Chapter 7

INTERNAL ACTIONS IN BEAMS

Beams: are structural members which offer resistance to bending due to applied loads.
Most beams are long prismatic bars, and the loads are usually applied normal to the axes of the
bars.
Beams are the most important of all structural members, so it is important to understand the basic
theory underlying their design.

Classification of beams

Beams or any other structures are classified into two general parts.
 Statically determinate: The number of unknown reactions equals three and then
using the three equilibrium equations we can determine force at any part of the
structure.
 Statically indeterminate: If the number of unknown reactions at beam supports is
more than three, the beam is statically indeterminate. To determine the support
reactions for such a beam we must consider its load-deformation properties in addition
to the equations of static equilibrium.

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Types of Loads

Loads on beams can be classified as concentrated or distributed.

 Concentrated forces are those applied over a very limited portion of the beam.
 Distributed forces are applied over a considerable portion (length) of the beam.

 w is the intensity of the distributed load and is expressed as a force per unit length of
beam.
 The intensity may be constant or variable, continuous or discontinuous. Look at the
following diagram of a beam carrying a distributed load.

 ω is constant from C to D
 ω is variable from A to C and from D to
2
B
 ω is discontinuous at pt D where it
changes magnitude abruptly
Resultant of a Distributed Load

r The following figures illustrate the three most common cases and the resultants of the
distributed loads in each case.

 In both (a) and (b) the resultant load R is

represented by the area formed by the
intensity ω and the length over which the
force is distributed. The Resultant passes
through the centroid of this area.
r For a more general load
distribution, as shown below, we must start
 In partincrement
with a differential (c) the trapezoidal
of force dR area
= dxis. broken
into a rectangular and a triangular area,
and the corresponding resultants R1 and
R2 of these subareas are determined
separately.

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 r The total load R is then the sum of the differential forces, or

R = ∫ ω dx
r As before the resultant R is located at the centroid of the area under consideration. The x-
coordinate of this centroid is found by the principle of moments:

R x = ∫ xω dx

Examples:

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Individual ASSIGNMENT2

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 Internal effects in beams

r In addition to supporting tension or compression, a beam can resist shear, bending and
torsion. These three effects are illustrated below.

 V - shear force
 M - Bending Moment
 T - torsional Moment

r To design a structural or mechanical member it is necessary to know the loading acting within
the member in order to be sure the material can resist this loading.
r Internal loadings can be determined by using the method of sections. To illustrate this method
consider the cantilever beam below. If we are asked to determine the internal loadings on the
cross section at point B, we draw an imaginary section a-a perpendicular to the axis of the
beam and then separate the beam into two segments.
r The internal loadings acting at B will then be exposed and become external on the free-body
diagram of each segment.

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 The force component NB that acts perpendicular to the cross section, is termed the normal
force.
 The force component VB that is tangent to the cross section is called the shear force, and the
couple moment MB is referred to as the bending moment.
 The internal reactions can be determined by applying the equations of equilibrium to the free-
body of either segment.
 NB is obtained by applying ∑ F x = 0
 VB is obtained by applying ∑ F y = 0
 MB can be obtained by applying ∑ M B = 0, since the moments of NB and VB about B
are zero.

Sign Convention

r Although the sign convention can be arbitrarily assigned, the one that is widely accepted is the
following:
 The normal force is positive if it creates tension

 The shear force is taken to be positive when it causes clockwise rotation of the beam
segment on which it acts.
 Positive bending moment tends to bend the segment on which it acts in a concave
upward manner.

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 Shear-Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

r The variation of shear force V and bending moment M over the length of a beam provides
information necessary for the design analysis of the beam. In particular the maximum magnitude of
moment is usually the primary consideration in the design or selection of a beam, and its value and
position should be determined.
r The variations in shear and moment are best shown graphically, and the expressions.
r The expressions for V and M when plotted against distance along the beam give the shear-force
and bending-moment diagrams for the beam.

