safety of a modern car is improved by enclosing the car slows down faster than its occupants.
driver and passengers in a rigid cell. At the front and Many of today’s vehicles are fitted with
rear of this safety compartment are attached sub- supplementary restraint systems (SRSs) which include
frames; these are designed to concertina on impact as seat belt pre-tensioners and airbags. If the vehicle
shown in Figure 1.44. The crumple zones of the body system sensors detect a sudden serious impact, the
are intended to absorb the shock of a collision and, in airbag (or airbags) inflate to prevent serious injury to
consequence, reduce the rate of deceleration that is passengers within the vehicle, and the seat belt pre-
experienced by the occupants. tensioners help to restrain the passengers within their
Before vehicles can be sold, at least one vehicle in a seats.
model range must be submitted to an approved centre Internal body trim, fittings and controls must all
for an impact test. To pass this severe, destructive test, conform to safety standards, and changes during recent
the level of safety of the occupants must reach a given years in the design of parts such as steering wheels,
standard. In addition the doors must remain closed control knobs, and even seat construction, have
during impact and must be capable of being opened materially reduced the risk of human injury.
after the test. The inclusion of this test feature shows Extra protection for the occupants during roll-over
why special ‘anti-burst’ locks are now in common use. of a drop-head model car is given by incorporating in
On modern vehicles safety belts must be provided for the body structure a strong tubular bar to take the place
the driver and all passengers. Seat belts act as a primary of the metal roof panel. This tube, set across the car, can
restraint and must be securely anchored to suitable be either fixed rigidly or made to move to its protection
strengthened parts of the body. They reduce the risk of position automatically when roll-over of the car is
front and rear seat occupants being thrown through the sensed.
Figure 1.44 Crumple zones
Figure 1.45 Impact testing

Body shape
Body shape is dictated by a number of factors. The
shape must appeal to the buyer, and should have a good
performance in relation to the ease with which it passes
through the air.
The aerodynamic shape of cars is expressed as a
drag coefficient. The lower the value of this coefficient,
the easier the car slips through the air, as a result of
which fuel economy is improved. Today fuel cost and
environmental impact are important, so greater
attention is paid to the air resistance of a car.
Manufacturers now use wind tunnels during the design
process to ensure that the optimum aerodynamic shape
is achieved.
Air resistance
Under normal conditions the power required to drive a
vehicle through the air consumes most of the engine
energy, so ways of reducing this energy drain need to be
sought.
Air resistance is given by the expression:
Air resistance = Drag coefficient × Area × Velocity2
This expression shows that the air resistance increases
with the square of the velocity of the vehicle relative to
the air, so the resistance becomes very great when the
vehicle speed is high (Figure 1.46). Compared with the
resistance at 50 km/h, the resistances at speeds of
100 km/h and 150 km/h are four and nine times as
great respectively.
Wind tunnel tests enable the air resistance of a
vehicle to be measured. Since the cross-sectional area of
the vehicle and its velocity relative to the air are known,
it is possible to calculate the aerodynamic drag constant Figure 1.47 Air dam and spoiler
(Cd). When a vehicle is designed with the aid of
computer software, this calculation is used to obtain the
optimum aerodynamics before a dummy vehicle is disturbance. Since much of the resistance is caused by
placed in a wind tunnel. the low-pressure region at the rear of the vehicle, the
A low Cd is obtained when the body is streamlined to aim is to return the air to this region with the minimum
enable it to pass through the air with the minimum of turbulence after it has flowed over the body.
Resistance is directly proportional to the cross-
sectional area, so a low and sleek sports-type car
performs well in this respect.
Various refinements are made to the body to reduce
air drag. These include the recessing of protruding
items such as door handles, and the shaping of the body
below the front bumper to form an air dam (Figure
1.47a). Although it can be seen that protruding items
are shaped to reduce air resistance, much of the under
body is also streamlined to ensure a smooth airflow.
Many vehicles now have plastic shields fitted to their
undersides, particularly around the engine and
transmission areas. Many of these small components
may seem insignificant but reduce the Cd value and can
dramatically improve the stability of the vehicle at high
speeds.
Airflow control devices are sometimes fitted by car
manufacturers (or owners) to the rear of the vehicle.
Figure 1.46 Force required to overcome air resistance According to their shape and position, these devices

Figure 1.50 Indication of air flow over a car in a wind tunnel
made from a plastic material, which is easily moulded

into a shape that provides a low resistance to the air
Figure 1.48 Moulded bumpers flow, and also enhances the appearance of the vehicle.
These bumpers often form the majority of the front
and rear of the vehicle and therefore little (or in some
cases no) further body panels are required to form the
either smooth out the air flow to reduce the
front or rear of the vehicle. Such bumpers are also
disturbance, or act as a spoiler to deflect the air
referred to as ‘pedestrian friendly’, since if a car collides
upwards so as to increase the adhesive force acting on
with a pedestrian at a very low speed, the injuries
the rear wheels (Figure 1.47b). Although these
sustained by the pedestrian will hopefully be very minor.
arrangements are beneficial on racing cars and high
speed sports cars, on many production cars they may be Paintwork
regarded just as ‘image creation’ embellishments. When bare metal is exposed to the atmosphere, it soon
Older generation vehicles were often fitted with corrodes. In the case of steel, the surface becomes pitted
bumpers made from metal that was chromium-plated to and the strength of structural parts rapidly decreases as
provide an attractive finish to the component. Although the rust ‘eats’ into the sound metal.
referred to as a bumper, they offered limited protection if One way of reducing corrosion is to coat the
the vehicle was involved in an accident. Bumpers fitted surfaces with paint; this acts as a barrier between the
to the front and rear of the vehicle of a modern car are metal and oxygen in the atmosphere.
Figure 1.49 Underbody aerodynamics

Corrosion also occurs when two dissimilar pieces of Special underbody corrosion treatment is given to
bare metal are joined by water. In this case the action is vehicles that are likely to be exposed to severe operating
similar to that of a battery; the passage of electricity conditions. This includes electrolytic coating of the
from one ‘plate’ to the other ‘plate’ (in this case the two underbody parts, wax injection of box members and
metals) causes an electrolytic action that corrodes the dipping of the bodyshell in a protective solution to seal
metal. Salt, mixed with the moisture that connects the all exposed joints.
two metals, increases the electrical flow; this is the Some of the paintwork may also be subjected to a
reason why corrosion is accelerated in winter. plasticized finish. This type of treatment is normally
The car owner regards paintwork as an applied in areas that are subject to stone chips (i.e. the
embellishment of the bare metal, so the manufacturer front edges of the bonnet) limiting the amount of
selects a colour, finish and texture to anticipate the damage caused when driving the vehicle at high speeds.
personal preferences of the potential customer.

9.4.2 Anthropometry
Anthropometry can be defined as the measurement of human body dimensions. Static

anthropometry is concerned with the measurement of human subjects in rigid, standardized
positions (e.g. static arm length being equivalent to its anatomical length) and static anthropometric
data are used in designing equipment for the workplace where body movement is not a major
variable, e.g. seat breadth, depth and height. Dynamic anthropometry is concerned with the
measurement of human subjects at work or in motion (e.g. functional arm reach is a factor of
the length of the upper arm, lower arm and hand, as well as the range of movement at the
shoulder, elbow, wrist and fingers). Dynamic anthropometric data can be used to establish
control locations using reach envelopes for the hands and feet and locations of head restraints,
seat belts and air bags using data concerning the arcs described by various parts of the body
under crash conditions. Biomechanics is the measurement of the range, strength, endurance,
speed and accuracy of human movements and such data are also used in the design of controls
to establish satisfactory ranges of control movement and operative forces.
Anthropometric and biomechanical data are usually specified in terms of percentiles. The
population is divided into 100 percentage categories, ranked from least to greatest, with respect
to some specific type of body measurement. For example:
• 5th percentile stature is a value whereby 5% of the population are shorter and 95% are
taller;
• 50th percentile stature is the median stature;
taller.
The reader is referred to Roebuck (1995) for a full description of the variety of methods used
to collect anthropometric data. The strategies for using the data in design are described below:
(a) Find the relevant data for the intended occupants with respect to their race, occupation,
age, sex, disability. The data should be task specific so that, for example, arm reach to a
lever that will be pushed is quite different to arm reach for operating a push button.
(b) Make any necessary allowances for secular growth and clothing (e.g. 10 mm per decade for
stature in USA and UK, ~45 mm for female shoes, ~25 mm for male shoes)
(c) Establish your design limits. Traditionally these have been stated as 5th percentile values
for females and 95th percentile values for males. The authors consider that these limits are

somewhat out-of-date given the concern for quality of life, high productivity and safety and
the authors recommend using 1st percentile female to 99th percentile male values wherever
possible. This is particularly important when several dimensions are critical for
accommodation. Multivariate accommodation is discussed in Section 9.4.6.
(d) Design for extreme individuals when appropriate. To establish the minimum clearance
(e.g. the door should be a minimum of x cm high) use the upper percentile value (e.g. 99th
or greater percentile male value for the relevant dimensions). To establish maximum reach
or strength, use the lower percentile value (e.g. 1st percentile female).
(e) Design for adjustable range where minimum fatigue, optimum performance, comfort and
safety is required (e.g. vehicle seats, steering wheel, seat belt mountings). Use 1st percentile
female to 99th percentile male values wherever possible.
(f) Design for the ‘average’ person when adjustability is not feasible (e.g. height of exterior
door handles) but never use ‘averages’ for clearances, reach or strength. The ‘average
value’ should be used on the basis that it would cause less inconvenience and difficulty to
the user population than one which was larger or smaller.
Anthropometric and biomechanical data are extremely useful to the designer at the early
stages of design or when a novel design is being considered. However, it is very important that
any new design or modification is studied using mock-ups and the evaluation of prototypes. The
data can tell you where a person can reach but it does not tell you how the design, location and
direction of travel of a variety of controls can affect driving performance, comfort and safety.
Limitations to the use of percentiles have already been discussed under Fallacies 7 and 8 above.
Sources of civilian anthropometric data include Bodyspace (Pheasant 1996) which presents
data for a variety of nationalities including the UK, US, Swedish, Dutch, French, Polish,
Brazilian, Sri Lankan, Indian, Hong Kong Chinese and the Japanese. Adultdata (Peebles and
Norris, 1998) and Childata (Norris and Wilson, 1995) can be obtained through the UK Department
of Trade and Industry and present data for a variety of nationalities. Some specialist surveys
have examined driver anthropometry in the UK (MIRA Survey, Haslegrave, 1980), France
(Rebiffe et al., 1984) and the US (Sanders, 1977). A source book on Indian anthropometry has
recently been produced (Chakrabarti 1997). Another very useful source is PeopleSize (Open
Ergonomics 1999), an interactive computer based package that can also provide information on
multivariate accommodation. Figure 9.1 shows one of the People Size screens, from which the
designer clicks on the desired dimension and the selected percentile values are displayed
underneath. Table 9.1 presents an example of People Size data for large US male and small UK
female values.
Anthropometric methods are currently changing with the introduction of body scanners.
Such systems allow the collection of thousands of data points for the human body and this type
of data is very appropriately starting to be used in human modelling systems (see Section 9.4.6
below).
9.4.3 2-dimensional manikins
2-dimensional (2D) plastic manikins are often found in design studios, whereas sets of
anthropometric data are rarely available unless the company employ an ergonomist. These
manikins are typically full size and are overlaid on engineering drawings in order to examine

Sitting eye ht Grip reach
Sitting ht
Buttock-sole
Thigh
depth
Buttock to
back-of-knee
Back-of-knee ht
Figure 9.1 An example of a People Size interactive screen interface. Stature, their shoulder height
may differ by as much as 122 mm. Furthermore, this torso proportion was found to have virtually no
correlation with either stature or weight
occupant accommodation. In the authors’ experience, such manikins are often used without a
knowledge of what they represent in terms of age range, occupational group, nationality or
posture (e.g. sitting upright or slumped). For example, the authors have found that British
vehicle manufacturers who market their vehicles in the United States were unaware that the
sitting height (vertical distance from the compressed seat surface to the top of the head) of their
95th percentile adult male manikin was 50 mm shorter than the 95th percentile erect sitting
height recorded by the National Health Survey conducted in the United States some 30 years
ago (Stoudt, Damon, McFarland and Roberts, 1965). The manikin was designed to have a
slumped sitting height which, according to the US survey, was equivalent to only a 60th
percentile erect sitting height. Furthermore, if the manikins are based on old data then they need
to have allowances made for secular growth.
Another major problem with 2D manikins is that they can be used in a very simplistic way.
For example, designers may have 50th and 95th percentile adult male manikins and a 5th
percentile adult female manikin. The nature of these manikins gives support to the notion that
people come either tall and long limbed, short and short limbed or somewhere in between. It
has been repeatedly demonstrated that this is not true and that the inter-correlation between

Table 9.1 An example of anthropometric data from PeopleSize Pro software 1999, by permission of
Open Ergonomics Ltd. (www.openerg.com). All dimensions are in mm
British female British female US male US male

18–64 years 18–64 years 18–64 years 18–64 years
1st percentile 5th percentile 95th percentile 99th percentile
Sitting height 741 763 984 1009

Eye height, sitting 625 648 867 893
Horizontal grip
reach (from e.g. seat
back/wall) 591 618 808 836
Thigh depth
(maximum), sitting 115 124 214 238
Buttock to sole of
foot (leg straight),
sitting 927 962 1189 1239
Buttock to back of
knee (popliteal
tendon), sittting 417 439 589 619
Back of knee height
(popliteal tendon),
sitting 339 356 496 515
Notes:
(1) Measurements are for sitting erect and without shoes or heavy clothing.
(2) Multiple accommodation – if you specify 95th percentile for Sitting Height, Grip Reach, AND Back
of Knee Height, only 89% of people are accommodated. In order to fit 95th percentile in all these three
dimensions, you must specify 98th percentile for each dimension.
body dimensions is rather poor. For example, Haslegrave (1986) reported that seated shoulder
height varies from 30.6 to 39.5 percent of stature, which means that among men of average
stature, their shoulder height may differ by as much as 122 mm. Furthermore, this torso
proportion was found to have virtually no correlation with either stature or weight. The manikin
designer can resort to other techniques to ensure that the manikins are statistically correct, for
example by calculating median values or using regression equations to describe component
body dimensions for groups of men or women of a given stature and weight. Whichever method
is chosen, to define a variety of statistically ‘correct’ manikins, there is still the problem of
estimating the percentage of people accommodated by a particular design. A common mistake
made by many designers is to use the 5th percentile female stature and 95th percentile male
stature manikins to assess a workstation, assuming that if both of these manikins can be
accommodated then so can 95% of the adult population (see Fallacy 8, above). This is an
incorrect assumption as it implies that those people ‘designed out’ due to their sitting height,
hip breadth or leg length, for example, are greater than 95th percentile male values are all the
same people. Similarly, all those with sitting eye height, arm length or leg length smaller than
5th percentile female values are assumed to be the same individuals. As these dimensions are
not strongly correlated then these assumptions are incorrect.

 Anti Roll Bar
A sway bar or anti-roll bar or stabilizer bar is a part of an automobile suspension that helps
reduce the body roll of a vehicle during fast cornering or over road irregularities. It connects
opposite (left/right) wheels together through short lever arms linked by a torsion spring. A sway
bar increases the suspension's roll stiffness—its resistance to roll in turns, independent of
its spring rate in the vertical direction. The first stabilizer bar patent was awarded to the
Canadian S. L. C. Coleman of Fredericton, New Brunswick on April 22, 1919
Purpose and operation
An anti-sway or anti-roll bar is intended to force each side of the vehicle to lower, or rise, to
similar heights, to reduce the sideways tilting (roll) of the vehicle on curves, sharp corners, or
large bumps. With the bar removed, a vehicle's wheels can tilt away by much larger distances
(as shown by theSUV image at right). Although there are many variations in design, a common
function is to force the opposite wheel's shock absorber, spring or suspension rod to lower, or
rise, to a similar level as the other wheel. In a fast turn, a vehicle tends to drop closer onto the
outer wheels, and the sway bar will soon force the opposite wheel to also get closer to the
vehicle. As a result, the vehicle tends to "hug" the road, closer in a fast turn, where all wheels
are closer to the body. After the fast turn, then the downward pressure is reduced, and the
paired wheels can return to their normal height against the vehicle, kept at similar levels by
the connecting sway bar.
Because each pair of wheels is cross-connected by a bar, then the combined operation causes
all wheels to generally offset the separate tilting of the others, and the vehicle tends to remain
level against the general slope of the terrain. A negative side-effect, of connecting pairs of
wheels, is that a jarring or bump to one wheel tends to also jar the opposite wheel, causing a
larger impact applied across the whole width of the vehicle. If there are several potholes
scattered in the road, then a vehicle will tend to rock, side-to-side, or waddle, due to the action
of the bar at each pair of wheels. Other suspension techniques can be used to delay, or
dampen, the effect of the connecting bar, as when hitting small holes which momentarily jolt
just a single wheel, whereas larger holes or longer tilting would then tug the bar with the
opposite wheel.
Principles
A sway bar is usually a torsion spring that resists body roll motions. It is usually constructed
out of a wide, U-shaped (in plan view) cylindrical steel bar that connects to the body at two
points, and at the left and right sides of the suspension. If the left and right wheels move
together, the bar rotates about its mounting points. If the wheels move relative to each other,
the bar is subjected to torsion and forced to twist. Each end of the bar is connected to an end
link through a flexible joint. The sway bar end link in turn connects to a spot near a wheel or
axle, permitting forces to be transferred from a heavily-loaded axle to the opposite side.
Forces are therefore transferred:
1. from the heavily-loaded axle

2. to the connected end link via a bushing
3. to the anti-sway (torsion) bar via a flexible joint
4. to the connected end link on the opposite side of the vehicle

5. to the opposite axle.
The bar resists the torsion through its stiffness. The stiffness of an anti-roll bar is proportional
to the stiffness of the material, the fourth power of its radius, and the inverse of the length of
the lever arms (i.e., the shorter the lever arm, the stiffer the bar). Stiffness is also related to
the geometry of the mounting points and the rigidity of the bar's mounting points. The stiffer
the bar, the more force required to move the left and right wheels relative to each other. This
increases the amount of force required to make the body roll.
In a turn the sprung mass of the vehicle's body produces a lateral force at the centre of
gravity (CG), proportional to lateral acceleration. Because the CG is usually not on the roll
axis, the lateral force creates a moment about the roll axis that tends to roll the body. (The roll
axis is a line that joins the front and rear roll centers (SAEJ670e)). The moment is called the
roll couple.
Roll couple is resisted by the suspension roll stiffness, which is a function of the spring rate of
the vehicle's springs and of the anti-roll bars, if any. The use of anti-roll bars allows designers
to reduce roll without making the suspension's springs stiffer in the vertical plane, which allows
improved body control with less compromise of ride quality.
One effect of body (frame) lean, for typical suspension geometry, is positive camber of the
wheels on the outside of the turn and negative on the inside, which reduces their cornering
grip (especially with cross ply tires).
Main functions
Anti-roll bars provide two main functions. The first function is the reduction of body lean. The
reduction of body lean is dependent on the total roll stiffness of the vehicle. Increasing the
total roll stiffness of a vehicle does not change the steady state total load (weight) transfer
from the inside wheels to the outside wheels, it only reduces body lean. The total lateral load
transfer is determined by the CG height and track width.
The other function of anti-roll bars is to tune the handling balance of a
car. Understeer or oversteer behavior can be tuned out by changing the proportion of the total
roll stiffness that comes from the front and rear axles. Increasing the proportion of roll stiffness
at the front will increase the proportion of the total load transfer that the front axle reacts and
decrease the proportion that the rear axle reacts. In general this will cause the outer front
wheel to run at a comparatively higher slip angle, and the outer rear wheel to run at a
comparatively lower slip angle, which is an understeer effect. Increasing the proportion of roll
stiffness at the rear axle will have the opposite effect and decrease understeer.
Drawbacks
Because an anti-roll bar connects wheels on the opposite sides of the vehicle together, the
bar will transmit the force of one-wheel bumps to the opposite wheel. On rough or broken
pavement, anti-roll bars can produce jarring, side-to-side body motions (a "waddling"
sensation), which increase in severity with the diameter and stiffness of the sway bars.
Excessive roll stiffness, typically achieved by configuring an anti-roll bar too aggressively, will
cause the inside wheels to lift off the ground during very hard cornering. This can be used to
advantage: many front wheel drive production cars will lift a rear wheel when cornering hard,
in order to overload the other wheel on the axle, limiting understeer.
Adjustable bars

