Wiedl, B., Laughing at The Beast. The Judensau, Anti-Jewish Propaganda and Humor ,,, REICH, BILD, GEWALT, JEW USW

Laughter in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times
http://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9783110245486/9783110245486.325/9783110245486.325.xml?format=EBOK
Fundamentals of Medieval
and Early Modern Culture
Edited by
Albrecht Classen and Marilyn Sandidge
De Gruyter
Bereitgestellt von | De Gruyter / TCS

Laughter in the Middle Ages
and Early Modern Times
Epistemology of a Fundamental Human Behavior,

its Meaning, and Consequences
Edited by
Albrecht Classen
De Gruyter

ISBN 978-3-11-024547-9
e-ISBN 978-3-11-024548-6
ISSN 1864-3396
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Laughter in the Middle Ages and early modern times : epistemology

of a fundamental human behavior, its meaning, and consequences /
edited by Albrecht Classen.
p. cm. ⫺ (Fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture ; 5)
Includes index.
ISBN 978-3-11-024547-9 (alk. paper)
1. Laughter in literature. 2. Humor in literature. 3. Laughter ⫺
History. 4. Humor ⫺ History. 5. Laughter ⫺ Philosophy.
6. Laughter ⫺ Religious aspects. 7. Wit and humor, Medieval. 8. Wit
and humor ⫺ History and criticism. I. Classen, Albrecht.
PN56.L3L39 2010
8091.93354⫺dc22
2010011924
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The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet
at http://dnb.d-nb.de.
” 2010 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/New York

Printing and binding: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen
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TableȱofȱContents
AlbrechtȱClassenȱ
LaughterȱasȱanȱExpressionȱofȱHumanȱNatureȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱPeriod:ȱLiterary,ȱHistorical,ȱ
Theological,ȱPhilosophical,ȱandȱPsychologicalȱReflections.ȱ
AlsoȱanȱIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapterȱ1
JudithȱHagen
LaughterȱinȱProcopius’sȱWars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Chapterȱ2
LivnatȱHoltzmanȱ
“DoesȱGodȱReallyȱLaugh?”ȱ–ȱAppropriateȱandȱInappropriate
DescriptionsȱofȱGodȱinȱIslamicȱTraditionalistȱTheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Chapterȱ3
DanielȱF.ȱPigg
LaughterȱinȱBeowulf:ȱAmbiguity,ȱAmbivalence,ȱand
GroupȱIdentityȱFormation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Chapterȱ4
MarkȱBurde
TheȱParodiaȱsacraȱProblemȱandȱMedievalȱComicȱStudies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Chapterȱ5
OlgaȱV.ȱTrokhimenko
Women’sȱLaughterȱandȱGenderȱPoliticsȱinȱ
MedievalȱConductȱDiscourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

vi TableȱofȱContents
Chapterȱ6
MadelonȱKöhlerȬBusch
PushingȱDecorum:ȱUneasyȱLaughterȱinȱ
HeinrichȱvonȱdemȱTürlîn’sȱDiuȱCrône . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Chapterȱ7
ConnieȱL.ȱScarborough
LaughterȱandȱtheȱComicȱinȱaȱReligiousȱText:ȱ
TheȱExampleȱofȱtheȱCantigasȱdeȱSantaȱMaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Chapterȱ8
JohnȱSewell
TheȱSonȱRebelledȱandȱSoȱtheȱFatherȱMadeȱManȱAlone:ȱ
RidiculeȱandȱBoundaryȱMaintenanceȱinȱtheȱNizzahonȱVetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Chapterȱ9
BirgitȱWiedl
LaughingȱatȱtheȱBeast:ȱTheȱJudensau:
AntiȬJewishȱPropagandaȱandȱHumorȱ
fromȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱtoȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱPeriod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Chapterȱ10
FabianȱAlfie
Yesȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱbutȱwasȱitȱfunny?ȱCeccoȱAngiolieri,ȱ
RusticoȱFilippiȱandȱGiovanniȱBoccaccio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Chapterȱ11
NicolinoȱApplauso
CursesȱandȱLaughterȱinȱMedievalȱItalianȱComicȱPoetry:
TheȱEthicsȱofȱHumorȱinȱRusticoȱFilippi’sȱInvectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Chapterȱ12
FeargalȱÓȱBéarra
TromdhámhȱGuaire:ȱaȱContextȱforȱLaughter
andȱAudienceȱinȱEarlyȱModernȱIreland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

TableȱofȱContents vii
Chapterȱ13
JeanȱE.ȱJost
HumorousȱTransgressionȱinȱtheȱNonȬConformistȱFabliaux:
AȱBakhtinianȱAnalysisȱofȱThreeȱComicȱTales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Chapterȱ14
GretchenȱMieszkowski
ChaucerianȱComedy:ȱTroilusȱandȱCriseyde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Chapterȱ15
SarahȱGordon
LaughingȱandȱEatingȱinȱtheȱFabliaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Chapterȱ16
ChristineȱBousquetȬLabouérie
LaughterȱandȱMedievalȱStalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Chapterȱ17
ScottȱL.ȱTaylor
Voxȱpopuliȱeȱvoceȱprofessionis:ȱProcessusȱjurisȱjocoȬserius.
EsotericȱHumorȱandȱtheȱIncommensurabilityȱofȱLaughter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Chapterȱ18
JeanȱN.ȱGoodrich
“SoȱIȱthoughtȱasȱIȱStood,ȱToȱMirthȱUsȱAmong”:
TheȱFunctionȱofȱLaughterȱinȱTheȱSecondȱShepherds’ȱPlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Chapterȱ19
AlbrechtȱClassen
LaughingȱinȱLateȬMedievalȱVerseȱ(mæren)ȱandȱ
Proseȱ(Schwänke)ȱNarratives:ȱEpistemologicalȱStrategiesȱ
andȱHermeneuticȱExplorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Chapterȱ20
RosaȱAlvarezȱPerez
TheȱWorkingsȱofȱDesire:ȱPanurgeȱandȱtheȱDogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

viii TableȱofȱContents
Chapterȱ21
ElizabethȱChesneyȱZegura
LaughingȱOutȱLoudȱinȱtheȱHeptaméron:ȱAȱReassessment
ofȱMargueriteȱdeȱNavarre’sȱAmbivalentȱHumor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Chapterȱ22
LiaȱB.ȱRoss
Youȱhadȱtoȱbeȱthere:ȱTheȱElusiveȱHumorȱofȱtheȱSottie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Chapterȱ23
KyleȱDiRoberto
SacredȱParodyȱinȱRobertȱGreene’sȱGroatsworthȱofȱWitȱ(1592) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Chapterȱ24
MarthaȱMoffittȱPeacock
TheȱComedyȱofȱtheȱShrew:ȱTheorizingȱHumorȱinȱ
EarlyȱModernȱNetherlandishȱArt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Chapterȱ25
JessicaȱTvordi
TheȱComicȱPersonasȱofȱMilton’sȱProlusion VI:ȱ
NegotiatingȱMasculineȱIdentityȱThroughȱSelfȬDirectedȱHumor . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Chapterȱ26
RobertȱJ.ȱAlexander
Ridentumȱdicereȱverumȱ(UsingȱLaughterȱtoȱSpeakȱtheȱTruth):ȱ
LaughterȱandȱtheȱLanguageȱofȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱ
Clownȱ“Pickelhering”ȱinȱGermanȱLiteratureȱ
ofȱtheȱLateȱSeventeenthȱCenturyȱ(1675Ȭ1700) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Chapterȱ27
ThomasȱWillard
Andreae’sȱludibrium:ȱMenippeanȱSatireȱinȱtheȱChymischeȱHochzeit . . . . . . . . . . 767
Chapterȱ28
DianeȱRudall
TheȱComicȱPowerȱofȱIllusionȬAllusion:ȱLaughter,ȱLaȱDevineresse,
andȱtheȱScandalȱofȱaȱGloriousȱCentury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791

TableȱofȱContents ix
Chapterȱ29
AllisonȱP.ȱCoudert
LaughingȱatȱCredulityȱandȱSuperstitionȱinȱtheȱ
LongȱEighteenthȱCentury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
ListȱofȱIllustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847

Chapterȱ9
BirgitȱWiedl
(InstituteȱforȱJewishȱHistoryȱinȱAustria,ȱSt.ȱPölten)
LaughingȱatȱtheȱBeast:ȱTheȱJudensau:
AntiȬJewishȱPropagandaȱandȱHumorȱfromȱtheȱMiddle
AgesȱtoȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱPeriod
Aroundȱ1900,ȱtheȱvisitorsȱofȱaȱfairȱinȱSaxonyȱmightȱhaveȱcomeȱacrossȱaȱtraveling
theaterȱthatȱwasȱperformingȱthere,ȱandȱifȱtheyȱstayedȱforȱtheȱafterpiece,ȱtheyȱmight
haveȱbeenȱentertainedȱwithȱaȱpuppetȱthatȱisȱnowȱkeptȱatȱtheȱMunicipalȱMuseum
inȱ Munich:ȱ aȱ pigȱ that,ȱ wheneverȱ theȱ stringsȱ areȱ pulled,ȱ isȱ turnedȱ intoȱ a
Schacherjude,ȱtheȱ‘classical’ȱfigureȱofȱaȱbeardedȱJew,ȱbearingȱallȱtheȱstereotyped
facialȱfeaturesȱandȱextendingȱaȱhandȱinȱaȱgestureȱthatȱshouldȱevokeȱtheȱideaȱof
haggling,ȱofȱreachingȱoutȱforȱmoney.ȱTheȱswiftȱtransformationsȱfromȱsowȱtoȱJew
toȱsow,ȱenabledȱbyȱaȱtiltingȱmechanism,ȱmustȱhaveȱleftȱaȱdeepȱimpressionȱonȱthe
spectatorsȱwhoȱsawȱtheȱtwoȱimagesȱblurringȱintoȱoneȱrightȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheirȱeyes.1
Althoughȱ thisȱ deviceȱ isȱ inȱ itsȱ simplicityȱ aȱ farȱ cryȱ fromȱ theȱ complexȱ and
sophisticatedȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱJudensauȱiconsȱandȱsharesȱnothingȱbut
theȱmostȱbasicȱfeaturesȱwithȱthem,ȱitȱmustȱhaveȱbroughtȱtoȱmindȱtoȱspectatorsȱthe
veryȱimageȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱandȱfurtherȱcementedȱaȱconnectionȱthatȱlayȱatȱtheȱbasis
ofȱprobablyȱtheȱmostȱsuccessfulȱantiȬJewishȱimageȱinȱtheȱGermanȱspeakingȱrealm:
theȱJewȱperȱseȱisȱequalȱtoȱaȱsow,ȱandȱthereforeȱbarely,ȱifȱatȱall,ȱhuman.ȱThereforeȱit
isȱabsolutelyȱjustified,ȱevenȱinevitable,ȱtoȱlaughȱatȱhim;ȱheȱdeservesȱnoȱbetter.
Theȱ oldestȱ exampleȱ ofȱ aȱ Judensauȱ thatȱ isȱ stillȱ inȱ existence,ȱ althoughȱ badly
weathered,ȱisȱdatedȱtoȱaboutȱ1230ȱandȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱCathedralȱofȱBrandenburgȱan
1
StefanȱRohrbacherȱandȱMichaelȱSchmidt,ȱJudenbilder:ȱKulturgeschichteȱantijüdischerȱMythenȱund
antisemitischerȱVorurteileȱ(ReinbekȱbeiȱHamburg:ȱRowohlt,ȱ1991),ȱ28–31,ȱwithȱillustration.ȱIȱwould
likeȱ toȱ expressȱ myȱ gratitudeȱ toȱ Albrechtȱ Classenȱ andȱ Jeanȱ N.ȱ Goodrichȱ forȱ theirȱ valuable
commentsȱandȱcorrectionsȱofȱtheȱwholeȱarticle.