Procedures for Constructing Shear-Force and

Bending-Moment Diagrams:

 Step1: Determine the values all external reactions on the beam by applying the equations of
equilibrium equations to the free-diagram of the beam as a whole.
 Step2: Specify separate coordinates of x having an origin at the beam’s left end and extending to
regions the beam between concentrated forces and/or couple moments or where the distributed
load is continuous. We should avoid sectioning the beam at a point where there is a concentrated
load.
 Step3: Section the beam at each distance x and draw the free-body diagram of one of the
segments. Be sure V and M are shown acting in their positive direction. Isolate a portion of the
beam, either to the right or left of an arbitrary transverse section, with a free-body diagram and
apply the equations of equilibrium to this isolated portion of the beam.
 Step 4: Determine V and M
The shearing V is obtained by summing forces perpendicular to the beam’s axis. The moment is
obtained by summing moments about the sectioned end of the segment.
 Step 5: Construct Shear and Moment Diagrams
Plot the shear diagram (V versus x) and the moment diagram (M versus x). If computed values of
the functions describing V and M are positive, the values are plotted above the x-axis, whereas

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negative values are plotted below the x-axis. Generally, it is convenient to plot the shear and
bending moment diagrams directly below the free-body diagram of the beam.

Examples

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 Relationship between Distributed Load, Shear,
and Moment

 Previous methods of constructing shear and moment diagrams will be very tedious if a beam is
subjected to many concentrated forces, couple moments, and distributed loads.
 In this section a simpler method for constructing these diagrams is discussed. The method is
based on differential relations that exist between the load, shear, and bending moment.
 Consider the following figure:

 As can be from the figure, an element dx of the beam isolated. The loading ω
represents the force per unit length of beam.
 At the location x the shear V and Moment M acting on the element are drawn in their
positive directions.
 On the opposite side of the element where the coordinate is x + dx, these quantities are
also shown in their positive directions. But, their values should be V + dV and M +
dM, since V and M change with x.
 The applied loading ω may be considered constant over the length of the element, since
this length is a differential quantity.

Appling Equilibrium Equations to the differential element :

i. Summing the vertical forces to zero

∑ F y = 0; V – ω dx – ( V + dV) = 0

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 Or

ω = – dV
dx
…………………………(*)
Slope of the shear = - distributed load Force diagram at Intensity at each point
Each point
We may now express the shear force V in terms of the loading ω by integrating the equation (*)
V x

∫ dV = – ∫ ω dx
V0 x0

Or
V = V +(the negative of the area under the loading curve from x ¿ x )
0 0

The change in shear force is equal to the area under the distributed loading diagram

ii. Summing the moments about the left side of the element to zero;
dx
∑ M = 0; M + dx 2
+ ( V + dV)dx – (M + dM = 0

Simplifying the above equation,

dM
V= dx
…………… ……………¿

Slope of Moment Diagram at any location x in the beam = Shear force at that section
of the beam.
Equation (**) expresses fact that the shear everywhere is equal to the slope of the
moment curve.

We may now express the noment M in terms of the shear V by integrating equation
(**). Thus,

M x

∫ dM = ∫ V dx
M0 x0

Or
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 M= M0 + (the area under the shear diagram from x ¿ x )
0

The change in moment is equal to the area under the shear diagram

Summary Notes
 For beams where there is no externally applied moment M o at x0 =0, and the total moment at
any section equals the area under the shear diagram up to that section.
 Summing the area under the shear diagram is usually the simplest way to construct the moment
diagram.
 When V passes through zero and is continuous function of x with dV/dx ≠ 0, the bending
moment M will be a maximum or a minimum, since dM/dx = 0 at such a point. Critical values
of M also occur when V crosses the zero axis discontinuously, which occurs for beams under
concentrated loads.
 Equations (*) & (**) may be combined to yield

 If the S.F. is zero the bending moment will remain constant.

 If the S.F. is positive the slope of the B.M. curve is positive.
 If the S.F. is negative the slope of the B.M. curve is negative.
 The difference in B.M. between any two points equals the area under the S.F. curve for the
same points.
 Between concentrated loads, there is no change in shear and the shear force curve plots as a
straight horizontal line.
 At each concentrated load or reaction, the value of the shear force changes abruptly by an
amount equal to the load or reaction force.
 The maximum bending moment occurs at a point where the shear curve crosses its zero axis.

Regions of concentrated Force and Moment

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  When a concentrated force acts downward so the shear force diagram will jump downward at
that particular point.

 When a concentrated moment Mo is applied clockwise, the moment diagram will jump upward.
When Mo acts counterclockwise, the moment diagram will jump downward.

Examples:

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