Some anti-roll bars, particularly those intended for use in auto racing, are externally adjustable
while the car is in the pit whereas some systems can be adjusted in real time by the driver
from inside the car, such as in Super GT. This allows the stiffness to be altered by increasing
or reducing the length of the lever arms. This permits the roll stiffness to be tuned for different
situations without replacing the entire bar.
 Roll OVER BAR
A rollover is a type of vehicle accident in which a vehicle tips over onto its side or roof.
Dynamics
Vehicle rollovers are divided into two categories: tripped and untripped. Tripped rollovers are
caused by forces from an external object, such as a curb or a collision with another vehicle.
Untripped crashes are the result of steering input, speed, and friction with the ground. [1]
Untripped rollovers occur when cornering forces destabilize the vehicle. As a vehicle rounds
a corner, three forces act on it: tire forces (thecentripetal force), inertial effects (the centrifugal
force), and gravity. The cornering forces from the tire push the vehicle towards the center of
the curve. This force acts at ground level, below the center of mass. The force of inertia acts
horizontally through the vehicle's center of mass away from the center of the turn. These two
forces make the vehicle roll towards the outside of the curve. The force of the vehicle's weight
acts downward through the center of mass in the opposite direction. When the tire and inertial
forces are enough to overcome the force of gravity, the vehicle starts to turn over.
The most common type of tripped rollovers occur when a vehicle is sliding sideways, and the
tires strike a curb, dig into soft ground, or a similar event occurs that results in a sudden
increase lateral force. The physics are similar to cornering rollovers. In a 2003 report, this was
the most common mechanism, accounting for 71% of single-vehicle rollovers. [2]
Another type of tripped rollover occurs due to a collision with another vehicle or object. These
occur when the collision causes the vehicle to become unstable, such as when a narrow object
causes one side of the vehicle to accelerate upwards, but not the other. Turned down guard
rail end sections have been shown to do this. A side impact can accelerate a vehicle sideways.
The tires resist the change, and the coupled forces rotate the vehicle. In 1983, crash
tests showed that light trucks were prone to rolling over after colliding with certain early
designs of guide rail.
A rollover can also occur as a vehicle crosses a ditch or slope. Slopes steeper than 33 percent
(one vertical unit rise or fall per three horizontal units) are called 'critical slopes' because they
can cause most vehicles to overturn.
A vehicle may roll over for other reasons, such as when hitting a large obstacle with one of its
wheels or when maneuvering over uneven terrVehicles
All vehicles are susceptible to rollovers to various extents. Generally, the higher the center of
mass, the narrower the axle track, the more sensitive the steering, and the higher the speed,
the more likely a vehicle is to roll over.
The rollover threshold for passenger cars is over 1 g of lateral acceleration. Light trucks will
roll over at lateral accelerations of 0.8 to 1.2 g. Large commercial trucks will roll at lateral
accelerations as low as 0.2 g Civilian SUVs and full-sized vans are notorious for rolling over
because they usually have a higher center of gravity, caused by a higher ground clearance.
Manufacturers often post warnings on the driver's sun-visor. Among the vehicles which have

received publicity for tendencies to roll over are the Ford Bronco II, Suzuki Samurai, Jeep
CJ, Mitsubishi Pajero/Montero, and Isuzu Trooper.
Pickup trucks are also prone to rollover, especially those outfitted with long travel off road
suspensions. This is due to the increased suspension height for increased clearance off road.
In addition, 15-passenger vans, a segment dominated by the Ford Ford E-Series, are tall
because of their heavy-duty suspensions necessary to carry large amounts of people which
also make them prone to rollover. The rollover tendency is exacerbated when the vehicles are
heavily loaded. It is recommended to not load anything on the roof of such vans, and to use
drivers experienced or trained in safe operation of the vehicle. In such cases, being familiar
with the vehicle's behavior loaded and unloaded, avoiding sudden swerving maneuvers, and
reducing speed through tight turns can greatly decrease the rollover risk associated with these
vehicles.
Military vehicles have a much wider wheel track than civilian SUVs, making them more difficult
to roll over. However, IEDs in Iraq and Afghanistan cause roll overs not seen by civilian
vehicles. The top turret gunner is particularly vulnerable.
A tall passenger coach made US headlines when 14 passengers were killed in New York in
2011. The bus swerved, flipped on its side and hit a pole which split off the top of the vehicle.
Exit
After a rollover, the vehicle may end up lying on its side or roof, often blocking the doors and
complicating the escape for the passengers. Large passenger vehicles such as buses, trams,
andtrolleybuses that have doors on one side only usually have one or more methods of using
windows for escape in case of a rollover. Some have special windows with handles to pull so
that windows can be used as an emergency exit. Some have tools fixed near the windows for
breaking the glass and making an improvised exit. Some have emergency exits in their roofs.
Some combine two or more of these escape methods

Crumple zone
Cross section to show the different strength of the metal in a Saab 9000. The safety cell is in
stronger metal (red) compared to the crumple zones (yellow).
The crumple zone is a structural feature mainly used in automobiles and recently
incorporated into railcars.
Crumple zones are designed to absorb the energy from the impact during a traffic collision by
controlled deformation. This energy is much greater than is commonly realized. A 2000 kg car
travelling at 60 km/h (16.7 m/s), before crashing into a thick concrete wall, is subject to the
same impact force as a front-down drop from a height of 14.2m crashing on to a solid concrete
surface.[7] Increasing that speed by 50% to 90km/h (25m/s) compares to a fall from 32m - an
increase of 125%. [8] This is because the stored kinetic energy (E) is given by E = (1/2) mass
× speed squared. It increases as the square of the impact velocity.
Typically, crumple zones are located in the front part of the vehicle, in order to absorb the
impact of a head-on collision, though they may be found on other parts of the vehicle as well.
According to a British Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre study of where on the vehicle
impact damage occurs: 65% were front impacts, 25% rear impacts, 5% left side, and 5% right
side.[11] Some racing cars use aluminium or composite/carbon fibre honeycomb to form
an impact attenuator that dissipates crash energy using a much smaller volume and lower
weight than road car crumple zones.[12] Impact attenuators have also been introduced on
highway maintenance vehicles in some countries.
An early example of the crumple zone concept was used by the Mercedes-Benz engineer Béla
Barényi on the mid 1950's Mercedes-Benz "Ponton".[13]This innovation was first patented by
Mercedes-Benz in the early 1950s. The patent 854157, granted in 1952, describes the
decisive feature of passive safety. Barényi questioned the opinion prevailing till then, that a
safe car had to be rigid. He divided the car body into three sections: the rigid non-deforming
passenger compartment and the crumple zones in the front and the rear. They are designed
to absorb the energy of an impact (kinetic energy) by deformation during collision.[14]
On September 10, 2009, ABC News 'Good Morning America' and 'World News' showed a U.S.
Insurance Institute of Highway Safety crash test of a 2009 Chevrolet Malibu in an offset head-
on collision with a 1959 Chevrolet Bel Air sedan. It dramatically demonstrated the
effectiveness of modern car safety design over 1950s design, particularly of rigid passenger
safety cells and crumple zones
Function
Crumple zones work by managing crash energy, absorbing it within the outer parts of the
vehicle, rather than being directly transmitted to the occupants, while also preventing intrusion

into or deformation of the passenger cabin. This better protects car occupants against injury.
This is achieved by controlled weakening of sacrificial outer parts of the car, while
strengthening and increasing the rigidity of the inner part of the body of the car, making the
passenger cabin into a 'safety cell', by using more reinforcing beams and higher strength
steels. Impact energy that does reach the 'safety cell' is spread over as wide an area as
possible to reduce its deformation. Volvo introduced the side crumple zone with the
introduction of the SIPS (Side Impact Protection System) in the early 1990s.
When a vehicle and all its contents, including passengers and luggage are travelling at speed,
they haveinertia / momentum, which means that they will continue forward with that direction
and speed (Newton's first law of motion).[18] In the event of a sudden deceleration of a rigid
framed vehicle due to impact, unrestrained vehicle contents will continue forwards at their
previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many
times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the
collision and to absorb energy to reduce the difference in speeds between the vehicle and its
occupants.[19]
Seatbelts restrain the passengers so they don't fly through the windshield, and are in the
correct position for the airbag and also spread the loading of impact on the body. Seat belts
also absorb passenger inertial energy by being designed to stretch during an impact, again to
reduce the speed differential between the passenger's body and their vehicle interior.[20] In
short: a passenger whose body is decelerated more slowly due to the crumple zone (and other
devices) over a longer time survives much more often than a passenger whose body indirectly
impacts a hard, undamaged metal car body which has come to a halt nearly instantaneously.
The final impact after a passenger's body hits the car interior, airbag or seat belts is that of the
internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull due to their inertia. The force of this impact is the
way by which many car crashes cause disabling or life-threatening injury. Other ways are
skeletal damage and blood loss, because of torn blood vessels, or damage caused by sharp
fractured bone to organs and/or blood vessels. The sequence of energy-dissipating and
speed-reducing technologies—crumple zone — seat belt — airbags — padded interior—are
designed to work together as a system to reduce the force of the impact on the outside of the
passenger(s)'s body and the final impact of organs inside the body. In a collision, slowing
down the deceleration of the human body by even a few tenths of a second drastically reduces
the force involved. Force is a simple equation: Force = mass X acceleration. Cutting the
deceleration in half also cuts the force in half. Therefore, changing the deceleration time from
.2 seconds to .8 seconds will result in a 75 percent reduction in total force.[21]

A US Market Ford Escort that has been involved in an offset head-on collision with a Sport
Utility Vehicle - showing the raised point of impact - missing the car crumple zone.
A misconception about crumple zones sometimes voiced[citation needed] is that they reduce safety
for theoccupants of the vehicle by allowing the body to collapse, therefore risking crushing the
occupants. In fact, crumple zones are typically located in front of and behind the main body of
the car (which forms a rigid 'safety cell'), compacting within the space of the engine
compartment or boot/trunk. The marked improvement over the past two decades in high speed
crash test results and real-life accidents also belies any such fears. Modern vehicles using
what are commonly termed 'crumple zones' provide far superior protection for their occupants
in severe tests against other vehicles with crumple zones and solid static objects than older
models or SUVs that use a separate chassis frame and have no crumple zones.
They do tend to come off worse when involved in accidents with SUVs without crumple zones
because most of the energy of the impact is absorbed by the vehicle with the crumple zone —
however, even for the occupants of the 'worse off' car, this will still often be an improvement
— as the result of two vehicles without crumple zones colliding will usually be more hazardous
to both vehicle's occupants than a collision that is at least partly buffered.[citation needed]
Another problem is 'impact incompatibility' where the 'hard points' of the ends of chassis rails
of SUVs are higher than the 'hard points' of cars, causing the SUV to 'override' the engine
compartment of the car.[17] In order to tackle this problem, recent Volvo SUV/off-roaders
incorporate structures below the front bumper designed to engage lower-height car crumple
zones.
Seat belt
A seat belt, also known as a safety belt, is a safety protection in vehicles designed to secure
the occupant of a vehicle against harmful movement that may result during a collision or a

sudden stop. A seat belt reduces the likelihood and severity of injury in a traffic collision by
stopping the vehicle occupant from hitting hard against interior elements of the vehicle or other
passengers (the so-called second impact), by keeping occupants positioned correctly for
maximum benefit from the airbag, if the vehicle is so equipped, and by preventing occupants
being ejected from the vehicle.
Types
Two-point
A 2-point belt attaches at its two endpoints.
Lap
A lap ("2-point") belt in an airplane
A lap belt is a strap that goes over the waist. This was the most commonly installed type of
belt prior to legislation requiring 3-point belts, and is primarily found in older cars.
Some coaches are equipped with lap belts, as are passenger aircraft seats.
Until the 1980s, three-point belts were commonly available only in the front outboard seats of
cars; the back seats were only often fitted with lap belts. Evidence of the potential of lap belts
to cause separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat
belt syndrome", led to progressive revision of passenger safety regulations in nearly all
developed countries to require 3-point belts first in all outboard seating positions and
eventually in all seating positions in passenger vehicles. Since September 1, 2007, all new
cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear seat.[11] Besides
regulatory changes, "seat belt syndrome" has led to tremendous liability for vehicle
manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury verdict against the Ford
Motor Company; the resulting $30 million judgment (after deductions for another defendant
who settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal in 2006.[12]
Sash
A "sash" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the vehicle occupant's
outboard shoulder and is buckled inboard of his or her lap. The shoulder harness may attach
to the lap belt tongue, or it may have a tongue and buckle completely separate from those of
the lap belt. Shoulder harnesses of this separate or semi-separate type were installed in
conjunction with lap belts in the outboard front seating positions of many vehicles in the North
American market starting at the inception of the shoulder belt requirement of the U.S. National

Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 on 1
January 1968. However, if the shoulder strap is used without the lap belt, the vehicle occupant
is likely to "submarine", or slide forward in the seat and out from under the belt, in a frontal
collision. In the mid-1970s, 3-point belt systems such as Chrysler's "Uni-Belt" began to
supplant the separate lap and shoulder belts in American-made cars, though such 3-point
belts had already been supplied in European vehicles such as Volvos, Mercedes,
and Saabs for some years.
Three-point
A 3-point seat belt
A 3-point belt is a Y-shaped arrangement, similar to the separate lap and sash belts, but
unitized. Like the separate lap-and-sash belt, in a collision the 3-point belt spreads out the
energy of the moving body over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first
production three-point belt in 1959.[13] The first car with three point belt was a Volvo PV 544 that
was delivered to a dealer in Kristianstad on August 13, 1959. However, the first car model to
feature the three point seat belt as a standard item was the 1959 Volvo 122, first outfitted with
a two-point belt at initial delivery in 1958, replaced with the three point seat belt the following
year.[14] The three point belt was developed by Nils Bohlin who had earlier also worked
on ejection seats at Saab.[15] Volvo then made the new seat belt design patent open in the
interest of safety and made it available to other car manufacturers for free.[16][17]
Belt-in-Seat (BIS)
The BIS is a three-point harness with the shoulder belt attached to the seat itself, rather than
to the vehicle structure.[18] The first car using this system in the United States was the 1990
Mercedes-Benz SL.[19] Some cars like the Renault Vel Satis use this system for the front seats.
A General Motors assessment concluded seat-mounted 3-point belts offer better protection
especially to smaller vehicle occupants,[20][dead link] though GM did not find a safety performance
improvement in vehicles with seat-mounted belts versus body-mounted belts.[21]

4-, 5-, and 6-point
Five-point harnesses are typically found in child safety seats and in racing cars. The lap portion
is connected to a belt between the legs and there are two shoulder belts, making a total of five
points of attachment to the seat. A 4-point harness is similar, but without the strap between
the legs, while a 6-point harness has two belts between the legs. Such harnesses can cause
paralysis or other severe injury in a vehicle rollover when retrofited to vehicles not designed
for their installation and not having sufficient strength to prevent roof collapse during
rollover[21][22] and are used mainly in racing. InNASCAR, the 6-point harness became popular
after the death of Dale Earnhardt, who was wearing a five-point harness when he suffered his
fatal crash; as it was first thought that his belt had broken, some teams ordered a six-point
harness in response.[23][24]
Seven-point
Aerobatic aircraft frequently use a combination harness consisting of a five-point harness with
a redundant lap-belt attached to a different part of the airframe. While providing redundancy
for negative-g maneuvers (which lift the pilot out of the seat), they also require the pilot to un-
latch two harnesses if it is necessary to parachute from a failed aircraft.
Airbag
An airbag is a vehicle safety device. It is an occupant restraint system consisting of a flexible
fabric envelope or cushion designed to inflate rapidly during an automobile collision. Its
purpose is to cushion occupants during a crash and provide protection to their bodies when
they strike interior objects such as the steering wheel or a window. Modern vehicles may
contain multiple airbag modules in various side and frontal locations of the passenger seating
positions, and sensors may deploy one or more airbags in an impact zone at variable rates
based on the type, angle and severity of impact; the airbag is designed to only inflate in
moderate to severe frontal crashes. Airbags are normally designed with the intention of
supplementing the protection of an occupant who is correctly restrained with a seatbelt. Most
designs are inflated through pyrotechnic means and can only be operated once. Newer side-
impact airbag modules consist of compressed air cylinders that are triggered in the event of a
side impact vehicle impact.
The first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the 1970s with
limited success. Broad commercial adoption of airbags occurred in many markets during the
late 1980s and early 1990s with a driver airbag, and a front passenger airbag as well on some
cars; and many modern vehicles now include four or more units.
As a supplemental restraint (SRS)

Frontal airbag
The auto industry

and research and
regulatory
communities have
moved away from
their initial view of

the airbag as a seat belt replacement, and the bags are now nominally designated
as Supplemental Restraint System (SRS)or Supplemental Inflatable Restraints.
In 1981, Mercedes-Benz introduced the airbag in Germany as an option on its high-end S-
Class (W126). In the Mercedes system, the sensors would automatically pre-tension the seat
belts to reduce occupant's motion on impact (now a common feature), and then deploy the
airbag on impact. This integrated the seat belts and airbag into a restraint system, rather than
the airbag being considered an alternative to the seat belt.
In 1987, the Porsche 944 turbo became the first car in the world to have driver and passenger
airbags as standard equipment. The Porsche 944 and 944S had this as an available option.
The same year also saw the first airbag in a Japanese car, the Honda Legend.[20]
Audi was relatively late to offer airbag systems on a broader scale; until the 1994 model year,
for example, the 80/90, by far Audi's 'bread-and-butter' model, as well as the 100/200, did not
have airbags in their standard versions. Instead, the German automaker until then relied solely
on its proprietary procon-ten restraint system.
In Europe, airbags were almost entirely absent from family cars until the early 1990s. The first
European Ford to feature an airbag was the facelifted Escort MK5b in 1992; within a year, the
entire Ford range had at least one airbag as standard. By the mid-1990s, European market
leaders such as Vauxhall/Opel, Rover, Peugeot, Renault and Fiat had included airbags as at
least optional equipment across their model ranges. By the end of the decade, it was very rare
to find a mass market car without an airbag, and some late 1990s products, such as
the Volkswagen Golf Mk4also featured side airbags. The Peugeot 306 was a classical
example of how commonplace airbags became on mass market cars during the 1990s. On its
launch in early 1993 most of the range did not even have driver airbags as an option. By 1999
however, side airbags were available on several variants.
During the 2000s side impact airbags were commonplace on even low to mid-range vehicles,
such as the smaller-engined versions of the Ford Fiesta and Peugeot 206, and curtain airbags
were also becoming regular features on mass market cars. The Toyota Avensis, launched in
1998, was the first mass market car to be sold in Europe with a total of nine airbags. Although
in some countries, such as Russia, airbags are still not standard equipment on all cars, such
as those from Lada.
Variable force deployment front airbags were developed to help minimize injury from the
airbag itself.
Side airbag
There are essentially two types of side airbags commonly used today, the side torso airbag
and the side curtain airbag.
Most vehicles equipped with side curtain airbags also include side torso airbags. However
some exceptions such as the Chevrolet Cobalt,[22] 2007-09 model Chevrolet Silverado/GMC
Sierra, and 2009-12 Dodge Ram[23] do not feature the side torso airbag.
Side torso airbag
Side-impact airbags or side torso airbags (side thorax/abdomen airbags) are a category of
airbag usually located in the seat, and inflate between the seat occupant and the door. These
airbags are designed to reduce the risk of injury to the pelvic and lower abdomen regions.