326 BirgitȱWiedl
derȱ Havelȱ (northeasternȱ Germany,ȱ betweenȱ Magdeburgȱ andȱ Berlin),ȱ whereȱ it

formsȱ theȱ capitalȱ ofȱ aȱ columnȱ inȱ theȱ cloisterȱ ofȱ theȱ Cathedral.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ main
featuresȱofȱtheȱtypicalȱJudensauȱareȱpresentȱinȱthisȱrelief—theȱsow,ȱtheȱsuckling,ȱand
theȱJewishȱ hat—itȱdiffersȱfromȱtheȱlaterȱpiecesȱdueȱtoȱtheȱbeastȬhumanȱhybrid
characterȱthatȱtheȱsowȱandȱoneȱpigletȱdisplay:ȱbothȱfeatureȱaȱhumanȱheadȱ(withȱthe
sowȱwearingȱaȱhatȱthatȱresemblesȱtheȱtypicalȱpointedȱJewishȱhat2)ȱandȱaȱhuman
armȱinsteadȱofȱoneȱofȱtheirȱlegs.ȱThisȱcompositionȱisȱthereforeȱreflectingȱtheȱquite
commonȱsubjectȱofȱbeastȬhumanȱhybridȱfiguresȱofȱmedievalȱartȱinȱgeneral,3ȱyetȱit
isȱnotȱanȱ‘ordinary’ȱhumanȱwhoseȱheadȱisȱplacedȱonȱtheȱanimal’sȱbody,ȱandȱwhose
offspringȱisȱsucklingȱherȱteats,ȱbutȱclearlyȱaȱJew.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱthat,ȱthereȱareȱtwo
humanȱfiguresȱflankingȱtheȱsow:ȱaȱwomanȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheȱsowȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱfeeding
itȱwhileȱaȱmanȱwearingȱaȱlongȱcoatȱisȱcrouchingȱbehindȱtheȱanimalȱandȱreaching
towardȱitsȱbackside,ȱaȱsceneȱatȱleastȱforeshadowingȱtheȱlaterȱcommonȱcomposition
ofȱaȱmanȱcaressingȱtheȱsow’sȱanus.
Theseȱ twoȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ theȱ Jews,ȱ theȱ sucklingȱ ofȱ theȱ sow’sȱ teatsȱ andȱ the
occupationȱwithȱtheȱanimal’sȱhindquarters,ȱturnedȱoutȱtoȱbecomeȱtheȱkeyȱfeatures
ofȱ theȱ Judensauȱ thatȱ wereȱ repeatedȱ inȱ almostȱ allȱ ofȱ itsȱ renditions,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ the
compositionȱofȱtheȱfiguresȱdifferedȱinȱtheirȱsetup.ȱTheȱotherȱ(stillȱexisting)ȱearlyȬ
toȱ midȬthirteenthȬcenturyȱ Judensäueȱ tooȱ varyȱ profoundlyȱ fromȱ whatȱ would
eventuallyȱ emergeȱ asȱ theȱ ‘classic’ȱ type.ȱ Theȱ Judensauȱ ofȱ St.ȱ Mary’sȱ atȱ Lemgo
(southwestȱ ofȱ Hanover)ȱ fromȱ aroundȱ 1310ȱ featuresȱ aȱ kneelingȱ manȱ wearingȱ a
Jewishȱhatȱwhoȱisȱembracingȱandȱ(probably)ȱkissingȱaȱsow.ȱInȱtheȱCathedralȱof
Xanten,ȱanȱensembleȱconsistingȱofȱaȱsow,ȱaȱJew,ȱandȱaȱlittleȱhybridȱmonsterȱare
depictedȱonȱaȱcorbelȱinȱtheȱnorthȱsideȱofȱtheȱchoir;ȱtheȱJew,ȱrecognizableȱasȱsuch
withȱhisȱJewishȱhat,ȱsideȬlocksȱandȱchinȬbeard,ȱisȱhalfȬkneeling,ȱhisȱheadȱturned
towardȱtheȱbeholder,ȱwhileȱtheȱsowȱisȱbitingȱintoȱtheȱpointedȱendȱofȱhisȱhat.ȱThe
2
Theȱquestionȱwhetherȱtheȱpointedȱhatȱwasȱanȱexclusivelyȱderogatoryȱsign,ȱasȱsuggestedȱbyȱRuth
Mellinkoff,ȱOutcasts:ȱSignsȱofȱOthernessȱinȱNorthernȱEuropeanȱArtȱofȱtheȱLaterȱMiddleȱAges,ȱvol.ȱ1:ȱText.
CaliforniaȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱArt,ȱ32ȱ(Berkeley,ȱLosȱAngeles,ȱandȱOxford:ȱUniversityȱof
CaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1993),ȱ91–94,ȱorȱwhetherȱitȱwasȱ(originally)ȱpartȱofȱtheȱJewishȱcostume,ȱisȱstill
ongoing,ȱseeȱrecentlyȱSaraȱLipton,ȱImagesȱofȱIntolerance:ȱtheȱRepresentationȱofȱJewsȱandȱJudaismȱinȱthe
Bibleȱmoraliséeȱ(Berkeley,ȱLosȱAngeles,ȱandȱLondon:ȱCaliforniaȱUniversityȱ Press,ȱ1999),ȱ15–19;
DebraȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews:ȱMakingȱMonstersȱinȱMedievalȱArtȱ(Princeton:
PrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2003),ȱ105–07;ȱMichaelȱToch,ȱDieȱJudenȱimȱmittelalterlichenȱReich.ȱSecond
ed.ȱEnzyklopädieȱdeutscherȱGeschichte,ȱ44ȱ(1998;ȱMunich:ȱOldenbourg,ȱ2003),ȱ37–38;ȱJacqueline
E.ȱJung,ȱ“TheȱPassion,ȱtheȱJews,ȱandȱtheȱCrisisȱofȱtheȱIndividualȱonȱtheȱNaumburgȱWestȱChoir
Screen,”ȱBeyondȱtheȱYellowȱBadge:ȱAntiȬJudaismȱandȱAntisemitismȱinȱMedievalȱandȱEarlyȱModernȱVisual
Culture,ȱed.ȱMitchellȱB.ȱMerbackȱ(Leiden:ȱBrill,ȱ2007),ȱ145–77;ȱhereȱ150–52;ȱandȱZivaȱAmishaiȬ
Maisels,ȱ“Demonizationȱofȱtheȱ‘Other’ȱinȱtheȱVisualȱArts,”ȱDemonizingȱtheȱOther:ȱAntisemitism,
Racism,ȱ&ȱXenophobia,ȱed.ȱRobertȱS.ȱWistrichȱ(1999;ȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2003);ȱ44–72;ȱhereȱ56.
3
JoyceȱE.ȱSalisbury,ȱTheȱBeastȱWithin:ȱAnimalsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,
1994),ȱ137–66.
LaughingȱatȱtheȱBeast:ȱTheȱJudensau 327
tinyȱmonster,ȱinterpretableȱasȱaȱJew4ȱwithȱsideȬlocksȱandȱaȱhatȱandȱnothingȱbutȱa
trefoilȱleafȱcoveringȱitsȱbuttocks,ȱsucklesȱtheȱsow’sȱteats.ȱTheȱsowȬkissingȱJewȱinȱthe
naveȱofȱMaryȱMagdalene’sȱchurchȱinȱEberswaldeȱ(northeastȱofȱBerlin),ȱandȱtheȱJew
whoȱisȱpushingȱawayȱoneȱofȱtheȱpigletsȱthatȱareȱsucklingȱaȱsow’sȱteatsȱinȱaȱchurch
inȱBadȱWimpfenȱ(northȱofȱStuttgart)ȱareȱfurtherȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱvariationsȱofȱyet
oneȱandȱtheȱsameȱtopic.5
OneȱofȱtheȱmainȱquestionsȱremainsȱwhyȱtheȱJudensauȱdevelopedȱprimarilyȱinȱthe
Germanȱ speakingȱ regions.ȱ Isaiahȱ Shacharȱ seesȱ differentȱ readingsȱ andȱ interȬ
pretationȱofȱBiblicalȱtexts,ȱanȱaligningȱofȱtheȱswineȱwithȱtheȱJewsȱ inȱHrabanus
Maurus’ȱDeȱuniverso,ȱatȱtheȱoriginȱofȱtheȱdevelopment,ȱcontrastingȱtheȱGerman
traditionȱwithȱtheȱEnglishȱthatȱisȱremarkablyȱvoidȱofȱtheȱJewȬsowȱmotif,ȱinȱspiteȱof
theȱ quiteȱ numerousȱ examplesȱ ofȱ sows,ȱ oftenȱ withȱ sucklingȱ piglets,ȱ inȱ English
churchesȱandȱmonasteriesȱasȱwellȱasȱinȱmanuscriptsȱofȱbestiaries.ȱBothȱtraditions
shareȱtheȱideaȱofȱtheȱfilthinessȱofȱtheȱswine,6ȱutilizingȱtheȱanimalȱtoȱsymbolize
impurity,ȱthusȱalsoȱservingȱasȱaȱsymbolȱforȱheretics,ȱandȱtheȱvicesȱofȱluxuriaȱand
gula,7ȱ yetȱ theȱ sowȬwithȬpigletsȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ distinctiveȱ featureȱ ofȱ theȱ English
manuscriptȱillustration.ȱRecently,ȱIsraelȱYuvalȱhasȱlaunchedȱtheȱappealingȱtheory
4
Isaiahȱ Shachar,ȱ Theȱ Judensau:ȱ Aȱ Medievalȱ AntiȬJewishȱ Motifȱ andȱ Itsȱ History.ȱ Warburgȱ Institute
Surveys,ȱ 5ȱ (London:ȱ Warburgȱ Institute,ȱ 1974),ȱ 17:ȱ pigletȬJew,ȱ whileȱ Heinzȱ Schreckenberg,
ChristlicheȱAdversusȬJudaeosȬBilder:ȱDasȱAlteȱundȱNeueȱTestamentȱimȱSpiegelȱderȱchristlichenȱKunst.
EuropäischeȱHochschulschriften.ȱSeriesȱXXIII:ȱTheologie,ȱ650ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.,ȱBerlin,ȱBern,ȱetȱal.:
PeterȱLang,ȱ1999),ȱ189,ȱinterpretsȱitȱasȱaȱlittleȱmonkey.ȱOnȱmonkeys/apesȱasȱaȱsignifierȱofȱevil,ȱsee
MarikoȱMiyazaki,ȱ“MisericordȱOwlsȱandȱMedievalȱAntiȬSemitism,”ȱTheȱMarkȱofȱtheȱBeast:ȱThe
MedievalȱBestiaryȱinȱArt,ȱLife,ȱandȱLiterature,ȱed.ȱDebraȱHassig.ȱGarlandȱreferenceȱlibraryȱofȱthe
humanities,ȱ2076;ȱGarlandȱmedievalȱcasebooks,ȱ22.ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱGarland,ȱ1999),ȱ23–52;
hereȱ33–34,ȱwhoȱestablishesȱaȱspecificȱconnectionȱbetweenȱowlsȱandȱapes.ȱSeeȱalsoȱtheȱcontribution
toȱthisȱvolumeȱbyȱChristineȱBousquetȬLabouérie.ȱ
5
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ16–19,ȱpl.ȱ7–12.ȱRecently,ȱtheȱsculptureȱinȱBadȱWimpfenȱ(gargoyle)ȱhasȱbeen
replacedȱbyȱaȱreplicaȱwhileȱtheȱoriginalȱhasȱbeenȱmovedȱtoȱtheȱmunicipalȱmuseum.
6
AlexandraȱCuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgustȱ inȱ MedievalȱReligiousȱPolemicȱ(NotreȱDame:ȱUniversityȱof
NotreȱDameȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ40–45,ȱexploresȱtheȱclassicalȱandȱlateȱantiqueȱrootsȱofȱtheȱimage(s)ȱboth
theȱJewishȱandȱChristianȱMiddleȱAgesȱhadȱofȱtheȱpig.