Some vehicles are now being equipped with different types of designs, to help reduce injury
and ejection from the vehicle in rollover crashes. More recent side airbag designs include a
two chamber system; a firmer lower chamber for the pelvic region and softer upper chamber
for the ribcage.
The Swedish company Autoliv AB, was granted a patent on side impact airbags, and they
were first offered as an option in 1994 on the 1995 model yearVolvo 850, and as standard
equipment on all Volvo cars made after 1995.
Some cars, such as the 2010 Volkswagen Polo Mk.5 have combined head and torso side
airbags. These are fitted in the backrest of the front seats, and protect the head as well as the
torso.
How airbags work
An ACU from a Geo Storm.
The design is conceptually simple; a central "Airbag control unit"[38] (ACU) (a specific type
of ECU) monitors a number of related sensors within the vehicle, including accelerometers,
impact sensors, side (door) pressure sensors,[39][40] wheel speed sensors, gyroscopes, brake
pressure sensors, and seat occupancy sensors. When the requisite 'threshold' has been
reached or exceeded, the airbag control unit will trigger the ignition of a gas
generatorpropellant to rapidly inflate a fabric bag. As the vehicle occupant collides with and
squeezes the bag, the gas escapes in a controlled manner through small vent holes. The
airbag's volume and the size of the vents in the bag are tailored to each vehicle type, to spread
out the deceleration of (and thus force experienced by) the occupant over time and over the
occupant's body, compared to a seat belt alone.
The signals from the various sensors are fed into the Airbag control unit, which determines
from them the angle of impact, the severity, or force of the crash, along with other variables.
Depending on the result of these calculations, the ACU may also deploy various additional
restraint devices, such asseat belt pre-tensioners, and/or airbags (including frontal bags for
driver and front passenger, along with seat-mounted side bags, and "curtain" airbags which
cover the side glass). Each restraint device is typically activated with one or
more pyrotechnic devices, commonly called an initiator or electric match. The electric match,
which consists of an electrical conductor wrapped in a combustible material, activates with a
current pulse between 1 to 3 amperes in less than 2 milliseconds. When the conductor
becomes hot enough, it ignites the combustible material, which initiates the gas generator. In
a seat belt pre-tensioner, this hot gas is used to drive a piston that pulls the slack out of the

seat belt. In an airbag, the initiator is used to ignite solid propellant inside the airbag inflator.
The burning propellant generates inert gas which rapidly inflates the airbag in approximately
20 to 30 milliseconds. An airbag must inflate quickly in order to be fully inflated by the time the
forward-traveling occupant reaches its outer surface. Typically, the decision to deploy an
airbag in a frontal crash is made within 15 to 30 milliseconds after the onset of the crash, and
both the driver and passenger airbags are fully inflated within approximately 60-80
milliseconds after the first moment of vehicle contact. If an airbag deploys too late or too slowly,
the risk of occupant injury from contact with the inflating airbag may increase. Since more
distance typically exists between the passenger and the instrument panel, the passenger
airbag is larger and requires more gas to fill it.
Older airbag systems contained a mixture of sodium azide (NaN3), KNO3, and SiO2. A typical
driver-side airbag contains approximately 50-80 g of NaN3, with the larger passenger-side
airbag containing about 250 g. Within about 40 milliseconds of impact, all these components
react in three separate reactions that produce nitrogen gas. The reactions, in order, are as
follows.
(1) 2 NaN3 → 2 Na + 3 N2 (g)
(2) 10 Na + 2 KNO3 → K2O + 5 Na2O + N2 (g)
(3) K2O + Na2O + 2 SiO2 → K2O3Si + Na2O3Si (silicate glass)
The first reaction is the decomposition of NaN3 under high temperature conditions using an
electric impulse. This impulse generates to 300°C temperatures required for the
decomposition of the NaN3 which produces Na metal and N2 gas. Since Na metal is highly
reactive, the KNO3 and SiO2 react and remove it, in turn producing more N2 gas. The second
reaction shows just that. The reason that KNO3 is used rather than something like NaNO3 is
because it is less hygroscopic. It is very important that the materials used in this reaction are
not hygroscopic because absorbed moisture can de-sensitize the system and cause the
reaction to fail. The final reaction is used to eliminate the K2O and Na2O produced in the
previous reactions because the first-period metal oxides are highly reactive. These products
react with SiO2 to produce a silicate glass which is a harmless and stable compound.
According to a patent, the particle size of the sodium azide, potassium nitrate, and silicon
dioxide are important. The NaN3 and KNO3 must be between 10 and 20 microns, while the
SiO2 must be between 5 and 10 microns.
There has been a recent effort to find alternative compounds that can be used in airbags which
have less toxic byproducts. In a journal article by Akiyoshi et. Al., it was found that for the
reaction of the Sr complex nitrate, (Sr(NH2NHCONHNH2)∙(NO 3)2 of carbohydrazide (SrCDH)
with various oxidizing agents resulted in the evolution of N2 and CO2 gases. Using KBrO3 as
the oxidizing agent resulted in the most vigorous reaction as well as the lowest initial
temperature of reaction. The N2 and CO2 gases evolved made up 99% of all gases evolved.
Nearly all the starting materials won’t decompose until reaching temperatures of 500°C or
higher so this could be a viable option as an air bag gas generator. In a patent containing
another plausible alternative to NaN3 driven airbags, the gas generating materials involved the
use of guanidine nitrate, 5-amino tetrazole, bitetrazole dehydrate, nitroimidazole, and
basic copper nitrate. It was found that these non-azide reagents allowed for a less toxic, lower
combustion temperature reaction and more easily disposable air bag inflation system.[citation
needed]

Front airbags normally do not protect the occupants during side, rear, or rollover
accidents.[41] Since airbags deploy only once and deflate quickly after the initial impact, they
will not be beneficial during a subsequent collision. Safety belts help reduce the risk of injury
in many types of crashes. They help to properly position occupants to maximize the airbag's
benefits and they help restrain occupants during the initial and any following collisions.
In vehicles equipped with a rollover sensing system, accelerometers and gyroscopes are used
to sense the onset of a rollover event. If a rollover event is determined to be imminent, side-
curtainairbags are deployed to help protect the occupant from contact with the side of the
vehicle interior, and also to help prevent occupant ejection as the vehicle rolls over.
Bucket Seat
A bucket seat is a seat contoured to hold one person, distinct from bench seats which are flat
platforms designed to seat multiple people. Bucket seats are standard in fast cars to keep
riders in place when making sharp or quick turns. According to the Oxford English Dictionary,
the name derives from the seat "partly resembling a bucket in shape".[1]
Racing vehicles usually have only one bucket seat. Vehicles sold to the general public often
have two bucket seats in the front compartment, and may contain more in a rear compartment.
Commercial aircraft now have bucket seats for all passengers.
Automobile bucket seats first came into use after World War II on European small cars, due
to:
 Their relatively small size compared to a bench seat; and

 Lack of seating room for a middle passenger, due to the presence of a floor-
mounted shifter and parking brake lever.
The first motor sports and fast road bucket seats in Europe were manufactured by Colin
Folwell, who subsequently founded Corbeau Seats in the UK in 1963 [2]
The bucket seat trend was especially apparent in sporty cars, particularly two-seater sports
cars, most of which were manufactured in European nations.
Laminated Glasses
Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. In the event of
breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically ofpolyvinyl butyral (PVB), between its two
or more layers of glass. The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken,
and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces. This
produces a characteristic "spider web" cracking pattern when the impact is not enough to
completely pierce the glass.
Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact or where the
glass could fall if shattered. Skylight glazing and automobilewindshields typically use
laminated glass. In geographical areas requiring hurricane-resistant construction, laminated
glass is often used in exterior storefronts, curtain walls and windows. The PVB interlayer also
gives the glass a much higher sound isolation rating, due to the damping effect, and also
blocks 99% of incoming UV radiation

Specifications
A typical laminated makeup would be 3 mm glass / 0.38 mm interlayer / 3 mm glass. This

gives a final product that would be referred to as 6.38 laminated glass.
Multiple laminates and thicker glass increases the strength. Bullet-resistant glass is usually
constructed using polycarbonate, thermoplastic, and layers of laminated glass. A similar
glass is often used in airliners on the front windows, often three sheets of 6 mm toughened
glass with thick PVB between them.
Newer developments have increased the thermoplastic family for the lamination of glass.
Beside PVB, important thermoplastic glass lamination materials today are
EVA[2] (EthylVinylAcetate) and TPU[3] (thermoplastic Polyurethane). The adhesion of
PVB/TPU and EVA is not only high to glass but also to Polyester (PET) Interlayer. Since
2004 metallised and electroconductive PET-Interlayers are used as substrate for light
emitting diodes and laminated to or between glass.
 Top Layer:..Glass
 Interlayer:..Transparent thermoplastic material like TPU, PVB or EVA
 Interlayer:..LED (light emitting diodes)on transparent conductive Polymer
 Interlayer:..Transparent thermoplastic material like TPU, PVB or EVA
 Bottom layer:..Glass
Laminated glass is also sometimes used in glass sculptures.
Manufacture
There are several laminated glass manufacturing processes:
1. using two or more pieces of glass bonded between one or more pieces of plasticized
polyvinyl butyric resin using heat and pressure.
2. using two or more pieces of glass and polycarbonate, bonded together with aliphatic
urethane interlayers under heat and pressure.
3. interlaid with a cured resin.
Each manufacturing process may include glass lites of equal or unequal thickness.

Table 13.1. Amounts of absorbed energy during impacts into a rigid barrier.
absorbed energy
element full overlap 50% offset
(≈US-NCAP) (≈AMUS)
main front rails (5) 60% 40%
upper front rails (2) 6% 10%
mechanics frame (6) 20% 30%
crash box (3) 10% 5%
bumper crossmember (4) 4% 15%
Fig. 13.62 shows the deformation subjected to by the front structure in the
case of insurance impact made on the left side of vehicle.
The crash box that is subjected to the impact is almost completely deformed
axially, while the two front rails do not exhibit relevant deformation. In this way,
the repair of damage consists only on the substitution of the front crossmember
group, through the dismounting of the two flanges that connect it to rails. In
addition, if the mechanical groups are appropriately mounted behind the flanges
that support the crash box, they should not be damaged by the impact.
13.5 Testing on Vehicles

13.5.1 Dummies for Impact Test
The first anthropomorphic dummy was realized in 1949 for the US Air Force
to evaluate the responses on humans due to accelerations imposed on the spine
by ejection seats. From the middle of the 1960s dummies started to develop for
applications in the automotive industry to evaluate the biomechanical response
during the various types of impact a vehicle can be subjected to. Today these
dummies play a fundamental role in vehicle saftey evaluation being the basis of
the homologation and rating testing of vehicles.
A dummy is an anthropomorphic mechanical system comprising metallic
masses, spring, dampers, articulations and polymeric coverings, that simulate
the response of human body in the considered impact conditions. Inside the
dummy there are sensors that enable the measurement of physical quantities
related to the biological damage that occurs on the real occupant in the same
impact conditions.
To be a reliable instrument for measurement during impact tests, it is neces-
sary that a dummy exhibit the following characteristics:
• biofidelity: referring to injury criterion; (for example it has a good biofi-
delity if the chest crushes like the human chest when crushing is the injury
criterion);

Fig. 13.62. Bumper crossmember deformation after an insurance impact on the left
side of vehicles. The deformation interests mainly the crash box and not the front rail.
• repeatability: the same dummy, subject to the same stresses many times,
must have equal responses;
• reproducibility: different dummies of the same type, subject to the same

stresses even in different laboratories, must have equal responses;
• sensitivity: necessary in two respects: a) the dummy must be highly sen-

sitive to the variation of harshness of impact (eg. test speed) and/or to
the countermeasures adopted (eg. the variation of stiffness of the impacted
part); b) on the other hand it must not be sensitive to the environmental
variations (eg. temperature);
• long-life: the dummy parts must exhibit physical characteristics which do

not vary over time with use;
To ensure these characteristics, some calibration and installation specifications

of dummies are necessary. It can be noted that the performance criterion can
differ from the limit of human tolerance as long as the relation between the two
values is known.
The definition of correlations between physical quantities detectable on dum-
mies and the corresponding biological damage levels on the human body, as well

1
4 3
7
5 6
Fig. 13.63. Front structure configuration. 1) Undeformable cockpit; 2) upper front
rails; 3) crash box ; 4) bumper crossmember; 5) rails; 6) mechanics frame.
as the adjustment of the same dummies, derive from studies on cadavers (or
PMHS, Post Mortem Human Subjects) conducted in a limited number of spe-
cialized centres in this kind of tests (eg: Wayne State University – USA, INRETS
– F, Heidelberg – D).
As shown on table in Fig. 13.2, the characteristics of dummies depend on the
type of impact they are used for and the occupants they represent:
• age, if children;
• gender (male/female) and percentile, if adults;
• impact type designed for (frontal, side, pedestrian);
• complexity: depending on the use, for certification or analysis and/or re-

search activities;
• standard regulation.
Frontal impact dummy

The 50%ile Hybrid III (Fig. 13.64) represents the most common dummy for
frontal impact tests, reproducing the size, inertial characteristics and dynamic
stiffnesses of an average US male adult. The development of this dummy was un-
dertaken made by General Motors in the 1970s: over the period 1971 to 1976, four
generations of different dummies were created, leading to Hybrid III (following
Hybrid I, Hybrid II and ATD 502).

Table 13.2. Dummies typologies for impact tests and their use.
type of imp. front side rear ped.
gender (m/f) m f m f m m
percentile 95 50 5 50 5 50 50
Hybrid III x x x standard dummy for front
impact
EU-SID 1 x standard dummy for side
impact
EU-SID 2 x improvement of EU-SID 1,
employed in Euro-NCAP
tests
SID IIs x most updated dummy for
side impact
US-SID x prescribed by 214 standard
BIOSID x rather sophisticated dummy
SID FMVSS x US SID body, Hybrid III
201 head
THOR x improved evolution of Hy-
brid III
WORLDSID x improved evolution of EU-
SID 2, under development
TNO 10 x no instrumentation used for
ECE16 tests
OCATD5 x used to verify bag deactiva-
tion
PED. x
POLAR II x developped in cooperation
with Honda
TRID x Hybrid III 50th percentile
with improved neck for
backlash simulation
RID2 x Hybrid III based with new
neck and torso for whiplash
tests
BIORID x Developped by Volvo, Saab,
Autoliv and Chalmers
Univ., very sophysticated
model of the backbone and
neck
RID3D x Based on RID2 for whiplash
evaluation
Virtual preg- x Virtual dummy developped
nant dummy by Volvo to evaluate injuries
on woman and fetus

Fig. 13.64. Dummy for frontal impact: Hybrid III 50 percentile.
The correct anthropometry of the dummy is an important element to be con-

sidered: in fact, the crash test results are more or less realistic depending on the
extent to which the dummy exhibits the typical anthropometric characteristics
of humans. In particular the various shapes, locations of joints, centres of gravity
and weights of the various components that comprise the dummy in the seated
position represent the principal factors that determine its behaviour during a
crash test : Hybrid III was designed to assume naturally the typical posture of a
seated man inside a car.
The head is made of an aluminium skull onto which a skin is applied having
a sufficient thickness to ensure the biomechanical fidelity and response repeata-
bility of the head with respect to impact with hard surfaces. At the location of
the centre of gravity of the head three accelerometers are mounted orthogonally
to measure the triaxial acceleration (Fig. 14.17).
The neck is a flexible component that has stiffness and damping character-
istics with good biofidelity both in bending and extension; it is made by three
vertebral rigid discs in aluminium with elastomeric elements between them. A
single steel cable runs along the neck centre to ensure high axial stiffness. The
transversal section of neck is asymmetric to guarantee high stiffness for the head
movement foward (bending), rather than backward (extension), as requested by
biomechanical data.
Appropriate transducers measure shear stresses, axial stresses and the mo-
ments at the upper joint to the head (occipital condyle) and in the first thoracic

vertebra: this last connection is made through an adjustable bracket to enable
head leveling and correct positioning inside the cockpit.
The chest of Hybrid III simulates the spine and rib cage and is covered by a re-
movable protective jacket. Ballasting is required to obtain the correct weight dis-
tribution. The thoracic part is rigid and houses a triaxial accelerometer mounted
at the centre of gravity. A rotational potentiometer fixed to the extremity of a
fork linked to the lumbar spine on one side and to a rod linked to the sternum
on the other in order to measure chest crushing.
The model of the rib cage allows a maximum deflection of 90 mm. The curved
lumbar spine enables the dummy to assume a not entirely erect position when
placed on the vehicle seat, so that its posture similar to that of a human, per-
mitting also a higher repeatability of the initial position as a consequence of the
dummy not being forced into a specific position.
The abdomen, pelvis and legs of Hybrid III were essentially borrowed from
the previous version of dummy (ATD 502) and subject to small alterations in
order to obtain a better weight balance of the legs, an improvement of the knee
covering and an increase in the reliability of the various components.
The foot-ankle system of Hybrid III is not instrumented: The ankle includes
a spherical joint with range restrictors that limit the maximum foot excursions
in the different directions similar to the human body; however Hybrid III does
not allows the complete investigation of the types of damage to the lower parts
of lower limbs.
Fig. 13.66 shows the measurement devices mounted on a dummy. The relatively
large number of signals to be acquired (56) and the high speed of the impact phe-
nomena require the use of complex data acquisition and analysis systems.
Side impact dummies

The EuroSID-2 (Fig. 13.65) is the dummy used in Europe to evaluate the biome-
chanical response of occupant in a side impact. The EuroSID-2 was born as an
evolution of the previous EuroSID-1 after problems registered during experimen-
tal tests by american NHTSA in 1998.
The EuroSid-2 represents a 50◦ %ile male adult, without the lower part of
arms. The head is the same as Hybrid III, while the legs are those of Hybrid II.
The chest is made of three identical ribs that can be assembled on to the spine
through several of elastic and damping elements positioned equally on the left
and right sides, in order to enable crash tests with both impact configurations
(and permit its use also with right hand drive cars and verify the behaviour for
both the driver and the front passenger).
The abdomen is made of a metallic cast covered by a polyurethane foam mixed
with rubber parts with well defined weight and curvature. The pelvis shape is
typical of the human bone part, particularly as concerns the points relevant for
side impact and those involved in the interaction with the seat and the belt.

Fig. 13.65. EuroSID dummy for side impact.
The pelvis and the rib-damper units implement mechanisms to reduce the
friction caused by the compression movement of the ribs. The two iliac crests are
made with a special plyurethane plastic and are removable. The lumbar spine is
erect, while a ”jacket” of elastomeric material covers the chest, the two upper
parts of arms and the lower region of the pelvis.
Fig. 13.66 shows the type and the number of the measurement devices installed
on a dummy.
The WorldSID program for the research and the development of a single
dummy to replaces, as a global standard, the different types of side impact dummy
currently used is now nearing conclusion.
Other types of dummies

Other types of dummies have been developed for specific applications and types
of impacts, including the following:
• BioRID: A dummy designed to evaluate the effects of a rear impact, the

main objective being to study whiplash injuries and help designers to de-
velop more effective head and neck control solutions. BioRID is more ad-
vanced in terms of spine construction than Hybrid: 24 vertebrae simula-
tors enable BioRID to assume a seated posture which is more natural and
demonstrate the correct neck movement and configuration associated with
a rear impact.

Fig. 13.66. Instrumentation and measurable quantities from EuroSID-2.
• CRABI is a child dummy used to evaluate the effectiveness of retaining

devices for children including child seats, safety belts and airbags. There
are three CRABI models that simulate children of 6, 12 and 18 months.
• THOR is an advanced male dummy, and is the successor of Hybrid III, with
a more ”human” spine and pelvis and a face equipped with a number of
sensors that enables the analysis of facial impact with a degree of accuracy
not attainable with other dummies. The number and sensitivity of the
sensors in THOR are much higher than Hybrid III.
Virtual dummies
Bearing in mind the quality of a vehicle with respect to a crash is evaluated
principally through the biomechanical response of dummies during experimental
crash tests, the similar importance that virtual dummies models have in the CAE
approach is also evident.
These virtual dummies are used in the structuring stage of vehicle when the
impact absorption characteristics of the system need to attain the objective
relative to the safety level of the occupants.
Although physical crash test dummies have provided highly valuable data
on how human body reacts during impacts and have contributed to improve the
design of the structure, a vehicle can be used once for a physical crash test which
cannot be repeated exactly in the same way.
A second problem with physical dummies is that they only approximately
represent humans; furthermore the sensors installed in a Hybrid III, for example,

Fig. 13.67. Finite elements model for frontal impacts.
still only reproduce remotely the number of sensitive elements on a living human,
and the simulation of internal organs is still at an extremely rudimentary level.
Today virtual models of dummies used during the experimental test can be
ceated and refined to accurately reproduce the physical crash. In addition to sim-
ulating the complete occupant, studies of injuries to single parts can be made
with a high level of detail; results have demonstrated reliability and are encour-
aging.
The potentially significant advantages of virtual impact simulation with re-
spect to physical testing are evident: A virtual vehicle crashed once can be suc-
cessively modified, eg. in terms of the configuration of the belts, and the crash
repeated. Since each variable is under control and each event is repeatable, the
need and cost of physical tests would be significantly reduced.

6.2.5 Integral structures
The modern mass-produced passenger car is almost exclusively produced with sheet steel
pressings spot welded together to form an integral structure. This is a structure where the
component parts provide both structural and other functions. The depth of a structure such as
a space frame, can improve the stiffness and in the integral structure the whole side frame with
its depth and the roof are made to contribute to the vehicle bending and torsional stiffness. A
typical passenger car integral structure is shown in Figure 6.18.
Figure 6.18 A typical passenger car integral structure

Such a structure is geometrically very complicated and the detailed stress distribution can
only be determined by the use of Finite Element methods (see section 6.4). The structure can
be described as a ‘Redundant Structure’ as some parts can be removed (i.e. redundant) and the
structure will still carry the applied loads although with less efficiency or greater flexibility.
The stress distribution within the structure is not only a function of the applied loads but also
of the relative stiffnesses of the many components. The details of this analysis is beyond the
scope of this chapter (Roark, 1975). The advantages of the Integral Structure are numerous. It
is stiffer in bending and torsion, it is of lower weight than when using a chassis and separate
body, it can be produced with lower cost, and it produces a quieter car for the passengers.
Section 6.3 describes a method for determining the main load paths through the integral
structure for bending and torsion load cases. The function of the main structural members can
be demonstrated with this method.
6.3 Structural analysis by simple structural surfaces method
There are many ways of modelling a vehicle structure for the purpose of determining loads and
stresses within the structure. The most elementary form described as a beam has already been
considered in Figure 6.2. Complex models are considered in section 6.4. Before these complex
models are examined, it is useful to have intermediate models that help understanding of the
main load paths within the structure.
One most useful method was developed by Pawlowski (1964) is called Simple Structural
Surfaces. It is possible with this method to determine the loads on the main structural members
of an integral structure. Although this type of structure is highly redundant it is possible by
careful representation of the main elements in the structure to determine loads and hence stress
by the simple equations of statics.
For example, a simple van structure can be represented as shown in Figure 6.19. This shows
that the body structure is represented by 10 structural components or Simple Structural Surfaces.
These are the roof, floor, 2 side-frames, front panel and windscreen frame, rear frame plus three
floor cross-beams. Figure 6.19 shows the torsion load case previously described in Section
6.1.2 and the forces acting on each Simple Structural Surface. If the geometry of the vehicle
and the axle loads are known, all the edge loads P1 . . . Pn and Q1 . . . Qn, acting can be evaluated
between the Simple Structural Surfaces. From these loads the sections for the window pillars,
floor cross-beams, etc. can be evaluated to give acceptable levels of stress and deflection.
6.3.1 Definition of a Simple Structural Surface (SSS)
A Simple Structural Surface is ‘rigid’ in its own plane but ‘flexible’ out of plane. That is, it can
carry loads in its plane (tension, compression, shear, bending) but loads normal to the plane and
bending out of the plane are not possible. Figure 6.20 illustrates diagrammatically the principle
of the Simple Structural Surface.
6.3.2 Simple Structural Surfaces representing a box van in torsion
Using the same basic model of Figure 6.19 the torsion load case can be considered in detail.

Q4 Q6
10
Q4
Q6 Q4
Q5 7 Q3
Q6
h
P2 P3 Q3
5
Q1 Q2
w Q3
3
Q6 P3
Q5 2 Q2 Q6
9 Q6
Q5
Q6 P2 8 Q4
α R r′ /2
Q6 P3
Q2 6
Q1 4 Q6 P2 Q3 Q3
tr tr
Rf / 2 Rf / 2 R r′ /2
Q1 h2 P3
Q6 SF
A P2
Q1
Q2
I4
BM
(I2 + I3)
I1
Figure 6.19 Simple structural surfaces representing a van structure
My
Fx
x y
Fz
3 3 3
I x = at I y = tb I z = bt
12 12 12
Iy >> Iz Iy >> Ix
Fy = 0 Mx = 0 Mz = 0
Figure 6.20 Forces and moments only in the plane of an SSS
Taking the axle with the lightest load as explained in 6.1.2 equal and opposite loads (up and
down) are applied to the front and rear cross beams (SSS-2 and SSS-3). In this example when
Rf
fully laden a van front axle is most probably the lightest loaded axle so is taken as acting
2
up and down on SSS-2.

The moment at the front cross-beam must be reacted by an equal moment at the rear crossbeam,
therefore:
Rf R′
*t = r *t r (6.11)
2 f 2
Rr′ will be less than the rear axle load and different from the axle load Rf if the rear track tr is
different to the front track tf.
The equilibrium of the SSS-2 and SSS-3 can be obtained by taking moments, and as the
values of Rf and Rr′ are known the values of P2 and P3 are obtained
SSS-2 (Front cross-beam)

Rf
P2 w – t =0 (6.12)
2 f
SSS-3 (Rear cross-beam)
P3 w – R ′ t r = 0 (6.13)
2
P2 and P3 will in fact be equal in magnitude because they both act at the width of the vehicle
and the torque at front and rear must be equal.
Now consider the loads from the cross-beams acting on the left-hand sideframe (SSS-6).
Edge loads Q1 to Q5 will occur around the periphery of the sideframe applying an opposing
moment to the moment applied by P2 and P3. The moment equation can be developed for SSS-
6 by taking moments about A, the base of the windscreen pillar, see Figure 6.19.
P3(l1 + l2 + l3 ) – Q3(l1 + l2 + l3 + ) – Q4(h1 – h2) – Q2h2 – P2l1 = 0
l4 (6.14)
Consider the equilibrium of SSS-4, 5, 8, 9, 10. These surfaces must all be held in equilibrium
by complementary shear forces which balance the moments applied from the side-frames. The
right-hand side-frame must of course be loaded exactly opposite to the left-hand side-frame.
SSS-4 (Front panel)

Q6h2 – Q1w = 0 (6.15)
SSS-5 (Rear door frame)
Q6h1 – Q3 w = 0 (6.16)
SSS-8 (Floor panel)
Q6(l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 ) – Q2w = 0 (6.17)
SSS-9 (Windscreen frame)
Q6(h1 – h2)/sin α – Q5 w = 0 (6.18)
SSS-10 (Roof)
Q6l5 – Q4 w = 0 (6.19)

There are now six equations, 6.14 to 6.19, and six unknowns Q1 to Q6 so a solution can be
obtained. By substituting for Q2, Q3 and Q4 from equations 6.17, 6.16 and 6.19 into equation
6.14 an equation in one variable Q6 is derived. Hence the value of Q6 can be obtained and then
the other unknowns using equations 6.15 to 6.19.
It should be noted that the roof, floor, front windscreen frame and rear door frame are all
subject to complementary shear. The floor crossbeams are subject to bending moments and
shear forces while the side-frames are also loaded in bending and shear. The centre cross beam
SSS-1 has no loads applied in this case, but will be loaded in the bending case.
6.3.3 Box van structure in bending and torsion
As previously explained in Sections 6.1.2 and 6.1.3 the torsion case always is combined with
bending so using the principle of superposition the load conditions from the two cases can be
added to obtain the loads on individual members of the structure.
6.3.4 Simple Structural Surfaces representing a saloon car in bending
A passenger car structure such as for a saloon car is constructed with a more geometrically
complex structure than a box van (Figure 6.22). However, it is still possible to model with
Simple Structural Surfaces as shown in Figure 6.21. Detail models will vary according to
mechanical components, especially the suspensions, see Figure 6.23. In this model the front
suspension loads will be applied at the top of the front wing, as for a strut suspension, while the
rear suspension loads are applied to the inner longitudinal member under the boot floor. This
Structures that are structural surfaces
Structures that are NOT simple structural surfaces
Figure 6.21 Definition of Simple Structural Surfaces

4
5
1 2
η=6 η=7 η = 14
Figure 6.22 Vehicle structures represented by SSS
arrangement would apply for a twist beam/trailing arm suspension. Other suspension types and
body types (i.e. Hatchback) will require different SSSs to represent the structure.
The diagram, Figure 6.23, shows a half model for simplicity; the distribution of loads, again
for simplicity, are limited to five loads plus the uniformly distributed load representing the body
weight. The main loads are, F1z = (radiator, bumper, battery)/2, F2z = (engine)/2, F3z = one front
passenger and seat, F4z = one rear passenger, seat, and half fuel tank, F5z = (luggage)/2.
l8
SSS-9
β l7
SSS-8
lg l3 α K10
h h3
SSS-4 K10
SSS-2 M h1 K8
A
K3 K6 w3
K6 K7 K11 K11 K9
Kf h2
K1 K2 K5 F4z F5z
K2z K4 K7 F3z
SSS-1 F1a K2 K5 w K8
R zf 2
2 K9
K4 SSS-6
SSS-7 l10
SSS-3 l2 l3
l4 SSS-5
l1 R rz
w1 L l5 l6
w2 2
Figure 6.23 SSS model, saloon car – bending
The reactions at the front and rear axles are determined first. Take moments about the rear
axle and obtain Rzf/2 (a half-model is being considered). Take moments about the front axle and
obtain Rrz/2 and check by resolving vertically that vertical forces are in equilibrium. Then
working through the Simple Structural Surfaces the edge forces can be obtained.

SSS-1 (Transverse SSS representing the strut tower)
Rfz
Resolving Forces K1 + K 2 – =0 (6.20)
2
Rfz w2
Moments K1 = (6.21)
2 ( w1 + w 2 )
SSS-2 (Upper front longitudinal)
Resolving Forces K1 – K3 – u(l1 + l3 )=0 (6.22)
 (l + l 3 ) 2 
Moments K1l 3 – u  1  –M=0 (6.23)
 2 
SSS-3 (Lower front longitudinal)
Resolving Forces F1z + F2z + K5 – K2 – K4 = 0 (6.24)
SSS-4 (engine fire wall)
Resolving Forces (and by symmetry) K5 – K6 = 0 (6.25)
SSS-5 (Floor cross-beam (front))
Resolving Forces (and by symmetry) K7 – K4 – F3z = 0 (6.26)
SSS-6 (Longitudinal under boot)
Resolving Forces K9 + K8 – Rrz /2 + F5z = 0 (6.27)
Moments K9 = (Rrzl6/2 – F5zl10)/(l5 + l6 ) (6.28)
SSS-7 (Floor cross-beam (rear))
Resolving Forces (and by symmetry) K9 – K11 – F4z = 0 (6.29)
SSS-8 (Rear panel)
Resolving Forces (and by symmetry) K10 – K8 = 0 (6.30)
There are now eleven equations, 6.20 to 6.30, and the eleven unknowns (K1 . . . K10, M) can
now be evaluated. However, the equilibrium of the right-hand side-frame must be verified by
resolving forces and moments.
SSS-9 (Right-hand side-frame)

Resolving Forces K6 – K7 + K11 + K10 – u(L + l6 – l3 )=0 (6.31)
Moments about (A) K10(L + l6 – l3 ) + K11(L – l3 – l5 ) – K7 (l4 – l3 )
2
– u(L + l6 – l3 ) /2 = 0 (6.32)
It should be noted that the SSSs 1 to 9 are subject to loads while the rear boot top frame, rear
screen, roof, windscreen, floor panel and boot floor have no loads applied to them. This
analysis shows that the side-frame carries the major loads and is the main structural member for
determining the bending stiffness and strength of the car.

7.5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
It is not our intention to supply in this section comprehensive knowledge about
vehicle structural design; as we have seen that in modern cars, the underbody
and body shell are completely integrated. The technical disciplines necessary to
implement the design process are the work of the body development teams.

But we do want to supply some highlights on methods that can be easily
applied in concept development. They can be used to predict the consequences
on the vehicle structure of the application of a suspension or a subframe.
The objective of this approach is to understand in advance if an assigned
chassis component is compatible with the rest of the vehicle.
To predict the structural performance of a vehicle it is important to verify
the feasibility of the project targets.
The numeric analysis methods available today, along with the always in-
creasing processing capacity of computers are perfectly adequate to this pur-
pose, but the need for detailed mathematical models of the structure makes their
application difficult during the preliminary design phase, because much of the
information they need will be only available later. Vehicle structure completely
dependent upon visible body shape, which is frequently modified, because body
style is under development or many competing shapes are undergoing parallel de-
velopment. In addition, aerodynamic performance optimization, also performed
in parallel in this phase, introduces frequent shape changes.
During the preliminary design of a vehicle, a capacity for synthesis and quick
decision is essential.
This implies the identification of a set of critical performances to be pre-
dicted and taken under control within the project targets, beginning with super-
ficial, incomplete and frequently modified information.
For this limited purpose we will introduce the structural surface method
and the beam model method, which are in part interchangeable in this kind of
application; the second is particularly useful for separated frames or industrial
vehicle frames.
7.5.1 Structural surface method

The body shell structure can be idealized, for the study of its performance during
preliminary design, with a system composed of beams shaping a spatial grid
and of closure panels; the contribution of these panels to the global structural
behavior is quite important.
The structural surface concept introduces many assumptions to simplify the
model.
A structural surface is an elementary flat panel that because of its limited
thickness can accept loads contained in its mean plane only; loads directed to
other directions cannot be withstood because of its high flexibility.
The simplest structural surface is given by the rectangular panel shown in
Fig. 7.13, defined by two sides of dimensions a and b and thickness s, which is
assumed to be negligible with respect to the other dimensions. For such a panel
the inertia moments of the cross sections are:
s3 b3 s3
Jx = a , Jy = s , Jz = b . (7.14)
12 12 12

FIGURE 7.13. A simple structural surface composed by a flat rectangular panel.
Because of our assumption, Jx and Jz are much smaller than Jy and the
structural surface so defined will be able to withstand only bending moments
along the y axis and forces parallel to the sides.
For example, the application of a force Fz to one side of this panel can be
balanced by two shear forces Q1 and Q2 applied to the two sides, so as to satisfy
the equation:
Q1 b − Q2 a = 0 ,
(7.15)
Fz − Q2 = 0 .
But in consideration of the limited thickness, these shear forces can be ap-
plied only if there are other constraints, able to limit the shape instability of
this thin surface on the compressed side (the lower one in our example). This
constraint can be another panel, laying on a perpendicular plane, welded to the
first, or a beam probably shaped by a closed section with the near panel.
The entire body shell can be modelled with a set of plane structural surfaces,
which approximate its curved surface. The contribution of the beams can be
neglected, retaining only their role in avoiding wall instability.
Panels can be made in different shapes, but are always characterized by
their ability to react to forces contained solely in their plane
Figure 7.14 shows some useful examples for the following applications.
Figure 7.15 shows an example of a schematic model of a three volume sedan.
A car body structure can be modelled for a simplified structural analysis
as a combination of structural surfaces; now we can look at the consequences of
these assumptions.
Let us consider a roll moment applied to the body shell of Fig. 7.15 at the
front axle position; this moment can be balanced by two shear forces acting on
panels simulating the interior walls of the front wheel wells.

FIGURE 7.14. Examples of panels for a structural surface model: a rectangular panel,
b panel with reinforcement grooves, c panel with lighting opening, d door frame panel.
FIGURE 7.15. The many kinds of panel, needed for building a model of a hatchback
four doors sedan.
For example, the panel AA’BB’ receives a force contained in its mean plane
and directed upwards; as for the panel in Fig. 7.13, it is possible to calculate the
shear forces that must be applied to its sides by the adjoining panels.
The shear reaction on the side of this panel will load the near CC’D’D panel
and, from this, the panels near it. It should be noticed that the neighboring
triangular panel BB’C cannot offer any contribution, because it is perpendicular
to the direction of force, as are roof and floor panels.
A similar logical process can be applied to all forces that the front suspen-
sions apply to the body structure through the front panel AA’B’B.
If we consider a lateral force applied to the suspension, because of a bend or
the inclination of their arms, we must conclude that the panel AA’B’B is unable
to react properly; in this case, the triangular panel BB’C will do the job.
Similar considerations can be applied to a concentrated load applied to the
car floor, such as a seat mount or a rear suspension arm. The structure will be
able to react only if at the application point of the load a panel with its mean
plane directed parallel to the force is applied.

This explains why floors must also use vertical panels (as side walls of the
side beams and lateral side beams) where loads are applied.
Although resulting from rough approximations, this rule must be followed
meticulously in order to design a sound structure.
The structural surface method has the following advantages:
• Allowing the evaluation of the behavior with simple calculations in two

steps
• Enabling design modifications of a single surface without necessarily af-

fecting neighboring surfaces
The first step consists in defining loads on the sides of the structural sur-
faces. These loads can be kept constant, as a first approximation, even if their
surface will be modified; this can speed up evaluations when a design is changed
frequently.
The second step consists in determining the shear stress on each surface,
where the previously defined loads act.
The many subassemblies such as vehicle sides, door frames, roof and floor
can be studied separately as plane problems.

Introduction
• Loads due to normal running conditions:
– Vehicle transverse on uneven ground.
– Manoeuver p performed byy driver.
• Five basic load cases:
– Bending case
– Torsion case
– Combined bendingg and torsion
– Lateral loading
– Fore and aft loadingg

Bending Payload
Occupants
Fuel tank
• Due to loading in Engine
vertical (X‐Z) plane.
• Due to weight of
components along
the vehicle frame.
• Static condition vehicle Wheels/
Suspension
b ki
braking
structure can be treated
as 2‐D beam.
– Vehicle is approximately
pp y symmetric
y in x‐yy plane.
p
• Unsprung mass
– Components lie below chassis
– Do not impose loads in static condition
condition.

Bending moment/ Shear force diagram of a typical
passenger vehicle
hi l

Bending
• Dynamic loading:
– Inertia of the structure contributes in total loading
– Always higher than static loading
– Road vehicles: 2.5 to 3 times static loads
– Off road vehicles: 4 times static loads
• Example:
E l m
g
– Static loads
• Vehicle at rest .
• Moving at a constant velocity on a even road.
• Can be solved using static equilibrium balance.
• Results in set of algebraic equations. F
– Dynamic loads
• V
Vehicle
hi l moving
i on a bumpy
b roadd even att constant
t t velocity.
l it m m
g
• Can be solved using dynamic equilibrium balance. a
• Generally results in differential equations.

Torsion
• When vehicle traverse on an
uneven road.
d Rear axle
l
• Front and rear axles

experiences a moment. Front axle
• Pure simple torsion:
– Torque is applied to one axle
and reacted by other axle.
– Front axle: anti clockwise
torque (front view)
– Rear axle: balances with
clockwise torque
– Results in a torsion moment
about x‐ axis.
• In reality torsion is always
accompanied by bending due
t gravity.
to it

Torsion
Rear axle
l
Front axle

Combined bending and torsion
• Bending and torsional loads are super
imposed.
– Loadings are assumed to be linear
• One wheel of the lightly loaded axle is raised
on a bump result in the other wheel go off
ground.
• All loads of lighter axle is applied to one Bendingg Torsion
wheel.
• Due to nature of resulting loads, loading
symmetry wrt x‐z plane is lost.
• R’R can be determined from moment
balance
balance.
• R’R stabilizes the structure by increasing the
reaction force on the side where the wheel is
off ground .
• The marked –
– Side is off ground
– Side takes all load of front axle
– Side’s reaction force increases
– Side’s reaction force decreases
to balance the moment.
Combined bending and torsion

Lateral loading

Lateral loading
• For a modern car t = 1.45 m and h
= 0.51
0 51 m.
m
• Critical lateral acceleration = 1.42
g
• In realityy side forces limit lateral
acceleration is limited within 0.75
g.
• Kerb bumping causes high loads
and results in rollover.
rollover
• Width of car and reinforcements
provides sufficient bending
stiffness to withstand lateral
forces.
forces
• Lateral shock loads assumed to
be twice the static vertical loads
on wheels.

Longitudinal loading
• When vehicle accelerates and
d l t iinertia
decelerates ti fforces were
generated.
• Acceleration – Weight
transferred from front to back
back.
– Reaction force on front wheel is
given by (taking moment abt RR)
• Deceleration – Weight
transferred from back to front.
– Reaction force on front wheel is
given by

Longitudinal loading
• Limitingg tractive and
braking forces are
decided by coefficient
of friction b/w tires and
road surfaces
• Tractive and braking
forces adds bending
through suspension.
• Inertia forces adds
additional bending.

Asymmetric loading
• Results when one wheel strikes a
raised objects or drops into a pit.
• Resolved as vertical and horizontal loads.
• Magnitude of force depends on
Raised
– Speed of vehicle object`
– Suspension stiffness
– Wheel mass
– Body mass
• Applied load is a shock wave
– Which
h hh has very less
l time d
duration
– Hence there is no change in vehicle speed
– Acts through the center of the wheel.

Asymmetric loading
• Resolved vertical force causes:
– Additional axle load
– Vertical inertia load through CG
– Torsion moment
to maintain dynamic equilibrium
equilibrium.
• Resolved horizontal force
causes:
– Bending in x‐z
x z plane
– Horizontal inertia load through
CG
– Moment about z axis
to maintain dynamic equilibrium.
• Total loading is the
superposition of all four loads.

Allowable stress
• Vehicle structure is not fullyy rigid
g
• Internal resistance or stress is induced to balance
external forces
• Stress should be kept to acceptable limits
• Stress due to static load X dynamic factor ≤ yield stress
– Should not exceed 67% of yield stress.
stress
• Safety factor against yield is 1.5
• Fatigue
g analysis
y is needed
– At places of stress concentration
– Eg. Suspension mounting points, seat mounting
points.
points

Bending stiffness
• Important in structural stiffness
• Sometimes stiffness is more important than
strength
• Determined by acceptable limits of deflection
of the side frame door mechanisms.
– Excessive deflection will not shut door properly
• Local stiffness of floor is important
– Stiffened by swages pressed into panels
– Second moment of area should be increased

Bending stiffness
• Thin panels separated by honeycomb
structure reduced vibration
• Local stiffness has to be increased at:
– Door
– Bonnet
B
– Suspension attach points
– Seating mounting points
– Achieved by reinforcement plates and brackets.

Torsional stiffness
• Allowable torsion for a medium sized car: 8000 to 10000 N‐
m/deg
/
• Measured over the wheel base
• When torsion stiffness is low:
– Structure move up and down and/or whip
– When parked on uneven ground doors fail to close
– Doors fail to close while jacking if jack points are at a corner
• Torsion stiffness is influenced by windscreens
• TS reduces by 40% when windscreens removed
• O
Open top cars h
have poor torsional
i l stiffness
iff
• Handling becomes very difficult when torsional stiffness is
low.

2
Body Loads (Sivia)

2.1 Introduction: vehicle loads definition
The principal loads applied to first order and early finite element analysis are gross
simplifications of actual complex road loading events.
The actual process begins with sampling of the customer load environment on public
roads. These company programs involve instrumenting a statistically valid sample of
vehicles and measuring their use in customers’ hands across applicable geographic
regions. These data are then used to create, modify or update company proving ground
road schedules to better match real world customer usage.
The simplified load estimates presented in the following sections are recommended to
be applied only in the preliminary design stage, when the absence of test or simulation
data warrants it. They should always be qualified and updated as more information
becomes available. Additionally, each company will have its own load factors, based
on experience of successful designs, which may not necessarily be identical to the load
factors presented in this book.
2.2 Vehicle operating conditions and proving ground

tests
Environment and customer usage data are the historical basis for the road surface
types, test distance, speed and number of repetitions applied to the proving ground’s
durability test schedules.
The proving ground can provide the equivalent of, for example, 100 000 miles
(160 000 km) of high severity customer usage in a fraction of the distance. Because
even this fraction can represent several months or more of actual testing, companies
have developed laboratory tests to further compress development and validation time.
These tests provide a simulation of the proving ground’s road load environment through
computer programmed actuators applied at the tyres or wheel spindles.
As far as the passenger car body structure is concerned, the significant proving
ground events can be reduced to two types:
(a) instantaneous overloads;
(b) fatigue damage.