7
Shachar,ȱ Judensau,ȱ 5;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Wilfriedȱ Schouwink,ȱ Derȱ wildeȱ Eberȱ inȱ Gottesȱ Weinberg:ȱ Zur
DarstellungȱdesȱSchweinsȱinȱLiteraturȱundȱKunstȱdesȱMittelaltersȱ(Sigmaringen:ȱThorbecke,ȱ1985),
83–85.ȱForȱtheȱconnectionȱofȱJewsȱwithȱgula/luxuriaȬusury,ȱseeȱWinfriedȱFrey,ȱ“Derȱ‘Wucherjude’
alsȱKarikaturȱchristlicherȱPraxis,”ȱDasȱMittelalter:ȱPerspektivenȱmediävistischerȱForschung,ȱvol.ȱ10,
partȱ2:ȱProduktiveȱKulturkonflikte,ȱed.ȱFelicitasȱSchmiederȱ(Berlin:ȱAkademieȬVerlag,ȱ2005):ȱ126–35;
hereȱ 128;ȱ Johannesȱ Heil,ȱ “Dasȱ Geldȱ undȱ dasȱ Goldȱ desȱ Kalbes:ȱ Momenteȱ derȱ Exodusdeutung
zwischenȱPatristikȱundȱNeuzeit,”ȱShylock?ȱZinsverbotȱundȱGeldverleihȱinȱjüdischerȱundȱchristlicher
Tradition,ȱed.ȱid.ȱandȱBerndȱWackerȱ(Munich:ȱWilhelmȱFinkȱVerlag,ȱ1997),ȱ35–58.ȱSeeȱalsoȱthe
summaryȱbyȱJohannesȱFried,ȱ“ZinsȱalsȱWucher:ȱZuȱdenȱgesellschaftlichenȱRahmenbedingungen
derȱPredigtȱgegenȱdenȱWucherzins,”ȱIntroductionȱtoȱtheȱnewlyȱrevisedȱGermanȱeditionȱofȱJacques
LeGoff,ȱWucherzinsȱundȱHöllenqual:ȱÖkonomieȱundȱReligionȱimȱMittelalter,ȱtrans.ȱfromȱtheȱFrenchȱby
MatthiasȱRübȱ(1986;ȱStuttgart:ȱKlettȬCotta,ȱ2008),ȱ134–74.
328 BirgitȱWiedl
thatȱtheȱJudensauȱmotifȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱvilificationȱofȱtheȱMessianicȱdonkey,ȱthat
itȱis,ȱinȱfact,ȱitsȱsatiricȱopposite.8ȱ
Theȱearlyȱtypes,ȱasȱmuchȱasȱtheyȱdifferȱfromȱwhatȱisȱtoȱbecomeȱtheȱ‘classical’
Judensau,ȱ neverthelessȱ giveȱ notȱ onlyȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ theȱ quiteȱ wideȬranging
distributionȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱimageȱofȱsowȬwithȬJewȱbutȱshareȱcharacteristicȱtraits
thatȱ makeȱ themȱ predecessorsȱ ofȱ theȱ laterȱ derogatoryȱ image.ȱ Beȱ itȱ theȱ deȬ
humanizingȱofȱtheȱJewȱbyȱusingȱtheȱhybridȱformsȱinȱtheȱBrandenburgȱandȱXanten
examples,ȱtheȱsowȬkissingȱJewȱofȱEberswaldeȱwithȱitsȱallusionȱtoȱtheȱsodomitic
proclivitiesȱofȱtheȱsexuallyȱdeviantȱJew,9ȱitsȱemphasisȱisȱonȱtheȱJews’ȱbeastly,ȱnonȬ
humanȱdescent,ȱsimilarȱtoȱotherȱbeastȬJewȱhybridsȱlikeȱtheȱoneȱthatȱadornsȱthe
corbelȱofȱaȱcolumnȱinȱtheȱcloistersȱofȱtheȱCarmeliteȱmonasteryȱinȱBambergȱ(see
figureȱ 1).ȱ Theȱ oldestȱ depictionȱ thatȱ showsȱ allȱ theȱ mainȱ featuresȱ whichȱ inȱ the
centuriesȱtoȱcomeȱwouldȱaddȱupȱtoȱtheȱ‘classical’ȱimageȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱisȱprobably
theȱ oneȱ atȱ theȱ Cathedralȱ ofȱ Magdeburgȱ fromȱ theȱ lastȱ thirdȱ ofȱ theȱ thirteenth
century,ȱaȱcarvedȱfriezeȱonȱtheȱwallȱofȱtheȱ(former)ȱatrium,ȱthusȱvisibleȱtoȱallȱupon
enteringȱ theȱ church.ȱ Theȱ friezeȱ isȱ badlyȱ damagedȱ today,ȱ yetȱ theȱ main
characteristicsȱ areȱ clearlyȱ discernible:ȱ onȱ twoȱ sidesȱ ofȱ aȱ corbel,ȱ aȱ hugeȱ sowȱ is
depictedȱwithȱitsȱheadȱreachingȱaroundȱtheȱcorner,ȱandȱaȱJewȱwearingȱaȱlongȱfrockȬ
coat,ȱaȱconicalȱhat,ȱlongȱhairȱandȱbeardȱisȱstandingȱbehindȱherȱwhileȱaȱsecondȱJew,
similarlyȱattired,ȱisȱkneelingȱbeneathȱtheȱsow,ȱholdingȱandȱsucklingȱoneȱofȱher
teats.ȱDueȱtoȱtheȱdamage,ȱweȱcannotȱdetermineȱfullyȱwhetherȱtheȱJewȱstanding
behindȱtheȱsowȱisȱreachingȱtowardȱherȱanusȱsinceȱhisȱarmsȱhaveȱbrokenȱoff;ȱalso
theȱheadsȱofȱtheȱtwoȱpiglets,ȱoneȱsittingȱunderȱtheȱsow’sȱbelly,ȱtheȱotherȱstanding
beneathȱherȱhead,ȱareȱmissing.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱsideȱofȱtheȱcorbel,ȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheȱsow,
aȱwomanȱisȱpickingȱanȱacornȱfromȱaȱtreeȱwhileȱholdingȱaȱbowl,ȱbehindȱher,ȱaȱJew
isȱdepictedȱholdingȱanȱopenȱscroll.10
NoneȱofȱtheȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱJudensäueȱstandsȱalone.ȱInȱBrandenburgȱanȱder
HavelȱandȱXanten,ȱtheȱJudensauȱimagesȱareȱcontrastedȱwithȱbattleȱscenesȱbetween
representationsȱofȱevil.ȱInȱBrandenburg,ȱdragonsȱareȱfightingȱknightsȱorȱmangling
theirȱ alreadyȱ deadȱ bodies,ȱ whileȱ atȱ Xanten,ȱ theȱ encounterȱ ofȱ theȱ evilȱ forces
—fightingȱdragonsȱonȱtheȱoneȱandȱtheȱJudensauȱonȱtheȱotherȱcorbel—isȱcontrasted
byȱtheȱholyȱsceneȱthatȱisȱgoingȱonȱabove,ȱinȱtheȱsceneȱtheȱsculpturesȱstandingȱon
theȱ twoȱ corbelsȱ represent:ȱ theȱ Visitationȱ scene,ȱ theȱ meetingȱ ofȱ Maryȱ and
8
IsraelȱJacobȱYuval,ȱTwoȱNationsȱinȱYourȱWomb:ȱPerceptionsȱofȱJewsȱandȱChristiansȱinȱLateȱAntiquity
andȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtrans.ȱfromȱtheȱHebrewȱbyȱBarbaraȱHarshavȱandȱJonathanȱChipmanȱ(2000;
Berkeley,ȱLosȱAngeles,ȱandȱLondon:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱ127–29.
9
TheȱideaȱofȱtheȱsexuallyȱinsatiableȱJewȱhasȱalreadyȱbeenȱintroducedȱbyȱantiqueȱwriters,ȱincluding
Tacitus,ȱseeȱJanȱNicolaasȱSevenster,ȱTheȱRootsȱofȱPaganȱAntiȬSemitismȱinȱtheȱAncientȱWorldȱ(Leiden:
Brill,ȱ1975),ȱ142.
10
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ19–20,ȱpl.ȱ13–14.
Elizabeth.11ȱTheȱJudensauȱatȱMagdeburgȱisȱpartȱofȱanȱelaborateȱcycleȱthatȱIsaiah
ShacharȱinterpretsȱasȱaȱseriesȱofȱvicesȱthatȱareȱportrayedȱbyȱusageȱofȱhumanȬanimal
pairings:ȱaȱnakedȱgirl,ȱwithȱaȱramȱandȱapesȱasȱtheȱallegorizationȱofȱluxuriaȱwhereas
theȱsowȱandȱtheȱJewsȱareȱrepresentingȱgula,ȱgluttony.ȱTwelfthȬcenturyȱbestiaries
giveȱaȱhintȱasȱtoȱwhatȱtheȱsowȱstandsȱforȱinȱmedievalȱiconographicalȱcontext:12ȱa
representationȱofȱslackȱpenitents,ȱofȱsinnersȱwhoȱreturnȱtoȱtheirȱsin,ȱreflectingȱthe
wordsȱofȱSt.ȱPeterȱthatȱ“theȱdogȱisȱturnedȱtoȱhisȱownȱvomitȱagain;ȱandȱtheȱsowȱthat
wasȱwashedȱtoȱherȱwallowingȱinȱtheȱmire”ȱ(2ȱPeterȱ2:22),ȱwhichȱisȱconsideredȱan
evenȱgreaterȱsinȱthanȱjustȱsinningȱonce,ȱbecauseȱitȱmeansȱdespisingȱtheȱforgiveness
thatȱwasȱgrantedȱtoȱtheȱsinnerȱdueȱtoȱhis,ȱorȱher,ȱrepentance.ȱThisȱpassageȱalso
establishedȱtheȱequationȱofȱJewsȱwithȱbothȱswineȱandȱdogsȱbyȱChristianȱpolemics,
particularlyȱfromȱtheȱeleventhȱcenturyȱonwards;13ȱaȱmoreȱwidespreadȱadaptation
wasȱtriggeredȱbyȱtheȱallusionȱinȱtheȱDecretumȱGratianiȱthat,ȱreferringȱtoȱtheȱcouncil
ofȱAgdeȱfromȱ506ȱC.E.,ȱdeclaredȱthatȱJewsȱwhoȱconsideredȱbaptismȱshouldȱremain
catechumensȱforȱeightȱmonthsȱsinceȱtheyȱ“tendȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheirȱvomitȱbecauseȱof
theirȱperfidy.”14ȱTheȱswine,ȱanȱanimalȱalreadyȱlinkedȱtoȱleprosyȱandȱskinȱdiseases
byȱauthorsȱlikeȱPlutarch15ȱandȱfurtherȱstigmatizedȱbyȱtheȱBibleȱasȱstandingȱfor
unclean,ȱsinfulȱpeople,ȱnegligentȱpenitentsȱandȱhereticsȱasȱwellȱasȱbeingȱassociated
withȱluxuryȱandȱgluttony,ȱthereforeȱwasȱtheȱ‘ideal’ȱbeastȱtoȱbeȱconnectedȱwith
Jews:ȱitȱwasȱtheȱJewsȱthatȱoftenȱservedȱasȱrepresentativesȱofȱunwantedȱChristian
behavior,ȱ pairingsȱ ofȱ Jewsȱ andȱ hereticsȱ hadȱ become,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Lipton,
11
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ17.
12
SarahȱPhillips,ȱ“Theȱpigȱinȱmedievalȱiconography,”ȱPigsȱandȱHumans:ȱ10.000ȱYearsȱofȱInteraction,
ed.ȱUmbertoȱAlbarella,ȱKeithȱDobney,ȱAntonȱErvynck,ȱandȱPeterȱRowleyȬConwyȱ(Oxford:ȱOxford
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ373–87;ȱhereȱ374–76.