Table 2.1 compares these load types and lists some of the typical proving ground
events. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 illustrate some of these events. A collection of road load
durability events that a vehicle is tested for is called a schedule. The list of events which
make up a schedule such as potholes, Belgian blocks, etc. are called subschedules.
In addition there are transport loads which occur when the vehicle is being shipped
from the factory to the retail agency. These may occur from overseas, truck, air, and
rail transport. These loads are typically simplified in calculation by a static force vector
applied as a percentage of the gross vehicle weight. The tie-down attachment location
Table 2.1
Number of event Load Proving ground event

Type of load repetitions amplitude (N) Acceptance criteria examples
Instantaneous Low: <10 High: 104 Limited permanent Large pot-holes, kerb
overload deformation, maintenance bumps, large bumps, panic
of function braking, high g cornering,
high power-train torque,
overland transport, service
Fatigue High: 102 Moderate: 103 Cycles or distance to crack Cobblestone track, medium
initiation, limited crack size pot-holes, Belgium
propagation, maintenance block road, twist course,
of function transport, service
Figure 2.1 Example of fatigue loading event.

Figure 2.2 Example of proving ground event.
Figure 2.3 Example of transient load trace.
and method of lashing have a strong influence on the reaction loads into the body
structure.
Service loads are those which occur when the vehicle must be serviced either by the
customer or a technician. Examples are jacking to change a tyre, towing, hoisting, or
retrieval of a disabled vehicle from a ditch. There are usually location points designated
to help ensure that the structure is not damaged from improper use.
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 describe different loading types. Instantaneous overloads are
characterized by short duration transient events with high amplitudes.

Left front lateral spindle force
03 Ft/sec**2 deceleration, 60 MPH, Base suspension, LLVW, 35 PSI
1000
800
Force (N) − Positive sense: outward
600
400
200
0
Legend
TEST DATA
−200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (sec)
Figure 2.4 Example of fatigue load trace.
Fatigue loads are characterized by complex time histories with lower amplitudes but
a greater number of occurrences. These time histories, when multiplied by the number
of occurrences or block repetitions of the event, constitute a number of cycles on the
order of 104 to 105 .
Raw time histories are usually condensed and processed by rainflow cycle counting
or other techniques to derive the number of cycles at each stress level. This data is
then used to perform structural life estimations.
The next sections of this chapter represent gross simplifications of the dynamic load
spectra into static load estimates which are used for first order structural synthesis and
analysis.
2.3 Load cases and load factors

The vehicle designer needs to know the worst or most damaging loads to which the
structure is likely to be subjected, (a) to ensure that the structure will not fail in service
due to instantaneous overload and (b) to ensure a satisfactory fatigue life.
At the very early design stage (as covered in this book), the main interest focuses on
instantaneous strength. The considerable attention (through test and analysis) which is
paid to fatigue life is outside the scope of this book. A commonly used assumption at
the early design stage is: ‘If the structure can resist the (rare) worst possible loading
which can be encountered, then it is likely to have sufficient fatigue strength’.

For early design calculations, the actual dynamic loading on the vehicle is often
replaced by a ‘factored static loading’, thus:
dynamic load ≡ (static load) × (dynamic load factor)
An extra ‘factor of safety’ is sometimes used:
i.e. equivalent load ≡ (static load) × (dynamic load factor) × (safety factor)
In order to apply this approach, certain load cases are considered. For early design
consideration, these will be ‘global’ road load cases, i.e. affecting the structure as a
whole. As the design develops, local load cases (e.g. door slam, hinge loads, bracket
forces, etc.) will be used.
Crash cases are often the most difficult and critical to design for. They are outside
the scope of this book, since the structure moves out of the elastic regime into deep
collapse. However, the support forces for an energy absorbing part of the vehicle could
form a static load case.
2.4 Basic global load cases

The principal ‘normal running’ global road load cases are as follows (see Figure 2.5
for axis directions):
1. Vertical symmetrical (‘bending case’) causes bending about the Y–Y axis
2. Vertical asymmetric (‘torsion case’) causes torsion about the X–X axis and bending
about the Y–Y axis.
3. Fore and aft loads (braking, acceleration, obstacles, towing)
4. Lateral (cornering, nudging kerb, etc.)
5. Local load cases, e.g. door slam, etc.
Not considered here
6. Crash cases
The load cases and load factors used vary from company to company, but some typical
values, or ways of estimating them, are listed below.
X
Y
Figure 2.5 Vehicle axis system.

2.4.1 Vertical symmetric (‘bending’) load case
This occurs when both wheels on one axle of the vehicle encounter a symmetrical
bump simultaneously (see Figure 2.6). This applies a bending moment to the vehicle
about a lateral axis.
Some values for dynamic factor and additional safety factor from different workers
are listed in Table 2.2.
For off road vehicles, dynamic factors up to 6 have been used.
2.4.2 Vertical asymmetric case (and the pure torsion analysis

case)
This occurs when only one wheel on an axle strikes a bump. An extreme example
of this is shown in Figure 2.7. Vertical asymmetric loading applies torsion as well as
bending to the vehicle body. It has been found that torsion is a more severe case to
design for than bending.
Figure 2.6 Vertical symmetric load case (courtesy of MIRA UK).
Table 2.2 Bending load factors for cars
Commonly used Erz (1957) Pawlowski (1969)
Dynamic factor 3 2 2.5

Additional safety factor 1.5 1.4–1.6 (away from
stress concentrations)
1.5–2.0 (engine and
suspension mountings)

Figure 2.7 Vertical asymmetric load case (courtesy of National Motor Museum, Beaulieu).
Different vehicles will experience different torsional loads, for a given bump height,
depending on their mechanical and geometric characteristics. In order to relate the
torsion loading of any vehicle to operating conditions, Erz (1957) suggested that the
asymmetric loading should be specified by the maximum height H of a bump upon
which one wheel of one axle rests, with all other wheels on level ground.
The torque so generated will depend on the roll stiffnesses of the front and rear
suspensions and on the torsion stiffness of the vehicle body. These act as three torsion
springs in series, thus the overall torsional stiffness KTOTAL is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + +
KTOTAL KFRONT KBODY KREAR
where KFRONT and KREAR are the roll stiffnesses of the front and rear suspensions and
KBODY is the torsional stiffness of the body (i.e. about a longitudinal axis).
The vehicle body is usually much stiffer about the longitudinal axis than the front
and rear suspensions. Thus its contribution to the overall twist θ is often negli-
gible. In such cases the term 1/KBODY is small and can be omitted from the above
equation.
Thus, using the notation from Figure 2.8, the torque T generated by bump height
H (all wheels in contact) is given by:
T = KTOTAL θ
But the twist at axle 1,

H
θ ≈ H /B ∴ T = KTOTAL (2.1)
B
The torque T is caused by weight transfer onto the wheel on the bump from the wheel
on the other side of the axle.

Axle 2
Body
Axle 1
Bump
T (torque)
height H
B
(track) q ∼ H /B
(twist)
Figure 2.8 Torque generated by bump height H.
Restoring PAXLE
torque from
body and
suspension B /2
T
Bump height
H q
Track B
PL PR
Wheel loads
Figure 2.9 Forces and moments on axle 1.
Using the notation in Figure 2.9, this may be shown as follows:

For vertical force equilibrium at axle 1:
PL + PR = PAXLE
i.e. PL = PAXLE − PR (2.2)
where PAXLE is the total axle load, and PL and PR are the left- and right-hand wheel
reactions.
B
For moment equilibrium: T = (PL − PR )
2
B
substituting from (2.2): T = (PAXLE − 2PR ) (2.3a)
2
PR = PAXLE /2 − (T /B) (2.3b)
similarly: PL = PAXLE /2 + (T /B) (2.3c)

PL
PAXLE
PL
PAXLE
2
PR
PR
0 Bump height H
H MAX.
(wheel lifts off)
Figure 2.10 Static wheel reactions for bump under left wheel.
The torque will reach a limit when wheel R lifts off, i.e. when PR = 0 (and hence PL =
PAXLE ). From (2.3b)/(c), the wheel loads are seen to behave as shown in Figure 2.10.
Note it is always a wheel on the lightest loaded axle which lifts off:
B
i.e. TMAX. = PAXLE (2.4)
2
where PAXLE = load on lightest loaded axle.
Thus the maximum torque TMAX . in this limiting case may be obtained from (2.1)
and (2.4)
HMAX. B
TMAX. = KTOTAL = PAXLE (2.5)
B 2
where HMAX is the bump height to cause wheel R to lift off.
PAXLE B 2
Thus: HMAX. = (2.6)
2KTOTAL
Often, for modern passenger cars with soft springs, the suspension will strike the
‘bump stops’ for asymmetric bumps smaller than HMAX . The torsion load would then
be applied to the vehicle through the bump stop (much stiffer than the suspension
spring).
Different workers have suggested different values of H for the torsion case. Some
of these values are given in Table 2.3. Pawlowski (1969) suggested that an extra
dynamic factor be applied if the vehicle will frequently encounter rough conditions
(e.g. pot-holed ice).
Table 2.3 Torsion bump height for cars
Pawlowski (1969) Erz (1957)
Bump height 0.2 m 0.2 m

Inertial factor 1.3
Inertial factor (off road) 1.8

P RR T
P RL
P FR
Front
T
P FL
Figure 2.11 Pure Torsion Load Case.
Pure torsion load case

Erz (1957) and Pawlowski (1969) both suggested that the torque generated by this load
case should be applied as a pure torsion load case. For this, the bending component
of the vertical asymmetric case is removed, leaving equal and opposite pure couples
at either end of the vehicle (see Figure 2.11). This could not occur in practice since
it would require negative wheel reactions. However, the pure torsion load case is
important because it generates very different internal loads in the vehicle structure
from those in the bending load case, and, as such, is a different structural design case.
This will be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. The total loads in the vehicle structure can
be calculated by superimposing the separate results of the calculations for pure torsion
and pure bending, etc. This is explained in section 2.5.
2.4.3 Longitudinal loads

(a) Clutch-drop (or snap-clutch) loads
The longitudinal accelerations from this case have been found to be smaller than
braking loads, except for towing, when a factor of 1.5 has been used (but this applies a
special loading to the car). However, this case is quite severe on drive-train mounting
interfaces. It can also result in high vertical/opposite loads on mounting fixes.
(b) Braking
Table 2.4 shows overall braking load factors suggested by various workers.
Since the braking forces at the ground contact patches are offset by a vertical distance
h from the vehicle centre of gravity, there will be weight transfer from the rear to the
front wheels.
Table 2.4 Load factors for braking
Cranfield tests
Pawlowski (1969) (Tidbury 1966) Garrett (1953)
Cars 1.1 g 1.84 g 1.75 g

Trucks 0.75 g

Ma
h
Mg
mF F mF R
FF FR
LR
Figure 2.12 Weight transfer in braking.
Using the notation in Figure 2.12, for longitudinal force equilibrium:

Ma = µMg = µFF + µFR (2.7)
where µ = tyre friction coefficient, M = vehicle mass, a = braking deceleration and
Mg = vehicle weight.
For moment equilibrium about the rear contact patch:
FF L = MgLR + Mah (2.8)
Thus, from (2.7) and (2.8) the front axle vertical reaction FF is:
FF = Mg(LR + µh)/L
Similarly, the rear axle vertical reaction FR is:
FR = Mg(LF − µh)/L
(c) Longitudinal load on striking a bump

Using the notation from Figure 2.13 and assuming static equilibrium, in which case
the resultant wheel reaction passes through the wheel centre:
Direction
of travel
q P
2R
PV
Step PH Just
lifting
Figure 2.13 Longitudinal bump case.

Vertical equilibrium: P sin θ = PV
Horizontal equilibrium: P cos θ = PH
Thus: PH = (PV / sin θ ) cos θ = (PV / tan θ )
where Pv = static vertical wheel load and PH is the horizontal force developed, and
sin θ = (R − H )/R = 1 − (H /R)
(Assuming approximately equal rolling and free radii of the tyre.)

This neglects dynamic effects including wheel inertia. These are very important in
this case and Garrett (1953) suggested a dynamic load factor KDYN = 4.5 so that:
PH = KDYN (PV / tan θ )
For a given bump height H and vertical wheel force PV , the horizontal force PH
depends on wheel radius (smaller wheels developing larger forces) as illustrated in
Figure 2.14. At large step sizes approaching the magnitude of the wheel radius, the
longitudinal force becomes very large, because the term tan θ approaches zero. In
reality, the longitudinal force could not reach infinity, as shown in the table, because
the strength of the suspension would set a limit on the forces experienced by the
vehicle.
Pawlowski (1969) suggested the step height H should be the same as for the torsion
(vertical asymmetric) case.
H/R PH /PV (static)
0.1 0.48
0.25 0.88
0.293 1.00
0.5 1.73
0.75 3.87
1.0 ∞
PH /PV
0 H /R = 1 H /R
Figure 2.14 Longitudinal load plotted against height of step (no dynamic factor).

2.4.4 Lateral loads
Lateral loads on the vehicle can be limited by a number of situations.
(a) Sliding of tyres (cornering, see Figure 2.15(a) and 2.16)

max. force = µ Mg
where Mg = vehicle weight and µ = friction coefficient (see Table 2.4).
(b) Kerb nudge (‘overturning’)

The lateral force reaches a maximum when the wheel (A) opposite the kerb just lifts
off. (Actual rollover of the car will not occur unless there is sufficient energy before
impact to lift the vehicle centre of gravity to point B above the kerb contact point C
after impact). Using the symbols in Figure 2.15(b) and taking moments about point C:
B
F(LAT) h = Mg ×K
2
MgB
F(LAT) = ×K
2h
B
F LAT F LAT
h
Mg B /2
mMg (Max.) Mg A C R
Kerb
force
(a) (b)
Figure 2.15 Lateral load cases.
PF
L1
FLAT
CG
L2
PR
Figure 2.16 Fore and aft distribution of wheel loads in cornering.

where F(LAT) = lateral force, h = height of CG above ground, B = track, K =
dynamic safety factor (due to short duration pulse and rotational inertia). Garrett (1953)
suggested K = 1.75. Other workers suggested K = 1.4.
It should be borne in mind that the above formulae are not intended as a means of
predicting or assessing a rollover event. Rather, it is intended for making a preliminary
estimate of the lateral force acting on the vehicle body and attachments.
(c) Fore and aft distribution of lateral loads

As a rough first approximation for fore/aft lateral load distribution, take moments
about the vertical axis through the centre of gravity of the vehicle (this assumes static
equilibrium in yaw). Using the nomenclature in Figure 2.16:
PF L1 − PR L2 = 0 (moments about the centre of gravity)

but PF + PR = FLAT (lateral force equilibrium)
Combining and rearranging:

F(LAT) L2
PF =
(L1 + L2 )
F(LAT) L1
PR = (F(LAT) = total lateral force, e.g. from turning)
L1 + L2
As with the longitudinal cases, in the lateral cases there will be weight transfer onto the
outer wheels due to the offset h between the ground and the vehicle centre of gravity.
2.5 Combinations of load cases

For the sake of calculation, the load cases are usually split into separate idealized cases
and the results are then combined, by addition (i.e. using the principle of superposition)
to give the effect of the real loads. The main idealized load cases are: (1) bending
(as in symmetrical vertical load case); (2) pure torsion; (3) the lateral cases; (4) the
longitudinal cases.
Example Vertical asymmetric case

Consider an internal load in one of the structural members (e.g. shear force Q, see
Chapters 4 and 5). If the bending load case causes it to take value QB and the pure
torsion case causes it to take value QT then in the combined case its value will be
QB + QT . The combination of loads on the vehicle is illustrated in Figure 2.17.
In the wheel lift-off case (see section 2.4.2) the pure torsion case wheel load on the
lightest loaded axle would be equal to the wheel load for the pure bending case on
that axle. Suppose, for example, that the lightest loaded axle were at the rear. Then for
the wheel lift-off case P2 would be equal to PR . Then the resultant rear wheel loads
would become 2PR on the left, and zero on the right. On the other axle, at the front
in this example, the wheel loads would be (PF − PT ) and (PF + PT ) on the left- and
right-hand sides respectively.

Load case 1: bending
(symm. vertical case)
wheel loads P F and PR
Mg Load case 2:
pure torsion case
PF wheel loads P T and P2
PF PR
PR PT
T
+
PT
T
P2 P2
PT P2
Mg
PT
= PF P2
PF PR
PR Combination
Rear
Figure 2.17 Vertical asymmetric loading as a combination of cases.
2.5.1 Road loads

The vertical asymmetric case illustrates another point, namely that in real life, many
of the pure load cases described in section 2.4 will occur in combination with each
other. For example, the vehicle weight is always present, so that the longitudinal cases
(section 2.4.3) and the lateral cases (section 2.4.4) are always accompanied by, at least,
a 1 g vertical load (and sometimes more, for example the vertical symmetrical bump
case (section 2.4.1)).
On the road, almost any combination of the pure cases from section 2.4 can be
encountered. For example, a cornering vehicle might encounter a bump (or pot-
hole) with one wheel. This could involve the extreme vertical asymmetric load case
(section 2.4.2) plus the extreme factored longitudinal bump case (section 2.4.3(c))
plus the cornering case (section 2.4.4(a)) and possibly also the braking case
(section 2.4.3(b))!
Some of the cases cannot occur together in their extreme forms. Thus, tyre adhesion
limitations mean that the full straight line braking and full pure cornering loads cannot
occur simultaneously, and allowance must be made for this.

Fire station vechiles
"Fire Engines" redirects here. For the Scottish post-punk band, see The Fire Engines.
"Fire Truck" redirects here. For the 1978 arcade game, see Fire Truck (video game).
A fire engine in Cambridge, England, responding to an emergency call, 2010
A fire apparatus, fire engine, fire truck, or fire appliance is a vehicle designed to assist in
fighting fires by transporting firefighters to the scene and providing them with access to the fire, along with
water or other equipment. In some areas, the terms fire engine and fire truckrepresent different types
of firefighting apparatus.
A modern fire engine is usually a multi-purpose vehicle carrying paid firefighters or volunteers and
equipment for a wide range of firefighting and rescue tasks. Therefore, most fire engines carry equipment
such as ladders, pike poles, axes and cutting equipment, halligan bars, fire extinguishers, ventilating
equipment, floodlights, hose ramps, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), and general tools. Many
fire appliances are based on standard truck or lorry models with heavy duty suspensions, brakes, tires,
alternator, transmission and cooling systems; audible and visual warnings such as sirens, horns, and
flashing lights; and a two-way radio.
The fire engine may have several methods of pumping water onto the fire, such as passing water
obtained from a fire hydrant throughhoses or using a pumping "cannon" (also known as a monitor or deck
gun); some trucks have an onboard water reservoir. Some fire engines may carry ladders to gain access
to fires occurring in high-rise buildings and remove casualties, or hooks used to pull walls away to expose
hidden fire or break windows. In some regions, a rescue unit is an EMS truck with tools to carry
out technical rescuesof people from traffic collisions or structural collapses.
Fire departments covering large metropolitan areas may have specialist appliances for dealing
with hazardous material incidents. Some fire departments may utilise fire trains, fireboats or airplanes,
depending on the local geography.
Contents
 1 Types
o 1.1 Conventional fire apparatus
o 1.2 Aerial apparatus

 1.2.1 Turntable ladder
 1.2.1.1 Tower ladder
 1.2.1.2 Tiller ladder
 1.2.1.3 Quint/quad
 1.2.2 Hydraulic platform
 1.2.3 Aerial ladder platform
o 1.3 Rescue apparatus
 1.3.1 Heavy rescue vehicle
 1.3.2 Rescue engine/pumper
Types
Conventional fire apparatus
A conventional pumper of the Fire and Rescue NSW in Wagga Wagga, Australia
The conventional fire apparatus (also called a fire appliance, fire tender, fire engine, water ladder,
pumper and pump-ladder) may have several methods of pumping water on to the fire. The most
common method is to pass water from a pump through hoses to the fire, from an array of valves. It may
also have a fixed pumping "cannon" (also called a fire monitor or deck gun), which can direct the water as
pointed by the operator. The horizontal and vertical range of the monitor arrangement usually is limited
and appropriate only for specific tasks, such as airport fires. Monitors can also be used as water
cannons for crowd control. A fire engine may have an onboard water reservoir allowing firefighters to
begin tackling the fire immediately or it may be completely reliant on external sources, such as fire
hydrants, water tenders, natural sources such as rivers, or reservoirs by using draft water suction. A
development is the use of an impulse fire-extinguishing system (IFEX), in which the water is highly
pressurized into a vaporous mist, creating a cooling effect that is more efficient than that of water
alone.[1] Some fire engines have been equipped with injectors for mixing foam into the pumped water
stream creating a foam solution that is more effective than water alone. Some modern apparatus have
included an air pump alongside foam injection to produce a compressed air foam product that further
increases the efficiency of the water stream, cutting down dramatically on extinguishing time and water
damage. This is referred to as a CAFS (compressed air foam system).

Aerial apparatus
Turntable ladder
Several aerial apparatus in use at a fire inLos Angeles
A turntable ladder (TL) is perhaps the best-known form of specialised aerial apparatus, and is used to
gain access to fires occurring at height using a large telescopic ladder, where conventional ladders
carried on conventional appliances might not reach.
The name is derived from the fact that the large ladder is mounted on a turntable on the back of
a truck chassis, allowing it to pivot around a stable base, which in turn allows a much greater ladder
length to be achieved. To increase its length, the ladder is telescopic. Modern TLs are
either hydraulic or pneumatic in operation.
A ladder can also be mounted behind the cab. This is sometimes called "mid-ship" and the arrangement
allows a shorter wheelbase for the truck, and also can be more stable in some conditions. Rear-mount
ladders are built on wheelbases as short as 8ft 10in. Examples are 60ft units manufactured by Gimaex.
The key functions of a turntable ladder are:
 Allowing access or egress of firefighters and casualties at height;

 Providing a high level water point for firefighting (elevated master stream);
 Providing a working platform from which tasks such as ventilation or overhaul can be executed.
While the traditional characteristic of a fire appliance was a lack of water pumping or storage, many
modern TLs have a water pumping function built in (and some have their own onboard supply reservoir),
and may have a pre-piped waterway running the length of the ladder, to allow a stream of water to the
firefighters at the top. In some cases, there may also be a monitor at the top of the ladder for ease of use.
Other appliances may simply have a trackway which will hold a manually run hose reel securely, and
prevent it from falling to the ground.
Tower ladder
Some turntable ladders may have a basket (sometimes known as a bucket) mounted at the top of the
ladder, as on a hydraulic platform; these are called tower ladders. These appliances can provide a
secure place for a firefighter to operate equipment from, and allow multiple people, including rescued
persons, to be carried.
Tiller ladder

A tiller ladder of the Los Angeles Fire Department manufactured by American LaFrance
A tiller ladder, also known as a tractor-drawn aerial or hook-and-ladder truck, is a specialised

turntable ladder mounted on a semi-trailer truck. It has two drivers, with separatesteering wheels for front
and rear wheels. This truck is primarily used in the United States, especially in cities—like San
Francisco and Washington, DC—where narrow streets cannot be entered by longer, rigid-bodied trucks.
The hook-and-ladder concept originated when taller buildings and narrow city streets became a problem
for fire departments. Larger ladders were needed to get to the upper stories of buildings, and the only way
to move these large ladders was with a large vehicle. However, the only way to position these ladders
properly was with a highly maneuverable vehicle. The independent steering for the rear wheels improves
maneuverability and allows the truck to quickly position itself for fighting fires.
Quint/quad
In some areas of the United States, the turntable ladder may be known as a quint or quad, as it is capable
of performing multiple tasks (pump, water tank, fire hose, aerial device, and ground ladders) with each of
these functions making up one of its four (Quad) or five (Quint) capabilities. The National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) has certain specification that a turntable ladder has to meet to be officially considered
a quint or quad (such as fire pump capacity, minimum amounts of equipment, etc.).
Hydraulic platform
A telescopic hydraulic platform inRoskilde, Denmark
A hydraulic platform, also known as articulating booms, Snorkels, platform trucks,Bronto (used in
Australia) or sometimes shortened to just HP, is a specialized aerial work platform designed for
firefighting use. They have a number of functions, which follow the same principles as the turntable
ladder, providing high level access and elevated water pump positions.
Some hydraulic platforms are articulated, which allows the arm to bend in one or more places, giving it
the ability to go "up and over" an obstacle (such as a building roof). There are non-articulated platforms,
based on standard aerial work platforms, although the most common type is the tower ladder (mentioned

above). HPs (articulated or not) may still have a ladder arrangement fitted to the arm, primarily as an
emergency measure. In some jurisdictions these can be denoted ladder platforms.
Most HPs are designed to reach a height of around 33 metres (100 feet), although larger models are
capable of reaching heights of over 100 metres (328 feet).[2]
Many HPs are fitted with additional equipment in the platform itself, which can include a control panel,
lighting equipment, a fixed water outlet or monitor, power outlets or compressed air outlets (allowing the
fixing of rescue equipment, such as hydraulic rescue tools). Many are also adapted or capable of carrying
a stretcher. Some units have video systems and remote control in case of dangerous chemical fires.
In an emergency, liquid-concrete pumping boom trucks can be temporarily repurposed for delivery of
water for firefighting, as in the case of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011.[3]
[edit]Aerial ladder platform

Some fire departments use aerial ladder platforms (ALPs), or aerial water towers, the purpose of
which is to deploy an elevated master stream of water, although it does not provide any access for
firefighters. In many departments however, this function is better performed by a HP or TL.
Rescue apparatus
Heavy rescue vehicle
Main article: Heavy rescue vehicle
Heavy rescue vehicle with the Fire Bureau in Sapporo, Japan
A heavy rescue vehicle, sometimes referred to as a Rescue Company, Rescue Squador Technical
Rescue, is a type of specialty firefighting or EMS apparatus. Essentially gianttoolboxes on wheels, they
are primarily designed for technical rescue situations such asvehicle extrications following traffic
collisions, confined space rescues, rope rescues,swiftwater rescues, or building collapses.
In the U.S., NFPA regulations 1006 and 1670 provide guidelines and regulations for the operation of
heavy rescue vehicles and also state that all "rescuers" must have medical training to perform any
technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself.[4][5] In most rescue environments, fire
department personnel conduct rescue operations working hand-in-hand with medical personnel, such as
EMTs or paramedics.
In addition to fire and rescue departments, tram or railway companies may have their own dedicated
heavy rescue squads.[6][7] For example, railway rescue squads may carry very specialized equipment for
railway accidents like hydraulic jacks with capacity for lifting locomotives or even moving them
horizontally, and equipment for tank car accidents.[8]

Rescue engine/pumper
A rescue pumper or rescue engine is a purpose-built unit of fire apparatus beyond a typical NFPA Class
A rated engine company. The original concept was to marry the capabilities of a heavy rescue squad and
that of a class A rated pumper, that is to add 1,000 gpm or greater fire pump and 500 gallons of water.
This is a newer concept that first began in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
This first design did not include all the supply hose that is usually carried on a typical engine, but had the
tool-carrying capacity of a heavy squad, including extrication equipment and the specialized rescue tools
not carried on ladder trucks or engine companies.
The current design is more like a typical fire engine than a true rescue pumper. Today's rescue engine
differs from the original unit concept Rescue Pumper, designed by Fire Chief S. E. Politano, which was
simply to add more initial firefighting capabilities (onboard water and pumping capacity) to a heavy rescue
squad, not bring heavy rescue squad capabilities to an engine company.
Concrete mixer
A concrete mixer (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously
combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses
a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so
that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete
before it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete or cement by hand. This is usually done in a
wheelbarrow; however, several companies have recently begun to sell modified tarps for this purpose.
The concrete mixer was invented by Columbus industrialist Gebhardt Jaeger
Concrete mixing transport truck
Terex Advance front discharge truck with three lift axles including one tag axle
Front discharge truck cab detail

Special concrete transport trucks (in–transit mixers) are made to transport and mix concrete up to the
construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during
transport. With this process, the material has already been mixing. The concrete mixing transport truck
maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of
the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is
pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is being
transported to the building site. This is known as "charging" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other
direction, the Archimedes' screw-type arrangement "discharges", or forces the concrete out of the drum.
From there it may go onto chutes to guide the viscous concrete directly to the job site. If the truck cannot
get close enough to the site to use the chutes, the concrete may be discharged into a concrete pump,
connected to a flexible hose, or onto a conveyor belt which can be extended some distance (typically ten
or more metres). A pump provides the means to move the material to precise locations, multi-floor
buildings, and other distance prohibitive locations. The drum is traditionally made of steel but on some
newer trucks as a weight reduction measure, fibreglass has been used.
"Rear discharge" trucks require both a driver and a "chuteman" to guide the truck and chute back and
forth to place concrete in the manner suitable to the contractor. Newer "front discharge" trucks have
controls inside the cab of the truck to allow the driver to move the chute in all directions. The first front
discharge mixer was designed and built by Royal W. Sims of Holladay, Utah.
Concrete mixers are equipped with anywhere from two axles and up. Four, five and six axle trucks are the
most common with the number being determined by the load and local legislation governing allowable
loads on the road. These are necessary to distribute the load evenly and allow operation on weight
restricted roads and to reduce wear and tear on normal roads. A two or three axle truck during the winter
when road weight limits are reduced has no usable payload in many jurisdictions. Other areas may
require expensive permits to operate. Additional axles other than those used for steering ("steers") or
drivetrain ("drives") may be installed between the steers and drives or behind the drives. Mixers
commonly will have multiple steering axles as well, which generally result in very large turning radii. To
facilitate maneuvering the additional axles may be "lift axles" which allows them to be raised off the
ground so that they do not scrub (get dragged sideways across the ground) on tight turns, or increase the
vehicle's turning radius. Axles installed behind the drives are known as "tag axles" or "booster axles", and
are often equipped to turn opposite to the steering axle to reduce scrubbing and automatically lift when
the truck is put into a reverse gear.
Tractor trailer combination mixers where the mixer is installed on a trailer instead of a truck chassis are
used in some jurisdictions, such as the province of Quebec where even 6 axle trucks would have trouble
carrying a useful load.
Concrete mixers generally do not travel far from their plant, as the concrete begins to set as soon as it is
in the truck. Many contractors require that the concrete be in place within 90 minutes after loading. If the
truck breaks down or for some other reason the concrete hardens in the truck, workers may need to enter

the barrel with jackhammers; dynamite is still occasionally used to break up hardened concrete in the
barrel under certain circumstances.
Stephen Stepanian filed a patent application for the first truck mixer in 1916.[2] Trucks weigh 20,000 to
30,000 pounds (9,070 to 13,600 kg), and can carry roughly 40,000 pounds (18,100 kg) of concrete
although many varying sizes of Mixer Truck are currently in use. The most common truck capacity is 8
cubic yards (6.1 m3).
Most concrete mixers in the UK are limited to a speed of 56 miles per hour (90 km/h).
Ambulance
An ambulance is a vehicle for transportation of sick or injured people to, from or between places of treatment
for an illness or injury,[1]and in some instances will also provide out of hospital medical care to the patient. The
word is often associated with road goingemergency ambulances which form part of an emergency medical
service, administering emergency care to those with acute medical problems.
The term ambulance does, however, extend to a wider range of vehicles other than those with flashing warning
lights and sirens. The term also includes a large number of non-urgent ambulances which are for transport of
patients without an urgent acute condition (seefunctional types, below) and a wide range of urgent and non-
urgent vehicles including trucks, vans, bicycles, motorbikes, station wagons, buses, helicopters, fixed-wing
aircraft, boats, and even hospital ships (see vehicle types, also below).
The term ambulance comes from the Latin word ambulare, meaning to walk or move about[2] which is a
reference to early medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling. The word originally meant a
moving hospital, which follows an army in its movements. [3]During the American Civil War vehicles for
conveying the wounded off the field of battle were called ambulance wagons. [4] Field hospitalswere still called
ambulances during the Franco-Prussian War[5] of 1870 and in the Serbo-Turkish war of 1876[6] even though the
wagons were first referred to as ambulances about 1854 during the Crimean War.[7]
There are other types of ambulance, with the most common being the patient transport ambulance (sometimes
called an ambulette). These vehicles are not usually (although there are exceptions) equipped with life-support
equipment, and are usually crewed by staff with fewer qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances.
Their purpose is simply to transport patients to, from or between places of treatment. In most countries, these
are not equipped with flashing lights or sirens. In some jurisdictions there is a modified form of the ambulance
used, that only carries one member of ambulance crew to the scene to provide care, but is not used to
transport the patient.[8] Such vehicles are called fly-cars. In these cases a patient who requires transportation to
hospital will require a patient-carrying ambulance to attend in addition to the fast responder

Functional types
Ambulances can be grouped into types depending on whether or not they transport patients, and under
what conditions. In some cases, ambulances may fulfil more than one function (such as combining
emergency ambulance care with patient transport).
 Emergency ambulance – The most common type of ambulance, which provide care to patients with
an acute illness or injury. These can be road-going vans, boats, helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft
(known as air ambulances) or even converted vehicles such as golf carts.
 Patient transport ambulance – A vehicle, which has the job of transporting patients to, from or
between places of medical treatment, such as hospital or dialysis center, for non-urgent care. These
can be vans, buses or other vehicles.
 Response unit – Also known as a fly-car or a [Quick Response Vehicle], which is a vehicle which
is used to reach an acutely ill patient quickly, and provide on scene care, but lacks the capacity to
transport the patient from the scene. Response units may be backed up by an emergency ambulance
which can transport the patient, or may deal with the problem on scene, with no requirement for a
transport ambulance. These can be a wide variety of vehicles, from standard cars, to modified vans,
motorcycles, pedal cycles,quad bikes or horses. These units can function as a vehicle for officers or
supervisors (similar to a fire chief's vehicle, but for ambulance services).
 Charity ambulance – A special type of patient transport ambulance is provided by a charity for the
purpose of taking sick children or adults on trips or vacations away from hospitals, hospices or care
homes where they are in long term care. Examples include the United Kingdom's 'Jumbulance'
project.[10] These are usually based on a bus.
 Bariatric ambulance – A special type of patient transport ambulance designed for extremely obese
patients equipped with the appropriate tools to move and manage these patients.
Vehicle types
Ambulances can be based on many types of vehicle, although emergency and disaster conditions may
lead to other vehicles serving as makeshift ambulances:
 Van or pickup truck – A typical ambulance is based on either the chassis of a van (vanbulance) or
pickup truck. This chassis is then modified to the designs and specifications of the purchaser.
 Car/SUV – Used either as a fly-car for rapid response[8] or for patients who can sit, these are
standard car models adapted to the requirements of the service using them. Some cars are capable
of taking a stretcher with a recumbent patient, but this often requires the removal of the front
passenger seat, or the use of a particularly long car. This was often the case with early ambulances,
which were converted (or even serving) hearses, as these were some of the few vehicles able to
accept a human body in a supine position.

Mercedes-Benz Sprinter ambulance typically used in England, Wales and Northern Ireland
 Motorcycle – In developed areas, these are used for rapid response in an emergency[11] as they can
travel through heavy traffic much faster than a car or van. Trailers or sidecars can make these patient
transporting units.[12][13] See also motorcycle ambulance.
 Bicycle – Used for response, but usually in pedestrian-only areas where large vehicles find access
difficult.[14][15] Like the motorcycle ambulance, a bicycle may be connected to a trailer for patient
transport, most often in the developing world.[16] See also cycle responder.
 All-terrain vehicle (ATV) – for example quad bikes; these are used for response off
road,[17] especially at events. ATVs can be modified to carry a stretcher, and are used for tasks such
as mountain rescue in inaccessible areas.
 Golf cart or Neighborhood Electric Vehicle – Used for rapid response at events[18] or on
campuses. These function similarly to ATVs, with less rough terrain capability, but with less noise.
 Helicopter – Usually used for emergency care, either in places inaccessible by road, or in areas
where speed is of the essence, as they are able to travel significantly faster than a road
ambulance.[19] Helicopter and fixed-wing ambulances are discussed in greater detail at air
ambulance.
 Fixed-wing aircraft – These can be used for either acute emergency care in remote areas (such as
in Australia, with the 'Flying Doctors'[20]), for patient transport over long distances (e.g. a re-patriation
following an illness or injury in a foreign country[21]), or transportation between distant hospitals.
Helicopter and fixed-wing ambulances are discussed in greater detail at air ambulance.
 Boat – Boats can be used to serve as ambulances, especially in island areas[22] or in areas with a
large number of canals, such as the Venetian water ambulances. Some lifeboats orlifeguard vessels
may fit the description of an ambulance as they are used to transport a casualty.
 Ship – Ships can be used as hospital ships, mostly operated by national military
services,[23] although some ships are operated by charities.[24] They can meet the definition of
ambulances as they provide transport to the sick and wounded (along with treatment). They are
often sent to disaster or war zones to provide care for the casualties of these events.
 Bus – In some cases, buses can be used for multiple casualty transport, either for the purposes of
taking patients on journeys,[10] in the context of major incidents, or to deal with specific problems such
as drunken patients in town centres.[25][26] Ambulance busses are discussed at greater length in their
own article.

 Trailer – In some instances a trailer, which can be towed behind a self-propelled vehicle can be
used. This permits flexibility in areas with minimal access to vehicles, such as on small islands.[27]
 Horse and cart – Especially in developing world areas, more traditional methods of transport include
transport such as horse and cart, used in much the same way as motorcycle or bicycle stretcher units
to transport to a local clinic.
 Hospital train – Early hospital trains functioned to carry large numbers of wounded
soldiers.[28] Similar to other ambulance types, as Western medicine developed, hospital trains gained
the ability to provide treatment. In some rural locations, hospital trains now function as mobile
hospitals, traveling by rail from one location to the next, then parking on a siding to provide hospital
services to the local population.[29] Hospital trains also find use in disaster response[29]
Towing
A truck towing a trailer with a lawn mower
Towing is the process of pulling or drawing behind a chain, line, bar or some other form of couplings. Towing is
most visibly performed by vehicles, but anything from waterborne vessels to tractors to people can tow cargo.
Troop carrying and cargo carrying gliders were towed behind powered aircraft during WWII and remains a
popular means for modern leisure gliders to take off. In the maritime industry in particular, towing is a refined
science.
Types of trailers

Most trailers fit into one of five categories:
 Flat bed or open trailers are platforms with no sides or stakes. This type of trailer works well for
hauling large or unconventional shaped objects.
 Enclosed trailers are fully covered by four sides and a roof. These types of trailers are generally used
for carrying livestock since they protect the contents from weather. People also rent these types of
trailers for moving boxes, furniture and other materials.
 Boat trailers are used specifically for pulling boats. These types of trailers are designed for easy
loading in and out of the water and are purchased based on the specific type and style of boat they
will be hauling.
 Recreational vehicles (RV) are utility vehicles or vans that are often equipped with living facilities.
These types of trailers can be attached to the back of almost any road vehicle and are commonly
used for camping outings or road trips. Living trailers in the United Kingdom are commonly known as
caravans.
 Tank trailers, which are trailers designed to contain liquids such as milk, water or motor fuel.
Towing safety
There are many safety considerations to properly towing a caravan or trailer / travel trailer starting with
vehicle towing capacity and ranging through equalizer hitches to properly and legally connecting the
safety chains.
According to the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Association, more than 65,000 crashes
involving passenger vehicles towing trailers occurred in 2004 in the US, jumping nearly 20 percent from
the previous year.
In 2006, Master Lock did their annual study on towing safety to see how many Americans tow their
cargo correctly. The study, Towing Troublesincluded responses from trailer owners across the country
and found that while the majority of trailer owners believe they know what they’re doing when it comes to
towing, most were lacking the proper education. Master Lock reported that 70 percent of trailer owners
did not fully know the correct way to tow their cargo.
An important factor in towing safety is tongue weight, the weight with which the trailer presses down on
the tow vehicle's hitch. Insufficient tongue weight can cause the trailer to sway back and forth when
towed. Too much tongue weight can cause problems with the tow vehicle.[1]
Caravan loading: The way in which you load your caravan will affect the way that it drives. Wrongly
loaded caravans are far more likely to swerve or snake and so will be much more difficult to control.
Follow these loading guidelines to achieve the maximum amount of stability for your caravan. - Always
store heavy smaller items low down, ideally over the axles or just in front of them. - Try and maintain even
weight distribution. If you have heavy items to place in front of the axle balance them by placing an
equally weighted item just behind the axle. - Lighter, larger items can be carried in the towing vehicle. -
Only place lighter items in the overhead lockers. - Place heavy and medium weighted items towards the
front of the vehicle. - Safely secure all items in the caravan. Tying them down if necessary. - Gas
canisters must be turned off at the cylinder when moving.
Towbar Wiring

Vehicle Specific Towbar Wiring
Of the many cars fitted with towbars, most are likely to have fitted towing electrics which are ‘hidden’ from
the car. This electrical installation is commonly called ‘By-pass electrics’. This system is used to protect
the car's lighting systems from potential damage if wiring in a trailer should malfunction. It is a tried and
tested system in very wide use. Bypass systems are found both in "universal" (non-vehicle-specific)
systems and in dedicated and OEM systems.
Since the early 2000s, vehicle technology has moved forward introducing CANbus network systems
which allowed the interaction of different systems, and also the detection of a trailer or caravan. In some
cases, the manufacturers have not only designed automobiles to sense the presence of a trailer, but
they have also created enhanced new features within the systems connected to the network. This actually
makes it important that these particular vehicles can "see" the trailer or caravan. A few of these new
features are for safety and stability, but most are merely convenience things like automatically switching
off the rear fog light and parking sensors. The main new safety feature, appearing now on some cars, is
the Trailer Stability Program which automatically turns on when a trailer detected in the network through
the dedicated sensors.
Some of the advanced systems being introduced in certain vehicles, that may make use of detecting the
presence of a trailer are: lane change assistant, brake electronics, adaptive cruise control, suspension
system (ASS), engine electronics, engine cooling system, parking aids, and reversing camera.
TSP or Trailer Stability Program is one feature which has been added to some vehicles, to help
correct the ‘snaking’ action of a trailer. With such advanced technology, some braking systems have even
evolved further by being operated electronically, without the need for hydraulics. Braking can become
more controlled with faster braking efficiency when towing. Some suspension systems can now detect a
trailer and allow for a more level towing adjustment when the load is applied on the towing hitch. ACC
(Adaptive Cruise Control) systems are meant to ‘detect’ a trailer in order to create a greater braking
distance between vehicles. It might be considered unwise to bypass such vehicles' trailer detection
systems as these vehicles may be designed to behave in a different way when a trailer is attached.
Some manufacturers either put a prepared connector in the vehicle which is a preparation on the network
(Ford, Volvo) to accept a specially designed towing module, or have designed the trailer to be ‘detected’
through connections directly onto the databus (VAG, BMW). With such connections the vehicle will know
when a trailer plug is connected to the socket.
On vehicles that do not have safety features that depend on the vehicle sensing the presence of a trailer,
bypass systems, properly installed by expert fitters, are very efficient and cost effective alternatives to
expensive OEM and other dedicated kits. All bypass kits will be type approved for use on vehicles (check
for the (e) mark). They have the built-in advantage of completely isolating the trailer from the vehicle's
lighting system, thus protecting against damage to the car caused by any failure within the trailer's wiring.
However, a number of manufacturers do not recommend connections to be made on the lighting harne
Universal By-pass Electrics