13
WinfriedȱFrey,ȱ“‘WltȱGottȱmanȱhingȱsieȱwieȱdieȱHund’.ȱVergleicheȱvonȱJudenȱmitȱHundenȱin
deutschenȱ Textenȱ desȱ Mittelaltersȱ undȱ derȱ frühenȱ Neuzeit,”ȱ Dasȱ Mittelalter:ȱ Perspektiven
mediävistischerȱForschung,ȱvol.ȱ12,ȱpartȱ2:ȱTierȱundȱReligion,ȱed.ȱThomasȱHoneggerȱandȱW.ȱGünther
Rohrȱ(Berlin:ȱAkademieȬVerlag,ȱ2007),ȱ119–34;ȱhereȱ121;ȱseeȱalsoȱKennethȱStow,ȱJewishȱDogs:ȱAn
ImageȱandȱItsȱInterpreters.ȱContinuityȱinȱtheȱCatholicȬJewishȱEncounter.ȱStanfordȱStudiesȱinȱJewish
HistoryȱandȱCultureȱ(Stanford:ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2006),ȱandȱIvanȱG.ȱMarcus,ȱ“Imagesȱof
theȱJewsȱinȱtheȱExemplaȱofȱCaesariusȱofȱHeisterbach,”ȱFromȱWitnessȱtoȱWitchcraft:ȱJewsȱandȱJudaism
inȱ Medievalȱ Christianȱ Thought,ȱ ed.ȱ Jeremyȱ Cohen.ȱ Wolfenbüttelerȱ Mittelalterȱ Studien,ȱ vol.ȱ 11
(Wiesbaden:ȱHarrassowitzȱVerlag,ȱ1996),ȱ247–55;ȱhereȱ250–51,ȱwhoȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱtheȱdogȱimage
isȱusedȱbyȱChristiansȱandȱJewsȱalike.ȱ
14
Heinzȱ Schreckenberg,ȱ Dieȱ christlichenȱ AdversusȬJudaeosȬTexteȱ (11.–13.ȱ Jahrhundert):ȱ Mitȱ einer
IkonographieȱdesȱJudenthemasȱbisȱzumȱ4.ȱLaterankonzil.ȱEuropäischeȱHochschulschriften.ȱSec.ȱed.
ReiheȱXXIII:ȱTheologie,ȱ335ȱ(1988;ȱFrankfurtȱa.ȱM.,ȱBern,ȱNewȱYork,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ1991),ȱ151.
Frey,ȱ“VergleicheȱvonȱJudenȱmitȱHunden,”ȱ122,ȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱthisȱliteraryȱimageȱwasȱalsoȱused
asȱanȱargumentȱforȱtheȱ(financial)ȱsupportȱofȱnewlyȱbaptisedȱChristiansȱlestȱtheyȱareȱforcedȱto
returnȱtoȱtheirȱoldȱreligionȱlikeȱaȱdogȱtoȱitsȱvomit.
15
Sevenster,ȱTheȱRootsȱofȱPaganȱAntiȬSemitism,ȱ137–38.
330 BirgitȱWiedl
commonplaceȱbyȱtheȱthirteenthȱcentury.16ȱJewsȱwereȱcloselyȱconnectedȱwithȱthe
sinsȱofȱgreedȱandȱexcessiveȱluxury,ȱandȱthereȱisȱbutȱlittleȱdoubtȱthatȱChristians
wereȱawareȱofȱtheȱJewishȱritualȱregulationsȱthatȱmarkedȱtheȱswineȱasȱunclean,
addingȱyetȱanotherȱlayerȱofȱinsultȱtoȱtheȱequation.17
Yetȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ theseȱ interpretationsȱ fitȱ withȱ theȱ medievalȱ usageȱ ofȱ animal
symbolism,ȱitȱis,ȱhowever,ȱcrucial,ȱasȱAlexandraȱCuffelȱhasȱpointedȱout,ȱtoȱseekȱfor
otherȱanimalsȱorȱiconographyȱinȱtheȱsurroundingsȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱimageȱthatȱmay
notȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱcyclesȱofȱvicesȱbutȱprovideȱanȱadditionalȱconnectionȱtoȱJews,ȱthus
allowingȱantiȬJewishȱpolemicsȱtoȱappearȱrepeatedlyȱinȱmanyȱchurchesȱofȱmedieval
Christiandom,ȱevenȱifȱtheseȱareȱnotȱplacedȱinȱtheȱforeground.18ȱAsȱmuchȱasȱtreating
anyȱ artisticȱ denigrationȱ ofȱ Jewsȱ asȱ primarily,ȱ evenȱ exclusively,ȱ antiȬJewish
propagandaȱwouldȱreduceȱtheȱcomplexityȱofȱmedievalȱmetaphoricalȱandȱpictoral
language,19ȱminimizingȱtheȱatȱleastȱmockingȱeffectȱtheseȱdepictionsȱpresentedȱat
theȱexpenseȱofȱtheȱJewsȱwouldȱamountȱtoȱignoringȱcrucialȱaspects.ȱAnimalsȱwhich,
inȱ theirȱ ownȱ surroundings,ȱ representedȱ primarilyȱ otherȱ sinsȱ orȱ vices,ȱ likeȱ the
(similarlyȱnotȱkosher)ȱrabbitȱthatȱstandsȱforȱsexualȱpromiscuityȱandȱhomosexuality,
theȱowlȱandȱitsȱrepresentationȱofȱdarkness,20ȱorȱtheȱgoatȱwithȱitsȱstrongȱconnection
16
Lipton,ȱ Imagesȱ ofȱ Intolerance,ȱ 21–29,ȱ 83–111,ȱ particularlyȱ 83.ȱ Forȱ anȱ intriguingȱ insightȱ intoȱ the
connectionȱ ofȱ hereticsȱ andȱ laughter,ȱ seeȱ Thomasȱ Scharff,ȱ “Lachenȱ überȱ dieȱ Ketzer.ȱ Religiöse
Devianzȱ undȱ Gelächterȱ imȱ Hochmittelalter,”ȱ Lachgemeinschaften:ȱ Kulturelleȱ Inszenierungenȱ und
sozialeȱWirkungenȱimȱMittelalterȱundȱinȱderȱFrühenȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱid.ȱTrendsȱinȱMedievalȱPhilology,ȱ4
(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱWalterȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2005),ȱ17–31.
17
TheȱpigȱasȱaȱderogatoryȱimageȱwasȱneitherȱreducedȱtoȱJewsȱnorȱusedȱexclusivelyȱbyȱChristians.
BothȱChristiansȱandȱJewsȱequatedȱMuslimsȱtoȱpigs,ȱseeȱCuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgust,ȱ76ȱandȱ134,ȱwith
theȱexampleȱofȱtheȱNizzahonȱYashan,ȱseeȱalsoȱIsraelȱJacobȱYuval,ȱ“‘Theyȱtellȱlies:ȱyouȱateȱtheȱman’:
JewishȱReactionsȱtoȱRitualȱMurderȱAccusations,”ȱReligiousȱViolenceȱbetweenȱChristiansȱandȱJews:
MedievalȱRoots,ȱModernȱPerspectives,ȱed.ȱAnnaȱSapirȱAbulafiaȱ(Basingstoke:ȱPalgrave,ȱ2002),ȱ86–106,
particularlyȱ91–94;ȱMartinȱPrzybilski,ȱ“ZweiȱBeispieleȱantichristlicherȱPolemikȱinȱSpätantikeȱund
Mittelalter:ȱtol’dotȱjeschuȱundȱnizzachonȱjaschan”ȱJudenȱundȱChristenȱinȱMittelalterȱundȱFrühneuzeit,
ed.ȱEvelineȱBruggerȱandȱBirgitȱWiedlȱ(Innsbruck,ȱVienna,ȱandȱBolzano:ȱStudienVerlag,ȱ2007),
253–68,ȱparticularlyȱ260–64,ȱandȱtheȱcontributionȱofȱJohnȱSewellȱinȱthisȱvolume.ȱFurthermore,
thereȱareȱotherȱhumiliatingȱritualsȱthatȱincludeȱJewsȱandȱswine,ȱlikeȱtheȱinfamousȱoathȬtakingȱon
aȱswine’sȱskinȱ(actuallyȱwithȱfewȱ‘realȬlife’ȱexamples),ȱwhereasȱelderȱceremonialsȱfeatureȱaȱgoat’s
skinȱ(twelfthȱcentury,ȱonlyȱoneȱreference),ȱseeȱaȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱdiscussionȱbyȱGundulaȱGrebner,
“Haltungenȱ zumȱ Judeneid:ȱ Texteȱ undȱ Kontexteȱ derȱ Frankfurterȱ Eidesformelnȱ imȱ 14.ȱ undȱ 15.
Jahrhundert,”ȱ“...IhrerȱBürgerȱFreiheit”:ȱFrankfurtȱamȱMainȱimȱMittelalter.ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱErinnerungȱan
dieȱFrankfurterȱMediaevistinȱElsbetȱOrth,ȱed.ȱHeribertȱMüller.ȱVeröffentlichungenȱderȱFrankfurter
HistorischenȱKommission,ȱ22ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.:ȱWaldemarȱKramer,ȱ2004),ȱ141–73.
18
Cuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgust,ȱ229–31.
19
DebraȱHassig,ȱ“TheȱIconographyȱofȱRejection:ȱJewsȱandȱOtherȱMonstrousȱRaces,”ȱImageȱandȱBelief:
StudiesȱinȱCelebrationȱofȱtheȱEighteenthȱAnniversaryȱofȱtheȱIndexȱofȱChristianȱArt,ȱed.ȱColumȱHourihane
(Princeton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999),ȱ25–46,ȱaȱperceptionȱcriticized,ȱe.g.,ȱbyȱJung,ȱ“The
Passion,ȱ theȱ Jews,ȱ andȱ theȱ Crisisȱ ofȱ theȱ Individual,”ȱ 164,ȱ whoȱ unfortunatelyȱ mixesȱ upȱ Debra
HassigȱandȱDebraȱHiggsȱStrickland.
20
HiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews,ȱ137.
withȱtheȱdevil,ȱneverthelessȱcouldȱformȱaȱsecond,ȱmoreȱlooseȱcycleȱthatȱwasȱbased
onȱtheȱ‘lowestȱcommonȱfactor’:ȱtheȱJews.ȱJewsȱsucklingȱaȱlamb’sȱtail,21ȱheretics
kissingȱ aȱ cat’sȱ anus:22ȱ applyingȱ theirȱ mouths—siteȱ ofȱ theȱ ingestionȱ ofȱ the
immaculateȱHostȱbyȱgoodȱCatholics—toȱfilthyȱanimalȱorifices23ȱnotȱonlyȱaroused
disgustȱagainstȱtheȱoffenders,ȱbeȱtheyȱJewsȱorȱother,ȱandȱdrewȱderogatoryȱsmirks,
butȱevokedȱfurtherȱassociation.ȱMoney,ȱfilthȱandȱevenȱobscenity,ȱcomeȱtoȱmind,
thusȱprovidingȱanotherȱlinkȱtoȱtheȱJews;ȱwhatȱSaraȱLiptonȱhasȱdemonstratedȱso
convincinglyȱforȱtheȱlinkageȱofȱcatȬhereticsȬJewsȱisȱevenȱmoreȱapplicableȱtoȱthe
iconographicalȱpatternsȱsurroundingȱtheȱswine:ȱrelatedȱyetȱhithertoȱunconnected
imagesȱwereȱstrungȱtogetherȱtoȱformȱaȱnewȱwhole.24
TheȱmanifoldȱattitudesȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱtowardȱanimalsȱcannotȱbeȱdiscussed
hereȱbecauseȱitȱwasȱsoȱmanifoldȱandȱcouldȱevenȱincludeȱfriendshipȱandȱlove25;ȱyet
itȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱanȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱtoȱconsiderȱatȱleastȱaȱfewȱpoints.ȱIn
contrastȱtoȱtheȱclearȱseparationȱbetweenȱhumanȱbeingȱandȱbeastȱthatȱwasȱupheld
duringȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAges,ȱtheȱinsultȱconsistingȱmoreȱinȱtheȱequationȱwithȱthe
irrationalȱbeast,26ȱtheȱgapȱstartedȱtoȱcloseȱfromȱtheȱtwelfthȱcenturyȱonwardsȱwhen
animalsȱ becameȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ humanizedȱ whileȱ simultaneously,ȱ theȱ ‘beast
within’ȱwasȱbeingȱrecognizedȱinȱtheȱhumanȱbeings.27ȱAnimalsȱwereȱbeingȱheld
responsibleȱforȱtheirȱactionsȱandȱtrialsȱagainstȱthem,ȱthoughȱremainingȱaȱrarity,
wereȱ heldȱ particularlyȱ againstȱ swine,28ȱ whileȱ punishmentȱ throughȱ (selfȬ)
humiliationȱbyȱequatingȱtheȱdelinquentȱwithȱanȱanimalȱspansȱfromȱtheȱMiddle
Ages29ȱ throughoutȱ theȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Period.30ȱ Animalsȱ figureȱ prominentlyȱ in
21
HiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews,ȱ120.
22
Lipton,ȱImagesȱofȱIntolerance,ȱ88.
23
24
25
TiereȱalsȱFreundeȱimȱMittelalter:ȱEineȱAnthologie.ȱEingeleitet,ȱausgewählt,ȱübersetztȱundȱkommentiert
vonȱ Gabrielaȱ Kompatscherȱ zusammenȱ mitȱ Albrechtȱ Classenȱ undȱ Peterȱ Dinzelbacher
(Badenweiler:ȱWissenschaftlicherȱVerlag,ȱ2010).
26
Cuffel,ȱ Genderingȱ Disgust,ȱ whoȱ focussesȱ onȱ theȱ connectionȱ ofȱ theȱ irrationalȱ andȱ theȱ female.
Abulafia,ȱ“ChristiansȱandȱJewsȱinȱtheȱHighȱMiddleȱAges,”ȱ23;ȱDebraȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱ“TheȱJews,
Leviticus,ȱandȱtheȱUncleanȱinȱMedievalȱEnglishȱBestiaries,”ȱBeyondȱtheȱYellowȱBadge,ȱ203–32;ȱhere
227–28ȱ(onȱPeterȱtheȱVenerableȱandȱAlanȱofȱLille).
27
Salisbury,ȱTheȱBeastȱWithin;ȱPeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱDasȱfremdeȱMittelalter:ȱGottesurteilȱundȱTierprozess
(Essen:ȱMagnusȱVerlag,ȱ2006),ȱ139.ȱFurthermore,ȱanimalȱbehaviorȱwasȱdescribedȱtoȱconveyȱmoral
lessonsȱandȱpointȱoutȱdesiredȱChristianȱbehavior,ȱseeȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱ“TheȱJews,ȱLeviticus,ȱand
theȱUnclean,”ȱ203.
28
Dinzelbacher,ȱDasȱfremdeȱMittelalter,ȱ110–11ȱandȱ113.ȱTheȱsystemȱofȱtrialȱandȱpunishmentȱworked
theȱotherȱwayȱround,ȱtoo:ȱe.g.,ȱaccordingȱtoȱBurgundianȱlaw,ȱaȱfalconȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱstolenȱhadȱthe
rightȱtoȱpickȱsixȱouncesȱofȱfleshȱoutȱofȱhisȱthief’sȱbody,ȱid.,ȱ143.
29
Famousȱ isȱ theȱ sceneȱ ofȱ Elȱ Cid’sȱ reconciliationȱ withȱ Kingȱ Alfonsoȱ whereȱ he,ȱ inȱ anȱ actȱ ofȱ selfȬ
humiliation,ȱactsȱlikeȱcattle:ȱ“Forthwithȱtoȱearthȱheȱbendsȱhimȱonȱtheȱhandȱandȱonȱtheȱknee.ȱAnd
theȱgrassȱofȱtheȱmeadowȱwithȱhisȱveryȱteethȱheȱrent.”ȱQuotedȱafterȱtheȱonlineȱversionȱofȱTheȱLay
ofȱtheȱCid,ȱtranslatedȱbyȱR.ȱSeldenȱRoseȱandȱLeonardȱBaconȱ(Berkeley:ȱUniversityȱofȱCalifornia
332 BirgitȱWiedl
medievalȱiconography,ȱbothȱasȱ‘themselves’ȱandȱasȱrepresentationȱofȱoneȱorȱmore
characteristics,ȱ traits,ȱ orȱ groupsȱ ofȱ people.ȱ Whileȱ someȱ beastsȱ areȱ assignedȱ an
exclusivelyȱpositiveȱimage,ȱlikeȱtheȱpantherȱorȱtheȱphoenix,31ȱothers,ȱlikeȱtheȱdog,32
areȱofȱdiverseȱinterpretation,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱcontextȱtheyȱareȱusedȱin.ȱAllegories
ofȱJewsȱandȱanimalsȱareȱmanifold,ȱandȱitȱdoesȱnotȱcomeȱasȱaȱsurpriseȱthatȱthose
linkedȱwithȱtheȱJews,ȱtheȱsowȱbeingȱbutȱoneȱamongȱthem,ȱareȱinȱtheȱrarestȱofȱcases
providedȱwithȱaȱpositiveȱinterpretation.ȱInstead,ȱtheyȱareȱregularlyȱassociatedȱwith
uncleannessȱ andȱ irrationalȱ andȱ bestialȱ nature.33ȱ Theȱ aforementionedȱ rabbit,ȱ or
hare,ȱ withȱ itsȱ connotationȱ ofȱ sexualȱ deviance,ȱ isȱ huntedȱ toȱ deathȱ byȱ dogs,ȱ as
Christiansȱ willȱ eventuallyȱ overcomeȱ theȱ Jews.ȱ Theȱ owlȱ withȱ itsȱ preferenceȱ for
darknessȱ overȱ lightȱ isȱ equatedȱ withȱ theȱ Jews’ȱ obstinateȱ refusalȱ ofȱ theȱ lightȱ of
Christ,34ȱandȱisȱattackedȱbyȱsmallerȱbirds,ȱlikeȱrighteousȱChristiansȱwouldȱrebel
againstȱ theȱ wickedȱ Jewȱ whileȱ theȱ owlȬJewȱ remainsȱ stoic,ȱ perseveringȱ inȱ his
wrongs.35ȱ Lestȱ theȱ spectatorȱ missȱ theȱ connection,ȱ aȱ moreȱ visibleȱ insultȱ was
sometimesȱaddedȱbyȱgivingȱdepictionsȱofȱowls’ȱ‘Jewishȱfeatures’ȱbyȱturningȱits
beakȱ intoȱ theȱ likenessȱ ofȱ aȱ hookedȱ nose.36ȱ Obduracyȱ againstȱ theȱ truthȱ ofȱ the
Christianȱfaithȱhadȱbeen,ȱandȱwouldȱremain,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱcentralȱreproachesȱagainst
theȱJewsȱthroughoutȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱutilizedȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱvernacularȱsermons
Press,ȱ1919),ȱhttp://omacl.org/Cid/ȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ30,ȱ2010).ȱTheȱequationȱhumanȬanimalȱas
aȱ ritualȱ ofȱ humiliationȱ isȱ pointedȱ outȱ byȱ Dinzelbacher,ȱ “Menschȱ undȱ Tierȱ inȱ derȱ Geschichte
Europas:ȱMittelalter,”ȱMenschȱundȱTierȱinȱderȱGeschichteȱEuropas,ȱed.ȱid.ȱKrönersȱTaschenausgabe,
34ȱ(Stuttgart:ȱAlfredȱKrönerȱVerlag,ȱ2000),ȱ181–292;ȱhereȱ198.
30
BiancaȱFrohne,ȱ“Narren,ȱTiereȱundȱgrewlicheȱFiguren:ȱZurȱInszenierungȱkomischerȱKörperlichkeit
imȱKontextȱvonȱBloßstellung,ȱSpottȱundȱSchandeȱvomȱ13.ȱbisȱzumȱ16.ȱJahrhundert,”ȱGlaubensstreit
undȱGelächter:ȱReformationȱundȱLachkulturȱimȱMittelalterȱundȱinȱderȱFrühenȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱChristoph
AuffarthȱandȱSonjaȱKerth.ȱReligionenȱinȱderȱpluralenȱWelt,ȱ6ȱ(Berlin:ȱLitȱVerlag,ȱ2008),ȱ19–54;ȱhere
42–43,ȱgivesȱtheȱexampleȱofȱwhatȱisȱknownȱasȱSchandsteineȱ(literallyȱ‘stonesȱofȱdisgrace’),ȱstones
inȱtheȱshapeȱofȱanimalsȱthatȱwereȱconsideredȱdisgustingȱorȱinfamous,ȱlikeȱdogsȱorȱtoads,ȱthatȱhad
toȱbeȱcarriedȱaroundȱbyȱtheȱperpetratorȱasȱaȱformȱofȱpublicȱpunishment.
31
DebraȱHassig,ȱMedievalȱBestiaries:ȱText,ȱImage,ȱIdeologyȱ(Cambridge,ȱNewȱYork,ȱandȱMelbourne:
CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1995),ȱ156–66ȱ(panther),ȱ72–83ȱ(phoenix);ȱseeȱalsoȱRomyȱGünthart,
“DerȱPhönix:ȱVomȱChristussymbolȱzumȱFirmenlogo,”ȱDämonen,ȱMonster,ȱFabelwesen,ȱed.ȱUlrich
Müllerȱ andȱ Wernerȱ Wunderlich.ȱ Mittelalterȱ Mythen,ȱ 2ȱ (St.ȱ Gallen,ȱ UVK.ȱ Fachverlagȱ für
WissenschaftȱundȱStudium,ȱ1999),ȱ467–83.
32
PeterȱDinzelbacher,ȱ“MenschȱundȱTier,”ȱ220.ȱSeeȱbelowȱforȱtheȱusageȱofȱdogsȱwithȱregardȱtoȱJews.
33
HiggsȱStrickland,ȱ“TheȱJews,ȱLeviticus,ȱandȱtheȱUnclean,”ȱ227.
34
Miyazaki,ȱ“MisericordȱOwlsȱandȱMedievalȱAntiȬSemitism,”ȱ27–28;ȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,
Demons,ȱ&ȱJews,ȱ137;ȱHassig,ȱMedievalȱBestiaries,ȱ97–98.
35
Miyazaki,ȱ“MisericordȱOwlsȱandȱMedievalȱAntiȬSemitism,”ȱ33.
36
Miyazaki,ȱ“MisericordȱOwlsȱandȱMedievalȱAntiȬSemitism,”ȱ28–29;ȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,
Demons,ȱ &ȱ Jews,ȱ 77–78,ȱ whoȱ givesȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ theȱ hookedȱ noseȱ beingȱ aȱ generalȱ signifierȱ of
‘evilness’,ȱe.g.,ȱusedȱinȱimagesȱofȱ(nonȬJewish)ȱexecutionersȱorȱtorturersȱofȱsaints,ȱseeȱalsoȱAmishaiȬ
Maisels,ȱ“Demonizationȱofȱtheȱ‘Other’ȱinȱtheȱVisualȱArts,”ȱ53–54,ȱwithȱtheȱexampleȱofȱanȱEnglish
manuscriptȱwhereȱinȱtheȱbetrayalȱofȱChrist,ȱtheȱRomansȱareȱdepictedȱasȱblackȱ(i.e.,ȱMuslims)ȱwith
hookedȱnosesȱandȱJewishȱhats.
ofȱtheȱearlyȱMiddleȱAges,37ȱanȱobduracy,ȱalmostȱdefiance,ȱthatȱwasȱallȱtheȱworse
becauseȱitȱwasȱdoneȱdeliberately;ȱandȱthusȱChristiansȱfeltȱaȱcertainȱrightȱtoȱmock
theȱJewsȱsinceȱtheirȱobduracyȱprovokedȱit.38ȱ
Theȱravenousȱhyena,ȱchangingȱitsȱsexȱatȱwill39ȱandȱdevouringȱcorpses,40ȱisȱas
muchȱaȱsymbolȱofȱtheȱunclean,ȱidolatrousȱJewȱasȱtheȱmythicalȱmanticoreȱofȱtheȱmid
thirteenthȬcenturyȱSalisburyȱbestiaryȱwithȱitsȱpointedȱPhrygianȱhat,ȱlongȱbeardȱand
grotesqueȱprofile41;ȱtheirȱmonstrosity,ȱsoȱpointedlyȱnonȬhuman,ȱisȱevenȱheightened
byȱtheȱdeedsȱtheyȱcommit.ȱTheȱmanticoreȬJewȱhybridȱhasȱtheȱremainsȱofȱaȱhuman
legȱ betweenȱ hisȱ jaws,ȱ theȱ hyenaȱ feedsȱ onȱ humanȱ corpses:ȱ anȱ allusionȱ toȱ both
cannibalismȱ associatedȱ withȱ monstersȱ andȱ barbarians,ȱ andȱ ritualȱ murder
accusationsȱ againstȱ Jews,42ȱ theȱ bloodȱ libelsȱ thatȱ hadȱ startedȱ offȱ inȱ Englandȱ in
114443—aȱquiteȱ‘sophisticated’ȱreferenceȱthatȱlaterȱwouldȱbeȱstrippedȱofȱallȱpossible
ambiguityȱ andȱ beȱ hammeredȱ home:ȱ possiblyȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ fourteenthȬcentury
Cologneȱ Judensau,44ȱ andȱ mostȱ definitely,ȱ andȱ blatantlyȱ so,ȱ inȱ theȱ Judensauȱ of
37
GunnarȱMikosch,ȱ“NichtsȱalsȱDiskurse:ȱJudenȱinȱdenȱfrühenȱmittelhochdeutschenȱPredigtenȱdes
12.ȱundȱ13.ȱJahrhunderts,”ȱHistorischeȱDiskursanalysen:ȱGenealogie,ȱTheorie,ȱAnwendungen,ȱed.ȱFranz
X.ȱEderȱ(Wiesbaden:ȱVerlagȱfürȱSozialwissenschaften,ȱ2006),ȱ253–69;ȱhereȱ260–61.