This system is used to protect the car's lighting systems from potential damage if wiring in a trailer should
malfunction. It is a tried and tested system in very wide use. Bypass systems are found both in "universal"
(non vehicle-dedicated) systems and in dedicated and OEM systems. It works by taking a small current
signal from the vehicle's lighting harness to trigger a relay and send a direct power supply to the towing

socket. It does not communicate with the vehicle and will not activate any safety or convenience systems.
It has the built-in advantage of isolating the trailer wiring from that of the towing vehicle and thus
preventing overloading the vehicle's own lighting harness which may be minimal gauge cabling. The
connection onto this harness will cause damage if solder or crimp connectors are used! However, by-
pass systems should protect the car's electrical modules from damage should the wiring in a towed trailer
malfunction. It is not advised for use in cars that depend on sensing the presence of a trailer to activate
towing-related safety features within the car.(See Trailer Stability Programme). In addition to this, there
are a number of vehicle manufacturers that do not recommend or actually ban any connections to be
made from the vehicle lighting harness.
12N, 12S or 13 Pin Sockets

12N is the designation for the older 7-pin lighting socket, used when towing just a trailer or caravan
(without the need for charge or fridge functions). In the UK it has all the functions of the rear lights on a
vehicle except for reverse. These sockets are not waterproof and suffer from "pin burn-out" when worn.
12S is an additional 7-pin socket mainly used when towing caravans. It consists of a permanent 12v
power supply, and usually a switched 12v power supply for the fridge (UK). It also contains a feed for the
reverse lights on the caravan.
13 Pin is the new ISO standard (ISO 11446) socket being fitted to all new U.K. caravans sold in 2009. It
can be wired with the same functions as both the 12N and 12S sockets, or with just the lighting functions
including reverse (required on all trailers and caravans from October 2012). The socket has been
designed to be waterproof, easy to fit/remove (twist operation), the same size as one 12N socket (ideal
for detachable towbars as unobtrusive), and with good fitting quality terminals that avoid any pin burnout
or voltage failure.
Trailer Stability Program or TSP

Another advance in trailer safety is the development of the Trailer Stability Program, built into some
Electronic Stability Control systems in today's motor vehicles. These systems can detect the "snaking" of
a trailer or caravan and counteract it by braking individual wheels, reducing engine torque and slowing the
vehicle down. It is important to note that activation of TSP normally requires a vehicle-specific wiring
loom to be installed.
Towing capacity
Towing capacity is a measure describing the upper limit to the weight of a trailer a vehicle can tow and
may be expressed in pounds or kilograms. Some countries require that signs indicating the maximum
trailer weight (and in some cases, length) be posted on trucks and buses close to the coupling device,
while this is not normally required with smaller vehicles such as cars or pickup trucks.
See also
 Gross combined weight rating

 Gross trailer weight rating
 Gross vehicle weight rating
Towing capacity may either refer to braked or unbraked towing capacity.

Braked towing capacity
Braked towing capacity is the towing capacity of a vehicle if the trailer being towed has its own braking
system, typically connected to the vehicle's braking system via the trailer cable. Braked towing capacity is
typically significantly greater than unbraked towing capacity.
Unbraked towing capacity

Unbraked towing capacity is the towing capacity of a vehicle towing a trailer that does not have its own
braking system.
Types of towing hitches

Main article: Tow hitch
A tow hitch, tow bar or recovery point is a device attached to the chassis of a vehicle for towing.
It can take the form of a tow-ball to allow swivelling and articulation of a trailer, or a tow pin and jaw with
a trailer loop - often used for large or agricultural vehicles where slack in the pivot pin allows the same
movements. A further category is the towing pintle used for military vehicles around the world with a hook
and locking catch.
Road train
This article is about connected heavy goods vehicles. For lighter recreational road trains, see Trackless train.
For electronic road trains, see Platoon (automobile). For the film, see Road Kill (2010 film).
Volvo NH15 BP tanker road train
A road train or roadtrain is a trucking concept used in remote areas of Argentina, Australia, Mexico,
the United States, and Canada to move freight efficiently. The term "road train" is most often used in Australia.
In the United States and Canada the terms "triples", "turnpike doubles", and "Rocky Mountain doubles" are
commonly used for longer combination vehicles (LCVs). [1] A road train consists of a relatively
conventional tractor unit, but instead of pulling one trailer or semi-trailer, a road train pulls two or more of them.

Trailer arrangements
B-double
A B-double (B-Train) consists of a prime mover towing a specialised lead trailer that has a fifth-
wheel mounted on the rear towing another semi-trailer, resulting in two articulation points. Around
container ports in Australia there may also have what is known as a super B-double, these being a B-
double that has a quad axle lead trailer capable of holding one 40-foot shipping container or two 20-foot
shipping containers, and the rear trailer being capable of the same with either a tri or quad rear axle set.
However, because of their large length and low accessibility into narrow streets, these vehicles are
restricted in where they can go and are generally used for terminal-to-terminal work, i.e., wharf to
container holding park or wharf-to-wharf. The rear axle on each trailer can also pivot slightly whilst turning
to prevent scrubbing out the edges of the tyres due to the heavy loads placed on them.
A B-double parked at a truck stop.
B-triple
Same as a B-double but with an additional lead trailer behind the prime mover.[13] These are run in most
states of Australia where double road trains are allowed. There is one exception to that rule: B-Triples are
operated in Victoria, but by one operator, under a strict permit and on a dedicated route, between the
Ford plants at Geelong and Campbellfield.[14][15][16] Australia's National Transport Commission proposed a
national framework for B-triple operations that includes basic vehicle specifications and operating
conditions that the commission anticipates will replace the current state-by-state approach, which largely
discourages the use of B-triples for interstate operation.[17]
AB Triple
An AB triple consists of a prime mover, a semi-trailer, a converter dolly, then a B-double.
BAB Quad
A BAB Quad consists of two B-double units linked with a converter dolly.
C-train
A C-train is a semi-trailer attached to a fifth-wheel on a C-dolly. The C-dolly is connected to the tractor or
another trailer in front of it with two drawbars, thus eliminating the drawbar connection as an articulation
point. One of the axles on a C-dolly is self-steerable to prevent tire scrubbing. C-dollies are not permit in
Australia, due to the lack of articulation.

Dog-trailer (Pup trailer)
Quad dog trailer
A dog-trailer (also called a pup) is any trailer that is hooked to a converter dolly, with a single A-frame
drawbar that fits into the Ringfeder or pintle hook on the rear of the trailer in front, giving the whole unit
three to five articulation points and very little roll stiffness.
Rules and regulation
A is a B-double.
B is a B-triple.

C is a double road train. A "Pocket road train" is similar, but with shorter trailers and dolly drawbar.
D is an AB-triple.
E is a BAB Quad.
F is an ABB Quad.
G is triple road train.
H is a 2AB Quad.
K represents the largest road trains operating in Australia and the world. Called a "Powertrain" or a "Body
and six", these machines operate at the Granites gold mine in the western Northern Territory, and are
used in place of 200t dump trucks, because of the distances involved on the haul run. A 600 hp (450 kW)
19 L (1,200 cu in) Cummins engine powers the prime mover, whilst a 400 hp (300 kW) Cummins engine
is installed in the rear trailer of the B-double, driving through an automatic transmission, giving a total of
1,000 hp (750 kW). Weights of 460 t (453 long tons; 507 short tons) are achieved with ore loading in side-
tipper bodies on a 100 km (62 mi) round trip. As these trucks operate on private property, they are not
subject to governed weight and length rulings, but instead are used in the most efficient way possible.
Interstate Road Transport registration

In 1991 at a Special Premiers Conference, Australian Heads of Government signed an Inter-
governmental Agreement to establish a national heavy vehicle registration, regulation and charging
scheme, otherwise known as FIRS.[18]
This registration scheme is known as the Federal Interstate Registration Scheme. The requirements of
the scheme were as follows: If the vehicle was purchased to be used for interstate trade, no stamp duty
was payable on the purchase price of the vehicle. The vehicle had to be subjected to an annual
inspection for roadworthy standards, which had to be passed before registration could be renewed. With
the registration identification, the first letter of the 6 digit identified the home state: W = Western Australia,
S = South Australia, V = Victoria, N = New South Wales, Q = Queensland, T = Tasmania, A = Australian
Capital Territory and C = Northern Territory. Due to the 'eastern' and 'western' mass limits in Australia,
two different categories of registration were enacted. The second digit of the registration plate showed
what mass limit was allowed for that vehicle. If a vehicle had a 'V' as the second letter, its mass limits
were in line with the eastern states mass limits, which were:
 Steer axle, 1 axle, 2 tyres: 5.40 t (5.31 long tons; 5.95 short tons)
 Steer axle, 2 axles, 2 tyres per axle: Non load sharing suspension 9.00 t (8.86 long tons; 9.92 short
tons)
 Load sharing suspension 10.00 t (9.84 long tons; 11.02 short tons)
 Single axle, dual tyres: 8.50 t (8.37 long tons; 9.37 short tons)
 Tandem axle, dual tyres: 15.00 t (14.76 long tons; 16.53 short tons)
 Tri axle, dual tyres or 'super single' tyres: 18.00 t (17.72 long tons; 19.84 short tons)
 Gross combination mass on a 6-axle vehicle not to exceed 38 t (37 long tons; 42 short tons)
If a vehicle had a X as the second letter, its mass limits were in line with the western states mass limits,
which were:

 Steer axle, 1 axle, 2 tyres: 6.00 t (5.91 long tons; 6.61 short tons)
 Steer axle, 2 axles, 2 tyres per axle
 Non load sharing suspension 10.00 t (9.84 long tons; 11.02 short tons): Load sharing suspension
11.00 t (10.83 long tons; 12.13 short tons)
 Single axle, dual tyres: 9.00 t (8.86 long tons; 9.92 short tons)
 Tandem axle, dual tyres: 16.50 t (16.24 long tons; 18.19 short tons)
 Tri axle, dual tyres or "super single" tyres: 20.00 t (19.68 long tons; 22.05 short tons)
 Gross combination mass on a 6-axle vehicle not to exceed 42.50 t (41.83 long tons; 46.85 short tons)
If the second digit of the registration was a T, that designated a trailer. One of the main criteria of the
registration was that intrastate operation was not permitted. The load had to come from one state and be
delivered to another state or territory. Many grain carriers were reported and prosecuted for cartage from
the paddock to the silos. If, though, they went to a port silo, they were given the benefit of the doubt, as
that grain was more than likely going overseas.
Signage
Australian road trains have horizontal signs front and back with 180 mm (7.1 in) high black uppercase
letters on a reflective yellow background reading "ROAD TRAIN". The sign(s) must have a black border
and be at least 1.02 m (3.3 ft) long and 220 mm (8.7 in) high and be placed between 500 mm (19.7 in)
and 1.8 m (5.9 ft) above the ground on the fore or rearmost surface of the unit.
In the case of B-Triples in Western Australia they are signed front and rear with "Road-Train" until they
cross the WA/SA border where they are then signed with "Long Vehicle" in the front and rear.
Converter dollys must have a sign affixed horizontally to the rearmost point, complying to the same
conditions, reading "LONG VEHICLE". This is required for when a dolly is towed behind a trailer.
Combination lengths
 B-Double- 26 m (85.3 ft) max.

 B-Triple- 33.5 m (110 ft) max.
 Pocket road train- 27.5 m (90.2 ft) max. This configuration is classed as a "Long Vehicle".
 Double road train- 36.5 m (120 ft) max.
 Triple and AB-Quad road trains- 53.5 m (176 ft) max.
Operating weights
Operational weights are based on axle group masses, as follows:
 Single axle (Steer tyre)- 6.0 t (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons)
 Single axle (Steer axle with 'super single' tyres) 6.7 t (6.6 long tons; 7.4 short tons)
 Single axle (dual tyres) - 9.0 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short tons)
 Tandem axle grouping- 16.5 t (16.2 long tons; 18.2 short tons)
 Tri axle grouping- 20.0 t (19.7 long tons; 22.0 short tons)
Therefore, a B-Double would weigh 62.5 t (61.5 long tons; 68.9 short tons) (6 t/5.9 long tons; 6.6 short
tons + 16.5 t/16.2 long tons; 18.2 short tons + 20 t/20 long tons; 22 short tons + 20 t/20 long tons;
22 short tons). A double road train would have an operational weight (without concessions) of 79 t

(78 long tons; 87 short tons) (6 t/5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons + 16.5 t/16.2 long tons; 18.2 short tons +
20 t/20 long tons; 22 short tons + 16.5 t/16.2 long tons; 18.2 short tons + 20 t/20 long tons; 22 short tons).
A triple is 79 t (78 long tons; 87 short tons) + 36.5 t (35.9 long tons; 40.2 short tons) (16.5 t/16.2 long tons;
18.2 short tons + 20 t/20 long tons; 22 short tons), giving an all up weight of 115.5 t (113.68 long tons;
127.32 short tons). Quads weigh in at 135.5 t (133.4 long tons; 149.4 short tons). Concessional weight
additions (0.5–2.5 t/0.49–2.5 long tons; 0.55–2.8 short tons per group) can see a quad end up weighing
149 t (147 long tons; 164 short tons). If a tri-drive prime mover is utilised, along with tri-axle dollys,
weights can reach nearly 170 t (167 long tons; 187 short tons).
Speed limits
The Australian national heavy vehicle speed limit is 100 km/h (62 mph), excepting:
 NSW, Queensland and South Australia, where the speed limit for any road train is 90 km/h (56 mph).
In western Canada, LCVs are restricted to 100 km/h (62 mph), or the posted speed limit. Trucks of legal
length (<25 metres / 82 feet) may travel at 110 km/h (68 mph), or the posted speed limit.
Off-road vehicle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Off-road vehicles)
"ORV" redirects here. For the Austrian cycling governing body, see Österreichischer Radsport-Verband.
Mercedes-Benz Unimog in the Dunes ofErg Chebbi in Morocco. Note the high ground clearance due to Portal gear axles
An off-road vehicle is considered to be any type of vehicle which is capable of driving on and
off paved or gravel surface.[1] It is generally characterized by having large tires with deep, open treads, a
flexible suspension, or even caterpillar tracks.[citation needed] Other vehicles that do not travel public streets or
highways are generally termed off-highway vehicles, including tractors, forklifts, cranes, backhoes, bulldozers,
and golf carts.[citation needed]

Off-road vehicles have an enthusiastic following because of their many uses and versatility. Several types
of motorsports involve racing off-road vehicles. The three largest "4-wheel vehicle" off-road types of
competitions are Rally, Desert Racing, and Rockcrawling.[citation needed] The three largest types ofAll Terrain
Vehicle (ATV) / Motorcycle competitions are Motocross, Enduro, and also Desert Racing like Dakar
Rallye and Baja 1000.[citation needed] The most common use of these vehicles is for sight seeing in areas distant
from pavement. The use of higher clearance and higher traction vehicles enables access on trails and forest
roads that have rough and low traction surfaces.
Commercial, military and less common off-road vehicles

European militaries and utilities have used Land Rover
Defenders, Haflingers, Pinzgauers, Volvo L3314, and Mercedes-Benz Unimogs for all-terrain
transportation. The Portuguese UMM Alter is less common.
The military market for off-road vehicles used to be large, but, since the fall of the Iron Curtain in the
1990s, it has dried up to some extent. The U.S. Jeep, developed during World War II, coined the word
many people use for any type of light off-road vehicle. In the U.S., the Jeep's successor from the 1980s
on was the AM General HMMWV. The Eastern Bloc used the GAZ-69 and UAZ-469 in similar roles
Land Rover Defender

Land Rover Defender
2007 Defender
Manufacturer Land Rover
Also called Land Rover Ninety, One Ten & 127 (1983-90)
Production 1983-present

Assembly Solihull, United Kingdom
Shah Alam, Malaysia (SMA)[1]
Istanbul, Turkey (Otokar)[2]
Aqaba, Jordan (LRAAP; CKD)
Thika, Kenya (KVM, Kenya Vehicle Manufacturers)[3]
Predecessor Land Rover Series
Class Off-road vehicle
Layout Front engine, four-wheel drive
The Land Rover Defender (initially called the Land Rover Ninety and Land Rover One Ten) is a British four-
wheel-drive off-road utility vehicle developed from the original Land Rover Series launched in 1948. The Land
Rover Defender is also recognized by many as one of the best off-road 4 wheel drives in the world, as it is easy
to work on and easy to repair if damaged.
Pinzgauer High-Mobility All-Terrain Vehicle

Pinzgauer High-Mobility All-Terrain Vehicle
Pinzgauer 716 (second generation)
Type All-wheel drive vehicle
Place of origin Graz, Austria

Production history
Manufacturer Steyr-Daimler-Puch: 1971–2000
BAE Systems Inc. 2000–present
Produced 1971–present
Specifications
Crew driver, co-driver +8/12 passengers
(4x4/6x6)
Engine Inline 4-cylinder Steyr-
designedpetrol/gasoline engine,
or inline 5-or inline 6- cylinder diesel
engine
65 kW (88 PS; 87 bhp)
Payload capacity 2.5 tonnes[1]
Transmission 5-speed manual
4-speed automatic (Pinzgauer II)
Suspension 4- or 6-wheel drive
Operational
range 400 km (249 mi)
Speed 4x4: 110 km/h (68 mph) /6x6: 100 km/h
(62 mph)
The Pinzgauer is a family of high-mobility all-terrain 4WD (4x4) and 6WD (6x6) military utility vehicles. They
were manufactured inGuildford, Surrey, United Kingdom, by BAE Systems Land & Armaments. The vehicle
was originally developed in the late 1960s by Steyr-Daimler-Puch[2][3] of Graz, Austria, and was named after
the Pinzgauer, an Austrian breed of horse. It was popular amongst military buyers, [3] and continued in
production throughout the rest of the century. In 2000 the rights were sold to Automotive Technik Ltd (ATL) in

the UK.[2] ATL was subsequently acquired by Stewart & Stevenson Services, Inc. in 2005; in May 2006, Stewart
& Stevenson became a subsidiary of the aerospace and defence group Armor Holdings, Inc.. One year later,
Armor Holdings was itself acquired by BAE Systems plc, who discontinued the UK-production of the Pinzgauer,
which was proving to be vulnerable to mines and improvised explosive devicesin Afghanistan. Development
work (done in the UK) on the planned Pinzgauer II was evaluated by BAE subsidiary in Benoni, Gauteng,South
Africa but no vehicle was ever manufactured.
First generation
The original prototype was developed around 1969 and production began in 1971,[2] as successor of the
Steyr-Daimler-Puch Haflinger 700 AP 4x4 light military multi purpose offroad vehicle.[2] The Pinzgauer
first generation model (710, 712) was produced until 2000 by Steyr-Daimler-Puch in the city of Graz,
Austria. It was, and is in use in many armies around the world like Austria,[3] Switzerland,[3] United
Kingdom,[3] Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Albania, and Bolivia. When Austrian millionaire Mr. Stronach took
over the shareholder majority of Steyr-Daimler-Puch offroad vehicles; he gave the right to build the Steyr
Pinzgauer to Automotive Technik Ltd (now BAE). As of 2009, in the Graz plant, the Mercedes-Benz G
Wagon / Puch G offroad vehicles were being built.
The Pinzgauer is one of the most capable all-terrain vehicles ever made.[citation needed] While not as fast
(110 kilometres per hour (68 mph)) as the American Humvee, it can carry more troops. Even the smaller
710M can carry 10 people or two NATO pallets. Both the 4x4 and 6x6 models can tow
5,000 kilograms (11,023 lb) on road; and 1,500 kilograms (3,307 lb) or 1,800 kilograms (3,968 lb),
respectively, off-road. It has a range of over 400 kilometres (249 mi) on one tank of fuel, or nearly 700
kilometres (435 mi) with the optional 125 litre tank. The first generation Pinzgauer is available in
both four-wheel drive (4x4) (model 710) and six-wheel drive (6x6) (model 712) versions.
The Pinzgauer was designed to be reliable and easy to fix; it is shipped with an air-cooled petrol
engine with dual- Zenith 36 mm NDIX carburetors. The engine in the Pinzgauer was specifically designed
for the vehicle; it has more than one oil pump so that the engine will not get starved of oil no matter how
the vehicle is orientated.
The Pinzgauer has a chassis design which contributes to its high mobility. It has a central
tube chassis[2] with a transaxle which distributes the weight more evenly, and keeps the centre of
gravity as low as possible. The differentials are all sealed units and require minimal additional lubrication.
The Pinzgauer also has portal axles like the Unimog to provide extra clearance over obstacles. The 710
4x4 was the more popular variant, but the Pinzgauer was designed to have a very capable 6x6
configuration from the start. The rear suspension on the back of the 6x6 712 is designed to provide
maximum traction in the most demanding circumstances along with increasing its towing, load carrying,
and off-road abilities.
During production from 1971 until 1985, 18,349 first-generation 710s and 712s were produced and sold to
both civilian and military customers.