38
JohannesȱHeil,ȱ‘Gottesfeinde’—’Menschenfeinde’:ȱDieȱVorstellungȱvonȱjüdischerȱWeltverschwörungȱ(13.
bisȱ16.ȱJahrhundert).ȱAntisemitismus:ȱGeschichteȱundȱStruktur,ȱ3ȱ(Essen:ȱKlartextȱVerlag,ȱ2006),ȱ170;
Lipton,ȱImagesȱofȱIntolerance,ȱ70–72,ȱonȱtheȱ‘visualȱpresentation’ȱofȱthisȱreproach.
39
Theȱideaȱthatȱhyenasȱcouldȱchangeȱtheirȱsexȱ(notȱonlyȱaȱEuropeanȬcenteredȱmyth)ȱgoesȱbackȱtoȱthe
factȱthatȱtheȱgenitaliaȱofȱtheȱfemaleȱareȱprotruding,ȱthusȱresemblingȱaȱpenis.ȱAlreadyȱAristotleȱhad
spokenȱagainstȱthatȱassumption,ȱasȱtheȱUCȱBerkeleyȱhyenaȱspecialist,ȱStephenȱE.ȱGlickman,ȱhas
pointedȱoutȱinȱhisȱsummingȱupȱofȱtheȱ‘badȱreputation’ȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱhyena,ȱ“TheȱSpottedȱHyena
fromȱAristotleȱtoȱtheȱLionȱKing:ȱReputationȱisȱEverything—InȱtheȱCompanyȱofȱAnimals”ȱSocial
Researchȱ1995.3,ȱtextȱonlineȱatȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ30,ȱ2010):
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2267/is_n3_v62/ai_17909878/?tag=content;col1.
40
Hassig,ȱMedievalȱBestiaries,ȱ145–55,ȱ174;ȱid.,ȱ“SexȱinȱtheȱBestiaries,”ȱTheȱMarkȱofȱtheȱBeast,ȱ71–98,
hereȱ74–75;ȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews,ȱ147–48,ȱ153–54;ȱid.,ȱ“TheȱJews,ȱLeviticus,
andȱtheȱUnclean,”ȱ209–11.
41
HiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews,ȱ136,ȱfigureȱ60ȱandȱpl.ȱ3;ȱPamelaȱGravestock,ȱ“Did
ImaginaryȱAnimalsȱExist?,”ȱTheȱMarkȱofȱtheȱBeast,ȱ119–40;ȱhereȱ121.
42
ClaudineȱFabreȬVassas,ȱTheȱSingularȱBeast:ȱJews,ȱChristians,ȱ&ȱtheȱPig,ȱtrans.ȱfromȱtheȱFrenchȱby
CarolȱVolk.ȱSec.ȱed.ȱEuropeanȱPerspectivesȱ(1994;ȱNewȱYork:ȱColumbiaȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1999),
136–37,ȱdrawsȱtheȱdaringȱyetȱutterlyȱcompellingȱparallelȱbetweenȱChristianȱpigȱbreedingȱ&ȱraising
andȱallȱtheȱritualsȱthatȱgoȱwithȱit,ȱporkȱconsumptionȱandȱtheȱ‘slaughtering’ȱofȱChristianȱchildren
byȱJewsȱ(seeȱbelow).
43
HiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews,ȱ136;ȱAnnaȱSapirȱAbulafia,ȱ“ChristiansȱandȱJewsȱinȱthe
HighȱMiddleȱAges:ȱChristianȱViewsȱofȱJews,”ȱJewsȱofȱEurope,ȱ19–28;ȱhereȱ26–27.ȱThereȱisȱaȱlegion
ofȱrelevantȱresearchȱonȱWilliamȱofȱNorwich,ȱsee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱFriedrichȱLotter,ȱ“Innocensȱvirgo
etȱmartyr:ȱThomasȱvonȱMonmouthȱundȱdieȱVerbreitungȱderȱRitualmordlegendeȱimȱHochmitȬ
telalter,”ȱDieȱLegendeȱvomȱRitualmord:ȱZurȱGeschichteȱderȱBlutbeschuldigungȱgegenȱJuden,ȱed.ȱRainer
Erbȱ(Berlin:ȱMetropol,ȱ1993),ȱ25–72,ȱandȱtheȱgeneralȱdiscussionȱbyȱAnthonyȱBale,ȱTheȱJewȱinȱthe
MedievalȱBook:ȱEnglishȱAntisemitismsȱ1350–1500ȱ(CambridgeȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridgeȱUniversity
Press,ȱ2006),ȱ105–44ȱ(withȱtheȱexampleȱofȱRobertȱofȱBuryȱStȱEdmunds).
44
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ24–25.
334 BirgitȱWiedl
FrankfurtȱthatȱwasȱlinkedȱtoȱtheȱallegedȱmurderȱofȱSimonȱofȱTrent,ȱleavingȱno
placeȱ forȱ doubtsȱ aboutȱ theȱ Jews’ȱ viciousness.ȱ Withȱ theȱ newȱ emphasisȱ on
transubstantiationȱandȱtheȱEucharistȱemergingȱasȱaȱsacrament,ȱtheȱaccusationsȱof
hostȱdesecrationȱandȱbloodȱlibelsȱareȱmirroredȱinȱtheȱdepictionȱandȱpresentation
ofȱJewsȱinȱmanyȱregards:ȱapartȱfromȱallusiveȱmotifsȱlikeȱJewsȱholdingȱknivesȱor
havingȱbloodstainsȱonȱtheirȱclothes,ȱscenesȱofȱJewsȱabducting,ȱtormenting,ȱand
slaughteringȱaȱChristianȱchildȱveryȱquicklyȱbecameȱaȱpopularȱsubjectȱforȱpaintings
and,ȱparticularly,ȱprints,ȱintensifyingȱandȱchannellingȱtheȱantiȬJewishȱsentiments
thatȱculminatedȱinȱtheȱabovementionedȱcombinationȱofȱaȱJudensauȱandȱtheȱblood
libelȱofȱSimonȱofȱTrent.45ȱ
Equallyȱviciousȱisȱtheȱscorpionȱwhoȱsurfacesȱparticularlyȱasȱtheȱheraldicȱanimal
onȱbanners,ȱpennants,ȱshields,ȱandȱarmorsȱofȱJewsȱappearingȱinȱpassionȱplaysȱand
passionȱscenesȱinȱtheȱvisualȱrepresentations;ȱsometimes,ȱtheȱallegoricalȱfigureȱof
SynagogaȱaccompanyingȱaȱgroupȱofȱJewsȱisȱalsoȱ portrayedȱcarryingȱaȱscorpion
banner.46ȱScorpions,ȱinȱChristianȱtheologicalȱtradition,ȱareȱnotȱonlyȱmalevolentȱbut
deceitful:ȱtheyȱareȱpeacefulȱinȱappearance,ȱfriendlyȱonȱtheȱsurface,ȱyetȱwoeȱbetide
anyoneȱwhoȱtouchesȱthem,ȱtheyȱwillȱstingȱwithȱtheirȱvenomousȱbarbȱwhichȱthey
hadȱsoȱtreacherouslyȱkeptȱhiddenȱfromȱview—likeȱtheȱJews,ȱwhoȱappearȱasȱifȱthey
meantȱnoȱharmȱyetȱseekȱtoȱpoisonȱChristiansȱwithȱtheirȱfalseȱteachings.ȱEvenȱas
lateȱ asȱ 1563,ȱ inȱ theȱ infamousȱ broadsheetȱ Derȱ Judenȱ zukünfftigerȱ Messiasȱ that
contributedȱinȱaȱmajorȱfashionȱtoȱtheȱdisseminationȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱimageȱthat
formedȱtheȱcenterȱofȱtheȱwoodcut,47ȱaȱfireȬbreathingȱscorpionȱisȱhoveringȱaboveȱthe
processionȱofȱJewsȱwhoȱareȱledȱtoȱHellȱbyȱtwoȱdevils.
45
Lipton,ȱ“Imagesȱandȱtheirȱuses,”ȱ279–80.ȱToȱbeȱreleasedȱsoonȱisȱtheȱnewȱbookȱbyȱSaraȱLipton,ȱDark
Mirror:ȱ Jews,ȱ Vision,ȱ andȱ Witnessȱ inȱ Medievalȱ Christianȱ Artȱ (Newȱ York:ȱ Metropolitanȱ Books,
forthcoming).ȱSeeȱPetraȱSchöner,ȱJudenbilderȱimȱdeutschenȱEinblattdruckȱderȱRenaissance:ȱEinȱBeitrag
zurȱImagologie.ȱSaeculaȱSpiritaliaȱ42ȱ(BadenȬBaden:ȱValentinȱKoerner,ȱ2002),ȱ111–62,ȱwithȱaȱvery
criticalȱreviewȱbyȱFalkȱEisermann,ȱAschkenas:ȱZeitschriftȱfürȱGeschichteȱundȱKulturȱderȱJudenȱ13.1
(2003):ȱ270–72.ȱForȱtheȱliteraryȱdevelopment,ȱseeȱMiriȱRubin,ȱGentileȱTales:ȱTheȱNarrativeȱAssault
onȱLateȱMedievalȱJews.ȱTheȱMiddleȱAgesȱSeriesȱ(1999;ȱPhiladelphia:ȱUniversityȱofȱPennsylvania
Press,ȱ2004),ȱwithȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱbroadsheets,ȱ173–80.ȱ
46
Schouwink,ȱDerȱwildeȱEber,ȱ82–83,ȱHerbertȱJochum,ȱ“EcclesiaȱundȱSynagoga.ȱAlterȱundȱNeuer
BundȱinȱderȱchristlichenȱKunst,”ȱDerȱungekündigteȱBund?ȱAntwortenȱdesȱNeuenȱ Testaments,ȱed.
HubertȱFrankemölle.ȱQuaestionesȱDisputatae,ȱ172ȱ(Freiburg,ȱBasel,ȱandȱVienna:ȱHerder,ȱ1998),
248–76;ȱhereȱ258;ȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews,ȱ176–77,ȱfig.ȱ85ȱandȱpl.ȱ12:ȱinȱthe
backgroundȱofȱaȱlateȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱpassionȱsceneȱfromȱCologne,ȱJewsȱareȱbearingȱbannersȱwith
theȱemblemsȱofȱtheȱdragonȱandȱtheȱscorpion.ȱ
47
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ55–56ȱandȱpl.ȱ46,ȱinterpretsȱitȱasȱaȱrenditionȱofȱtheȱFrankfurtȱJudensauȱwhichȱhas
beenȱarguedȱagainstȱbyȱGundulaȱGrebner,ȱ“DieȱJudensaudarstellungȱamȱFrankfurterȱBrückentor
alsȱSchandbild.ȱFunktionenȱderȱBekleidungȱvonȱJudenȱimȱBild,”ȱKopfȬȱundȱandereȱTücher,ȱed.ȱGisela
EngelȱandȱSusanneȱScholz.ȱSalecinaȬBeiträgeȱzurȱGesellschaftsȬȱundȱKulturkritik,ȱ6ȱ(Berlin:ȱtrafo
verlag,ȱ2005),ȱ87–102;ȱhereȱ90.