The Simple Structural Surfaces (SSS) method
• One of many possible alternative design methods that is used at

the concept stage or when there are fundamental changes to the
structure
• to model or represent the structure as a number of plane surfaces
• structural surfaces are rigid in their plane but flexible with respect
to forces normal to it
• each SSS must be held in equilibrium by a series of forces
• is useful for determining that there is continuity for load paths
and subsequently determining the integrity of the structure
A tool to help: i) qualitatively filter design alternatives during the

conceptual stage ii) guide the course of FEA iterations. Combination
of these forms a foundation for the later design phase.
Expectations of the SSS method

• enables the engineer to know the type of loading condition
applies to each of the main structural (bending, shear, tension or
compression loads)
• enables nominal magnitudes of the loads to be determined based
static conditions and amplified by dynamic factors if these are
known
• to ensure continuity for the load path through the structure is
achieved
• Theoretically/ideally size of the components can be determined
Limitations of the SSS method

• Cannot be used to solve redundant structures
• Does not enable stiffness values to be determined

Introduction to the simple
structural surfaces (SSS)
method
Objectives
• To introduce the concept of modelling a vehicle as a series of simple structural surfaces (SSS)
and to show its usefulness.
• To understand the definition and limitations of a simple structural surface.
• To illustrate the SSS method on a simplified box or van structure.
• To show examples of SSS models representing vehicle structures.
4.1 Definition of a simple structural surface (SSS)

A simple structural surface (SSS) is a plane structural element or subassembly that
can be considered as rigid only in its own plane. Figure 4.1 shows such a structural
element where the length a and height b are large in comparison to its thickness t.
Considering sections through the element in the x –y plane and y –z plane the second
moments of area can be obtained by the standard formulae:
Ix = at 3 /12
Iy = tb3 /12
Iz = bt 3 /12
As t is small the second moments of area Ix and Iz will be very small compared with
Iy that is:
Iy Ix
Iy Iz
Therefore the SSS is capable of resisting bending moments about the y-axis, but has
little or no resistance for moments about the x- and z-axes.
Direct loads Fx and Fz acting in the plane of the SSS will also be satisfactorily
resisted but normal local loads along the y-axis will of course result in flexing of the
SSS by bending about the z- or x-axes.

z
My 0
Mz
0
Mx
b
Fx
Fy 0
x y
Fz
t
a
Figure 4.1 Definition of a simple structural surface.
4.2 Structural subassemblies that can be represented

by a simple structural surface (SSS)
Passenger car structures consist of a number of subassemblies that can be represented
by SSSs. Although due to modern styling and aerodynamic requirements the structure
has considerably curved surfaces it will be assumed as a first approximation that these
surfaces can be represented by a plane surface. Structural subassemblies that can be
represented by an SSS are those that have good rigidity across their whole plane.
Figure 4.2 shows examples of effective SSSs. All of the examples are suitable for
carrying shear loads as indicated by the edge loads Q1 and Q2 . The basic panel
Q1 Q1 Q1
A
Q2
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Section
b ‘A−A’
Q2
a Q1 Q1 Q1
(a) Panel (b) Swaged panel (c) Panel with

reinforced hole
Q1 Q1
Corner Gussets
Q2 Q2 Q2
Q2
Q1 Q1
(d) Pin jointed framework (e) Windscreen frame
Figure 4.2 Examples of structures that are simple structural surfaces.

shown at (a) will have limited capacity if its thickness is small due to the tendency
to buckle. Stiffening of the panel by swaging (b) or a reinforced hole (c) can increase
the load capacity. The pin-jointed framework shown at (d) will also provide suitable
structural properties for the loads Q1 and Q2 . A ring frame such as the windscreen
frame (e) provided it has sufficient corner joint stiffness and sidebeam stiffness will
provide a satisfactory SSS.
The simple panel shown at Figure 4.2(a) can be made more effective by adding
stiffeners (booms) along the edges as shown in Figure 4.3(a). In this example the
boom/panel assembly is used as a cantilever supported at the right-hand side with a
vertical load Fz at the left-hand end. The vertical boom distributes the load Fz into the
panel by the edge shear load Q2 . The boom may be attached to the panel by spot welds,
rivets, bolts or even made integral with the panel by folding or pressing operations.
The edge shear loads Q1 and end loads K1 and K2 are necessary for maintaining
equilibrium (see next section).
Figure 4.3(b) illustrates the use of an auxiliary beam to carry loads that are normal
to the surface. The vertical force Fz acts normal to the floor panel so the beam shown
shaded has been added in the y –z plane that is held in equilibrium by the forces K3
and K4 . The floor panel itself can of course carry edge shear loads Q3 and Q4 in its
own x –y plane.
Figure 4.4 illustrates three planar systems that cannot be considered as SSSs. At
(a) there is a four-bar linkage mechanism while at (b) and (c) there is respectively a
discontinuous ring and a panel with a large cut-out. The structures at (b) and (c) will
suffer local bending and large deflections, as illustrated, within their planes.
In contrast to these unsatisfactory SSSs, Figure 4.5 shows a passenger car sideframe
and a bus sideframe that form very effective SSSs, provided the corner joints are
capable of resisting bending moments.
End load in top boom

+ve Z
End load in K1
Y X
vertical boom K3 Fz
Q1 Q3 Q4
Q2 Q2 b
w
2
Q1 K4
w
1 Q4 Q3
+ve
K2 l
a K3
−ve ze
ro
Fz
End load in bottom boom
Auxiliary beam
shear force
zero
diagram
Shear force K 3w 2
Fz
diagram ze
ro K4
zero
Bending moment Auxiliary beam
Fz a = K1b diagram bending moment
diagram
(a) Boom and panel assembly (b) Floor panel with auxiliary beam
Figure 4.3 Further examples of simple structural surfaces.

Shear force = 0 Shear force
Large Large
deflection deflection
(a) Pin jointed mechanism (b) Discontinuous ring
Shear force
Large Large
deflection deflection
(c) Panel with large cut-out
Figure 4.4 Examples of planar systems that are not simple structural surfaces.
Passenger car sideframe
Note: Corner joints

must have gussets
or other stiffening
Bus sideframe
Figure 4.5 Examples of vehicle structural assemblies that can be represented as simple structural surfaces.

4.3 Equilibrium conditions
The SSSs illustrated in Figures 4.2 and 4.3 can all be evaluated by the equations
of statics to determine the relationship and values of the forces. All the examples
of Figure 4.2 are loaded with complementary shear forces. For the panel at (a) take
moments about one corner and obtain:
Q1 b − Q2 a = 0 (4.1)
Therefore, if Q1 is known Q2 can be obtained provided the lengths a and b are known.
A similar equation can be obtained for all the other examples of Figure 4.2.
The boom/panel assembly of Figure 4.3(a) requires four equations as there are four
unknown forces for a known applied load Fz :
Resolving vertically
FZ − Q2 = 0 (4.2)
Resolving horizontally
K1 − K2 = 0 (4.3)
Moments about lower right-hand corner
F z a − K1 b = 0 (4.4)
Resolving horizontally for the top boom
Q1 − K1 = 0 (4.5)
Equations (4.2), (4.3) and (4.4) are the basic equations of statics giving the three loads
required to hold the assembly in equilibrium. Equation (4.5) is the equilibrium equation
for the top boom. The equilibrium equation for the lower boom is:
Q1 − K2 = 0 (4.6)
and for the panel:
Q1 b − Q2 a = 0 (4.7)
The shear force and bending moment diagram for the assembly are shown and the end
loads in the booms indicated.
When SSSs are loaded normal to their plane auxiliary SSSs may be introduced as
shown in Figure 4.3(b). Here the floor panel has the addition of a beam, an auxiliary
SSS, to carry the applied load Fz . The floor panel itself can carry shear as indicated
by the edge loads Q3 and Q4 which are complementary shear forces.
Taking moments about a corner of the floor panel:
Q3 w1 − Q4 = 0 (4.8)
Taking moments about K4 at the end of the auxiliary SSS:
K3 w1 − Fz (w1 − w2 ) = 0 (4.9)
Resolving vertically:
K 3 + K4 − Fz = 0 (4.10)

With these equations all the forces on the auxiliary SSS and the panel can be obtained.
The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown for the auxiliary SSS in
Figure 4.3(b).
4.4 A simple box structure

The most simple vehicle type structure is an International Standards Organization (ISO)
freight container or box van consisting of six SSSs. Figure 4.6 shows a structure of
this type but includes an extra SSS, a cross-beam, that is required to distribute the
payload across the floor. Alternative floor structures are discussed in the Appendix at
the end of this chapter.
The payload (Fpl ) plus an allowance for the structure weight (Fi ) is applied in the
centre of the cross-beam that is supported at the sides of the box by the sidewalls. The
forces K1 which support the cross beam, are then reacted by equal and opposite forces
in the sidewalls. It should be noted that the forces K1 act in the planes of both the
cross-beam and the sidewalls and therefore meet the requirement that forces must act
in the plane of an SSS. By resolving forces and by symmetry the loads K1 are equal
to half the applied load at the centre of the cross-beam and the following equation is
obtained:
K1 = Fzs /2 (4.11)
The cross-beam is shown positioned at distance ‘a’ from the front end and the box van
is of length L. The sidewall must be held in equilibrium by forces acting at the front
and rear edges where these can be reacted in the planes of the front and rear panels.
Bending moment
diagram
3
Shear force
4 diagram
K3 6
K3
K2 K1 K3
Rr
h r R
r
L
K2 5 K2
w K3
2
K2 K1
Rf R Fzs = Fi +Fpl
Shear f f
force K1
diagram 1 Shear force
K1 b diagram
Bending Cross-beam a
moment floor structure
diagram Shear force Bending
diagram moment
Bending moment diagram
diagram
Figure 4.6 Box van with bending load.

Therefore by taking moments about the front lower corner:
K3 = K1 a/L (4.12)
where K3 is the edge force between the sidewall and the rear panel.
Resolving forces vertically for the sidewall gives the equation:
K2 + K3 − K1 = 0 (4.13)
where K2 is the force between the sidewall and the front panel.
The front and rear panels are supported by the suspension systems and as the structure
is loaded symmetrically resolving forces for the front panel:
Rf = K2 where Rf is the reaction from one front suspension
and resolving forces for the rear panel:
Rr = K3 where Rr is the reaction from one rear suspension.
Figure 4.6 also shows the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the floor cross-
beam, the sidewall and the front and rear panels. Each of these members is subject to
shear and bending loads which are functions of their lengths. The floor and roof panels
have no loads acting in their planes.
The same simple box van structure is shown in Figure 4.7 when it is subject to
torsion. In section 2.4.2, Chapter 2, it was explained that by taking the lighter loaded
axle and applying the suspension load upwards on one side and downwards on the other
side the maximum static torsion condition is obtained. In this example of Figure 4.7 if
b > a then the rear end loads are the lighter and so the lighter reactions Rr are applied
as shown. Rr is the reaction from one rear suspension under static bending conditions
Q6 Q4
3
Q6
4 Q4
Q5 Q Q6 6
4 Q5
Mx = Rr∗r
Q5 Q5
Q4
Q6 Rr
h r Rr
Q4
L
Q5 5 Q Q6
5
Mx = R ′f ∗f w Q5
2
Q4 Q5
R ′f R ′
f Q6
f Q6 Q4
1
Q6 b
Q4 a
Figure 4.7 Box van in torsion.

as explained previously. For equilibrium of the body the torsion moment Mx at front
and rear must be equal therefore:
Rf ∗ f = Rr ∗ r (4.14)
As the lateral spacing of the front and rear suspension mountings ‘f ’ and ‘r’ respec-
tively may not be equal, the reaction Rf will not necessarily be equal to Rr nor equal
to Rf obtained for the bending case.
At the front panel the moment applied through the suspension mountings is balanced
by the edge loads from the sides, floor and roof. Taking moments for the front panel:
Rf f − Q5 w − Q4 h = 0 (4.15)
It should be noted that the front panel has the clockwise ‘external’ couple Mx equal to
Rf f (as viewed from the front) applied through the suspension mounting points. The
edge loads Q4 and Q5 all act in an anticlockwise sense. The direction of the arrows
is such that the head of each arrow points to the tail of the next arrow.
The equilibrium of the floor is now considered. An equal and opposite force to the
front panel force Q4 acts on the front edge of the floor. To prevent the floor moving
laterally there must be an equal and opposite force Q4 acting at the rear edge. These two
forces are separated by the length L producing a moment Q4 L that must be balanced.
Therefore edge loads Q6 must be applied at each side separated by the distance ‘w’.
Taking moments about one corner, the moment equation is:
Q4 L − Q6 w = 0 (4.16)
This floor panel is therefore loaded in complementary shear and the directions of the
arrows representing the edge loads at the front and right side are such that the heads
of the arrows point towards the same corner. Similarly the arrows representing the
forces at the rear and left side point at the same corner. Panels that are subject to
complementary shear do not have ‘externally’ applied moments.
The left-hand sidewall has an equal and opposite force Q6 to that on the floor acting
at its lower edge. Similarly it has force Q5 acting at the front vertical edge that is
equal and opposite to the force on the front panel. By resolving forces longitudinally
and vertically for equilibrium there must be a force Q6 acting on the top edge in the
opposite direction to that on the lower edge and a force Q5 acting on the rear edge of
the sidewall in the opposite direction to that on the front edge.
The moments generated by the spacing of these forces must be balanced and therefore
the moment equation for the left-hand sidewall (moments about one corner) is:
Q6 h − Q5 L = 0 (4.17)
The left-hand sidewall is loaded in complementary shear with no ‘external’ moment

and with the heads of the arrows representing the directions of the edge loads point at
the front/lower and rear/upper corners.
The roof and right-hand sidewall have similar but opposite loading conditions to the
floor and left-hand sidewall respectively, while the rear panel has similar but opposite
edge loads to those on the floor, sidewalls and roof. Note that the arrows of the edge
loads on the rear panel act in a clockwise sense as viewed from the front. This must

Anthropometry
Anthropometry can be defined as the measurement of human body dimensions. Static
anthropometry is concerned with the measurement of human subjects in rigid, standardized
positions (e.g. static arm length being equivalent to its anatomical length) and static anthropometric
data are used in designing equipment for the workplace where body movement is not a major
variable, e.g. seat breadth, depth and height. Dynamic anthropometry is concerned with the
measurement of human subjects at work or in motion (e.g. functional arm reach is a factor of
the length of the upper arm, lower arm and hand, as well as the range of movement at the
shoulder, elbow, wrist and fingers). Dynamic anthropometric data can be used to establish
control locations using reach envelopes for the hands and feet and locations of head restraints,
seat belts and air bags using data concerning the arcs described by various parts of the body
under crash conditions. Biomechanics is the measurement of the range, strength, endurance,
speed and accuracy of human movements and such data are also used in the design of controls
to establish satisfactory ranges of control movement and operative forces.
Anthropometric and biomechanical data are usually specified in terms of percentiles. The
population is divided into 100 percentage categories, ranked from least to greatest, with respect
to some specific type of body measurement. For example:
taller;
• 50th percentile stature is the median stature;
taller.
The reader is referred to Roebuck (1995) for a full description of the variety of methods used
to collect anthropometric data. The strategies for using the data in design are described below:
(a) Find the relevant data for the intended occupants with respect to their race, occupation,
age, sex, disability. The data should be task specific so that, for example, arm reach to a
lever that will be pushed is quite different to arm reach for operating a push button.
(b) Make any necessary allowances for secular growth and clothing (e.g. 10 mm per decade for
stature in USA and UK, ~45 mm for female shoes, ~25 mm for male shoes)
(c) Establish your design limits. Traditionally these have been stated as 5th percentile values
for females and 95th percentile values for males. The authors consider that these limits are

somewhat out-of-date given the concern for quality of life, high productivity and safety and
the authors recommend using 1st percentile female to 99th percentile male values wherever
possible. This is particularly important when several dimensions are critical for
accommodation. Multivariate accommodation is discussed in Section 9.4.6.
(d) Design for extreme individuals when appropriate. To establish the minimum clearance
(e.g. the door should be a minimum of x cm high) use the upper percentile value (e.g. 99th
or greater percentile male value for the relevant dimensions). To establish maximum reach
or strength, use the lower percentile value (e.g. 1st percentile female).
(e) Design for adjustable range where minimum fatigue, optimum performance, comfort and
safety is required (e.g. vehicle seats, steering wheel, seat belt mountings). Use 1st percentile
female to 99th percentile male values wherever possible.
(f) Design for the ‘average’ person when adjustability is not feasible (e.g. height of exterior
door handles) but never use ‘averages’ for clearances, reach or strength. The ‘average
value’ should be used on the basis that it would cause less inconvenience and difficulty to
the user population than one which was larger or smaller.
Anthropometric and biomechanical data are extremely useful to the designer at the early
stages of design or when a novel design is being considered. However, it is very important that
any new design or modification is studied using mock-ups and the evaluation of prototypes. The
data can tell you where a person can reach but it does not tell you how the design, location and
direction of travel of a variety of controls can affect driving performance, comfort and safety.
Limitations to the use of percentiles have already been discussed under Fallacies 7 and 8 above.
Sources of civilian anthropometric data include Bodyspace (Pheasant 1996) which presents
data for a variety of nationalities including the UK, US, Swedish, Dutch, French, Polish,
Brazilian, Sri Lankan, Indian, Hong Kong Chinese and the Japanese. Adultdata (Peebles and
Norris, 1998) and Childata (Norris and Wilson, 1995) can be obtained through the UK Department
of Trade and Industry and present data for a variety of nationalities. Some specialist surveys
have examined driver anthropometry in the UK (MIRA Survey, Haslegrave, 1980), France
(Rebiffe et al., 1984) and the US (Sanders, 1977). A source book on Indian anthropometry has
recently been produced (Chakrabarti 1997). Another very useful source is PeopleSize (Open
Ergonomics 1999), an interactive computer based package that can also provide information on
multivariate accommodation. Figure 9.1 shows one of the People Size screens, from which the
designer clicks on the desired dimension and the selected percentile values are displayed
underneath. Table 9.1 presents an example of People Size data for large US male and small UK
female values.
Anthropometric methods are currently changing with the introduction of body scanners.
Such systems allow the collection of thousands of data points for the human body and this type
of data is very appropriately starting to be used in human modelling systems (see Section 9.4.6
below).


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PTU/BOS/AE/101/20-12-2007/Batch 2005

AE – 304 VEHICLE BODY ENGINEERING

CAR BODY TYPES -:

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 01

1. Notch Back Sedan .

1. Notch Back Sedan - A notchback sedan is a three-box sedan, where the

1962 Chevrolet Impala, Maruti Suzuki swift Dzire

2. Fast Back Sedan - A fastback sedan is a two-box sedan, with continuous

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 02

1941 Plymouth fastback sedan

3. Hardtop sedan- In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 03

1958Ambassador hardtop sedan

4. Hatch back sedan - Hatchback (a.k.a. liftback) sedans typically have

Chevrolet Malibu Maxx Toyota Etios Liva

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 04

Lincoln town car I chauffeured

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 05

A convertible is a type of automobile of various automobile body styles that

. CONVERTIBLES TYPE CARS

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 06

 Potentially reduced safety.

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 07

MG TD with Tonneau cover

Evolution of the tonneau cover

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 08

 Convertibles such as the fifth generation of the Cadillac Eldorado featured a

 Convertibles such as the second generation Mercedes SL popularized the

 Convertibles such as the second-generation Ford Thunderbird (1958)

 The contemporary retractable hardtop convertible such as the BMW E93 3-

5. Convertible windows - Side windows non-existent in open cars which may

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 09

6. Retractable hardtop roof - A retractable hardtop, also known as coupé

Construction - Retractable hardtops can vary in material (steel, plastic or

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 10

Any of various large passenger vehicles, especially a luxurious automobile usually

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 11

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 12

An automotive equipped for racing especially an aerodynamically shaped one or

Formula 1 racing car Ferrari sports car

Car body construction types – frame and unitary (monocoque)

Mainly two types of body construction –

1. Chassis or frame – The components parts of a vehicle need a structure of

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 13

2. Chassis less or unitary construction – The chassis-less structure is mutch

Various Body Panels and construction details –

Construction – During manufacturing , these complexly contoured panels are

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 14

TYPES OF BUS BODIES

A next generation approach to the van-derived or cutaway chassis approach, is

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 16

Examples of purpose built minibuses are:

Single & double decker buses -:

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 17

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 18

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 19

Almost all double-deckers have a single, rigid chassis.

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 20

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 21

Advantages and Disadvantages

Notes By Sahil Sharma (1181589, AE) 22

Double-decker articulated buses

A 1992 (redesigned) Neoplan Jumbocruiser