Asȱseriousȱasȱtheȱcontext,ȱandȱprimaryȱintent,ȱofȱtheseȱbeastȱallegoriesȱmayȱbe,48
humorȱifȱoftenȱutilizedȱtoȱaddȱaȱfurtherȱquality.ȱTheȱcorbelsȱinȱtheȱchoirȱofȱthe
XantenȱCathedralȱmightȱportrayȱtheȱevilȱcounterpartȱtoȱtheȱholyȱVisitationȱscene
theyȱsupportȱyetȱmightȱhaveȱdrawnȱtheȱattentionȱofȱbypassersȱmainlyȱdueȱtoȱtheir
drôlerieȬlikeȱappearance,ȱasȱmightȱtheȱalmostȱcaricatureȬlikeȱfacesȱofȱtheȱowlsȱorȱthe
bizarreȱprofileȱofȱtheȱmanticore,ȱwhileȱgargoyles,ȱwhicheverȱshapeȱtheyȱmayȱtake
on,ȱhad,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱinducingȱfearȱandȱintimidation,ȱaȱdefiniteȱcomicalȱaspect
perȱse.49ȱFurthermore,ȱtopsyȬturvynessȱisȱaȱkeyȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱmedievalȱchoiceȱof
animalsȱrepresentingȱJews:50ȱtheȱowlȱthatȱfliesȱbackwardsȱandȱatȱnight,ȱtheȱhyena
andȱ theȱ rabbitȱ whoȱ canȱ changeȱ theirȱ sex,ȱ theȱ hybridȱ manticoreȱ andȱ theȱ manȬ
nursingȱpig:ȱanimalsȱwhoȱactȱcontraryȱtoȱnature,ȱlikeȱtheȱJewsȱactȱcontraryȱtoȱthe
realȱfaith,ȱaȱtrulyȱabhorrentȱthing—andȱyetȱtheȱcomicalȱelementȱofȱaȱtopsyȬturvy
worldȱisȱpresent,51ȱresoundingȱinȱtheȱinscriptionȱattachedȱtoȱtheȱfifteenthȬcentury
JudensauȱinȱtheȱchoirȱofȱtheȱCathedralȱofȱFreisingȱthatȱ‘setsȱitȱright’ȱagain:ȱ“Soȱwahr
dieȱMausȱdieȱKatzȱnitȱfrisst,ȱwirdȱderȱJudȱkeinȱwahrerȱChrist”ȱ(asȱmuchȱasȱthe
mouseȱdoesȱnotȱeatȱtheȱcat,ȱtheȱJewȱwon’tȱbecomeȱaȱtrueȱChristian).52
AlthoughȱmentioningȱthatȱantiȬJewishȱpolemics,ȱinȱwhicheverȱform,ȱexistedȱin
regionsȱwithoutȱJewishȱsettlementsȱisȱalmostȱtantamountȱtoȱaȱcommonplaceȱby
now,ȱitȱisȱneverthelessȱimportantȱtoȱstateȱthatȱevidenceȱofȱaȱconnectionȱbetweenȱthe
creationȱofȱaȱJudensauȱinȱeitherȱofȱtheȱaforementionedȱcitiesȱandȱactualȱviolence
48
Lipton,ȱImagesȱofȱIntolerance,ȱ43–44,ȱaddsȱravenȱandȱfrog/toadȱtoȱtheȱlist,ȱwhichȱappearȱinȱFrench
manuscripts,ȱseeȱalsoȱMaryȱE.ȱRobbins,ȱ“TheȱTruculentȱToadȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,”ȱAnimalsȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAges:ȱAȱBookȱofȱEssays,ȱed.ȱNonaȱC.ȱFlores.ȱGarlandȱMedievalȱCasebooks,ȱ13ȱ(NewȱYorkȱand
London:ȱGarland,ȱ1996),ȱ25–48.
49
ForȱaȱdetailedȱstudyȱofȱgrotesqueȱJewishȱfeaturesȱcontrastedȱwithȱnobleȱChristianȱfaces,ȱseeȱJung,
“TheȱPassion,ȱtheȱJews,ȱandȱtheȱCrisisȱofȱtheȱIndividual,”ȱ154–56,ȱandȱthroughoutȱtheȱarticle.ȱSee
furtherȱ Janettaȱ Reboldȱ Benton,ȱ “Gargoyles:ȱ Animalȱ Imageryȱ andȱ Artisticȱ Individualityȱ in
MedievalȱArt,”ȱAnimalsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ147–65,ȱparticularlyȱ158–59;ȱead.,ȱHolyȱTerrors:ȱGargoyles
onȱMedievalȱBuildingsȱ(NewȱYork:ȱAbbevilleȱPress,ȱ1997);ȱAlbrechtȱClassen,ȱ“Gargoylesȱ—WasserȬ
speier:ȱ Phantasieprodukteȱ desȱ Mittelaltersȱ undȱ derȱ Moderne,”ȱ (hereȱ 127ȱ andȱ 130)ȱ andȱ Peter
Dinzelbacher,ȱ “Monsterȱ undȱ Dämonenȱ amȱ Kirchenbau,”ȱ bothȱ Dämonen,ȱ Monster,ȱ Fabelwesen,
127–33ȱandȱ103–26,ȱrespectively.ȱDinzelbacher,ȱ111,ȱcitesȱtheȱdoyenȱofȱGermanȱartȱhistory,ȱGeorg
Dehio,ȱ whoȱ complainsȱ aboutȱ academicsȱ takingȱ theȱ grotesqueȱ monstersȱ atȱ medievalȱ churches
seriouslyȱinsteadȱofȱinterpretingȱthemȱasȱtheȱexpressionȱofȱ‘insignificantȱhumor.’ȱ
50
OnȱtheȱtopsyȬturvyȱworldȱasȱaȱplaceȱofȱinverseȱrelationshipsȱofȱanimalsȱandȱhumans,ȱseeȱJanetta
ReboldȱBenton,ȱMedievalȱMischief:ȱWitȱandȱHumourȱinȱtheȱArtȱofȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Stroud:ȱSutton
Publishing,ȱ2004),ȱ69.
51
TheȱdiscussionȱonȱtheȱcomicalȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱtopsyȬturvyȱworldȱandȱitsȱinstrumentalizationȱare
manifold.ȱ Withȱ aȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ GermanȬspeakingȱ areas,ȱ seeȱ Michaelȱ Kupfer,ȱ Zurȱ Semiotikȱ der
Inversion:ȱVerkehrteȱWeltȱundȱLachkulturȱimȱ16.ȱJahrhundertȱ(Berlin:ȱVerlagȱfürȱWissenschaftȱund
Bildung,ȱ1993);ȱKomischeȱGegenwelten:ȱLachenȱundȱLiteraturȱinȱMittelalterȱundȱFrüherȱNeuzeit,ȱed.
WernerȱRöckeȱandȱHelgaȱNeumannȱ(Paderborn,ȱMunich,ȱandȱVienna:ȱFerdinandȱSchöningh,
1999).
52
336 BirgitȱWiedl
againstȱJews,ȱorȱevenȱtheirȱphysicalȱpresence,ȱisȱscarce.53ȱJewishȱsettlementȱtook
placeȱ eitherȱ later,ȱ notȱ beforeȱ theȱ earlyȱ fourteenthȱ centuryȱ (Brandenburg,ȱ Bad
Wimpfen)ȱorȱnoȱevidenceȱofȱaȱmedievalȱJewishȱpopulationȱcanȱbeȱtracedȱatȱall
(Lemgo).ȱAsȱforȱXantenȱandȱMagdeburg,ȱcitiesȱthatȱnotȱonlyȱshareȱtheȱexistenceȱof
aȱlargeȱmedievalȱJewishȱpopulationȱbutȱalsoȱaȱhistoryȱofȱviolenceȱagainstȱtheir
Jews,ȱanyȱtemporalȱcorrelationȱwithȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱaȱJudensauȱisȱunprovableȱat
best.ȱ Theȱ Jewsȱ ofȱ Xantenȱ wereȱ slaughteredȱ duringȱ theȱ firstȱ crusade;54ȱ whereas
Magdeburg,ȱtheȱtownȱthatȱhadȱseenȱitsȱarchbishopȱAlbrechtȱIIȱkissȱtheȱTorahȱofȱthe
JewsȱwhoȱgreetedȱhimȱalongȱwithȱotherȱcitizensȱuponȱhisȱarrivalȱfromȱRomeȱin
1207,55ȱ persecutedȱ itsȱ Jewsȱ severalȱ timesȱ throughoutȱ theȱ thirteenthȱ andȱ early
fourteenthȱcentury.ȱYetȱtheȱlinkȱbetweenȱanȱantiȬJewishȱriotȱinȱ1266/1267ȱandȱthe
datingȱ ofȱ theȱ Madgeburgȱ Judensauȱ hasȱ beenȱ questioned,ȱ andȱ provedȱ highly
unlikely,ȱbyȱShachar.56ȱIt,ȱhowever,ȱalsoȱsignifiesȱthatȱwhoeverȱcommissionedȱthe
creationȱofȱaȱJudensauȱfeltȱcertainȱthatȱtheȱimageryȱwouldȱbeȱunderstood,ȱevenȱif
theȱspectatorsȱhadȱneverȱonceȱinȱtheirȱlivesȱcomeȱacrossȱaȱrealȱJew.ȱ
Whyȱtheȱswine,ȱthen?ȱTheȱgeneralȱimportanceȱofȱimagesȱforȱtheȱinhabitantsȱof
medievalȱEuropeȱcannotȱbeȱunderestimated:ȱBernhardȱBlumenkranzȱcalledȱthe
wallsȱ ofȱ medievalȱ churchesȱ ‘hugeȱ pictureȱ books’,57ȱ whileȱ otherȱ scholarsȱ have
pointedȱoutȱtheȱimpactȱsermonsȱhadȱonȱtheȱilliterateȱmasses,ȱwhichȱtoughtȱthem
howȱtoȱreadȱtheȱpaintingsȱandȱsculpturesȱtheyȱcameȱacrossȱinȬȱandȱoutsideȱthe
church:ȱ‘aȱpicture,’ȱasȱ(allegedly)ȱPopeȱGregoryȱtheȱGreatȱputȱitȱinȱaȱletter,ȱ‘isȱlike
aȱ lessonȱ forȱ theȱ people.’58ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ manuscriptsȱ remainedȱ exclusiveȱ toȱ a
53
EdithȱWenzelȱhasȱstatedȱtheȱsameȱforȱFrankfurtȱandȱAlsfeldȱasȱtheȱplaceȱofȱlateȱmedievalȱpassionȬ
plays,ȱwhereȱtheȱJewishȱpopulationȱhasȱbeenȱoverestimated,ȱ“DoȱwordenȱdieȱJuddenȱalleȱgeschant”:
RolleȱundȱFunktionȱderȱJudenȱinȱspätmittelalterlichenȱSpielen.ȱForschungenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱälteren
deutschenȱLiteratur,ȱ14ȱ(München:ȱFink,ȱ1992),ȱ12–13;ȱforȱNaumburgȱseeȱJung,ȱ“TheȱPassion,ȱthe
Jews,ȱandȱtheȱCrisisȱofȱtheȱIndividual,”ȱ173–74.
54
Hebräischeȱ Berichteȱ überȱ dieȱ Judenverfolgungȱ währendȱ desȱ Erstenȱ Kreuzzugs,ȱ ed.ȱ Eva
Haverkamp.ȱ Monumentaȱ Germaniaeȱ Historica,ȱ Hebräischeȱ Texteȱ ausȱ demȱ mittelalterlichen
Deutschland,ȱ 1ȱ (Hanover:ȱ Hahnscheȱ Buchhandlung,ȱ 2005),ȱ 432–43ȱ (Hebrewȱ andȱ German
translation).
55
Oswaldȱ HolderȬEggerȱ (Ed.),ȱ “Cronicaȱ Reinhardsbrunnensis”ȱ Monumentaȱ Germaniaeȱ Historica,
Scriptoresȱ30,ȱpartȱ1ȱ(rpt.ȱ1896;ȱStuttgart:ȱAntonȱHiersemannȱVerlag,ȱ1976),ȱ490–656;ȱhereȱ571,
onlineȱatȱwww.dmgh.deȱ(lastȱaccessedȱonȱJan.ȱ30,ȱ2010).ȱJewishȱsettlementȱinȱMadgeburgȱdates
backȱ intoȱ theȱ twelfthȱ century,ȱ seeȱ Alfredȱ Haverkamp,ȱ “Jewsȱ andȱ Urbanȱ Life:ȱ Bondsȱ and
Relationships,”ȱTheȱJewsȱofȱEuropeȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(TenthȱtoȱFifteenthȱCenturies).ȱProceedingsȱof
theȱInternationalȱSymposiumȱheldȱatȱSpeyer,ȱ20–25ȱOctoberȱ2002,ȱed.ȱChristophȱCluse.ȱCultural
EncountersȱinȱLateȱAntiquityȱandȱtheȱMiddleȱAges,ȱ4ȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱ2004),ȱ55–70;ȱhereȱ63.
56
57
Bernhardȱ Blumenkranz,ȱ Judenȱ undȱ Judentumȱ inȱ derȱ mittelalterlichenȱ Kunstȱ (Stuttgart:ȱ W.
Kohlhammer,ȱ1965),ȱ9.
58
SeeȱforȱaȱrecentȱsummaryȱofȱtheȱextensiveȱdiscussionȱtheȱhighlyȱinstructiveȱarticleȱbyȱSaraȱLipton,
“ImagesȱandȱTheirȱUses,”ȱTheȱCambridgeȱHistoryȱofȱChristianity,ȱ4:ȱChristianityȱinȱWesternȱEuropeȱc.
1100–c.ȱ 1500,ȱ ed.ȱ Miriȱ Rubinȱ andȱ Walterȱ Simonsȱ (Cambridgeȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Cambridge
minorityȱ ofȱ theȱ population59;ȱ theȱ decipheringȱ ofȱ viceȱ cyclesȱ requestedȱ eitherȱ a
certainȱlevelȱofȱeducationȱorȱconstantȱreȬhearingȱaboutȱit,60ȱandȱtoȱfullyȱappreciate
theirȱ variousȱ allegationsȱ requiredȱ aȱ profoundȱ religiousȱ knowledgeȱ thatȱ went
beyondȱyearsȱofȱexposureȱtoȱsermons,ȱhoweverȱexplanatory,ȱandȱhavingȱbeenȱread
Biblicalȱandȱliturgicalȱtexts.61ȱEvenȱmoreȱso,ȱtoȱreallyȱandȱfullyȱunderstandȱthe
vilenessȱ andȱ malignanceȱ ofȱ aȱ scorpionȱ orȱ theȱ obduracyȱ ofȱ anȱ owl,ȱ itȱ was
indispensableȱ toȱ haveȱ undergoneȱ aȱ certainȱ education.62ȱ Therefore,ȱ itȱ doesȱ not
surpriseȱthatȱtheȱequationsȱofȱJewsȱwithȱbeastsȱthatȱprevailed,ȱandȱmovedȱoutȱof
theirȱ sophisticatedȱ context,ȱ wereȱ thoseȱ withȱ animalsȱ thatȱ wereȱ ‘accessible’ȱ in
everydayȱcontactȱandȱthereforeȱunderstandableȱtoȱtheȱpopulace.ȱJewsȱsentenced
toȱdeathȱbyȱhangingȱwereȱaccompaniedȱbyȱtwoȱdogsȱthatȱwereȱhangedȱonȱeither
sideȱofȱtheȱJew;63ȱJewsȱwereȱridingȱgoatsȱorȱwereȱaccompaniedȱbyȱthese,ȱlikeȱthe
SynagogaȱstatueȱatȱErfurtȱthatȱholdsȱaȱgoat’sȱhead.ȱWhereasȱmedievalȱartȱwasȱmore
toȱbringȱtoȱlifeȱalreadyȱexistingȱteachingȱandȱnotȱtoȱteachȱnewȱthings,64ȱpeople
wouldȱneedȱnoȱadditionalȱexplanation,ȱgivenȱbeforeȱorȱafterȱcontemplatingȱthe
image,ȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱfilthinessȱofȱaȱswine.ȱEvenȱifȱtheȱuneducatedȱspectators
missedȱtheȱlinkȱofȱJews–swine–devil,ȱtheyȱwouldȱunderstandȱtheȱveryȱmundane
associationȱ ofȱ Jewsȱ withȱ filth,ȱ stench,ȱ andȱ uncleanness.ȱ Pigsȱ wereȱ linkedȱ with
excrementȱandȱwrongȱbeliefȱalreadyȱinȱearlyȱChristianȱsymbolismȱ(whichȱthey
UniversityȱPress,ȱ2009),ȱ254–82,ȱquoteȱ254.ȱUnfortunately,ȱȱIȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱtheȱpossibilityȱtoȱlook
atȱtheȱlatestȱarticleȱbyȱAlfredȱMesserli.ȱEditor’sȱnote:ȱAlfredȱMesserli,ȱ“Intermedialität,”ȱStimmen,
TexteȱundȱBilderȱzwischenȱMittelalterȱundȱFrüherȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱLuisaȱRubiniȱMesserliȱandȱAlexander
Schwarz.ȱTausch.ȱTextanalyseȱinȱUniversitätȱundȱSchule,ȱ17ȱ(Bern,ȱBerlin,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2009),
75–109.ȱDrawingȱonȱpreviousȱscholarship,ȱespeciallyȱbyȱRudolfȱSchendaȱ(1987),ȱheȱemphasizes,
94–97,ȱthatȱ1.ȱmostȱofȱtheȱtrulyȱvaluableȱimagesȱorȱpicturesȱwereȱkeptȱoutȱofȱviewȱbyȱtheȱpublic
anyway,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱbookȱillustrationsȱandȱminiatures,ȱandȱthatȱ2.ȱmostȱordinaryȱpeople
lackedȱinȱtheȱ“perceptualȱskills”ȱevenȱtoȱunderstand,ȱorȱtoȱreadȱwhatȱtheyȱsaw.ȱIronically,ȱthis
probablyȱappliesȱveryȱmuchȱstillȱtoȱourȱworldȱtoday.
59
Lipton,ȱ“Imagesȱandȱtheirȱuses,”ȱ262.
60
Lipton,ȱ“Imagesȱandȱtheirȱuses,”ȱ264,ȱcitesȱtheȱstoryȱaboutȱDukeȱGodfreyȱofȱBouillon,ȱwho,ȱeven
afterȱ listeningȱ toȱ theȱ sermon,ȱ demandedȱ explanationsȱ ofȱ everyȱ singleȱ imageȱ andȱ pictureȱ inȱ a
church.
61
AnnetteȱWeber,ȱ“GlaubeȱundȱWissen—EcclesiaȱetȱSynagoga,”ȱWissenspopularisierung:ȱKonzepteȱder
WissensverbreitungȱimȱWandel,ȱed.ȱCarstenȱKretschmann.ȱWissenskulturȱundȱgesellschaftlicher
Wandel,ȱ4ȱ(Berlin:ȱAkademieȱVerlag,ȱ2003),ȱ89–126;ȱhereȱ94,ȱstatesȱtheȱsameȱfürȱEcclesia/Synagoga
pairings.
62
Stillȱ basicȱ onȱ theȱ questionȱ whetherȱ medievalȱ ‘picturesȱ speakȱ forȱ themselves’ȱ isȱ Lawrenceȱ G.
Duggan,ȱ“WasȱArtȱReallyȱtheȱ“BookȱofȱtheȱIlliterate”?,”ȱWordȱandȱImage,ȱ5.3ȱ(1989),ȱ227–51.ȱSeeȱalso
Lipton,ȱ“ImagesȱandȱTheirȱUses,”ȱandȱMesserli,ȱ“Intermedialität.”
63
RonnieȱPoȬChiaȱHsia,ȱTheȱMythȱofȱRitualȱMurder:ȱJewsȱandȱMagicȱinȱReformationȱGermanyȱ(New
HavenȱandȱLondon:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1988),ȱ26ȱandȱ28ȱwithȱfigureȱ3;ȱFrey,ȱ“Vergleicheȱvon
JudenȱmitȱHunden,”ȱ129–33.
64
Lipton,ȱ“ImagesȱandȱtheirȱUses,”ȱ264.
338 BirgitȱWiedl
sharedȱ withȱ Pagansȱ andȱ Jews),65ȱ whileȱ theȱ foetorȱ iudaicusȱ derivedȱ fromȱ a
punishmentȱforȱtheȱkillingȱofȱChrist—andȱtheȱJudensauȱbroughtȱtheseȱtwoȱelements
together:ȱtheȱpigsȱandȱtheirȱexcrement,ȱandȱtheȱJewsȱwhoȱfeedȱonȱthem.ȱYetȱtheȱpig
asȱaȱsymbolȱforȱfilthȱandȱdirtȱwasȱtoȱaȱgreatȱextentȱselfȬexplanatory:ȱitȱwasȱvisible
andȱsmellȬableȱforȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱpeopleȱonȱaȱdailyȱbasis.ȱAndȱhoweverȱoften
Christiansȱwouldȱconsumeȱpork—ȱtheȱsowȱremainedȱtheȱonlyȱmammalȱtheȱmilk
ofȱwhichȱwasȱnotȱputȱtoȱuse—ȱandȱevenȱifȱtheyȱwereȱnotȱawareȱofȱtheȱantique
theoryȱthatȱtheȱmereȱtastingȱofȱaȱsow’sȱmilkȱwouldȱresultȱinȱcontractingȱrashes,
evenȱ leprosy,66ȱ theyȱ wouldȱ perhapsȱ smileȱ aboutȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ theȱ Jews,ȱ who
abstainedȱ fromȱ eatingȱ pork,ȱ wouldȱ feedȱ onȱ theȱ veryȱ partȱ thatȱ wasȱ notȱ fitȱ for
consumption.
Inȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱfourteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱJudensauȱtookȱonȱaȱmoreȱandȱmore
unifiedȱappearanceȱthatȱinȱitsȱmainȱtraitsȱresembledȱtheȱMagdeburgȱfrieze:ȱapart
fromȱ aȱ fewȱ examplesȱ (Cologne,ȱ Colmar),ȱ theȱ ‘standard’ȱ Judensauȱ wasȱ nowȱ a
standingȱsowȱthatȱwasȱheldȱbyȱorȱtouchedȱatȱtheȱheadȱbyȱaȱJewȱstandingȱinȱfront
ofȱit.ȱOneȱorȱmoreȱusuallyȱsmallerȱJewsȱwereȱkneelingȱbelowȱitsȱbellyȱandȱsuckling
itsȱteatsȱwhileȱanotherȱJewȱwasȱbusyȱfondlingȱtheȱanimal’sȱhindquarters.67ȱItȱwas,
however,ȱ aȱ depictionȱ stillȱ exclusivelyȱ utilisedȱ byȱ theȱ church:ȱ sculpturesȱ ofȱ the
JudensauȱremainedȱonȱtheȱinȬȱorȱoutsideȱofȱchurchesȱorȱmonasteries,ȱandȱaboutȱhalf
ofȱtheȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱJudensauȱsculpturesȱformȱaȱpartȱofȱaȱcycleȱofȱvices,68ȱwith
theirȱrepresentationȱofȱgulaȱremainingȱtheȱkeyȱ(ifȱnotȱonly)ȱfunction.ȱHowever,ȱthe
65
Cuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgust,ȱ67.
66
Claudiusȱ Aelianus,ȱ Deȱ naturaȱ animaliumȱ X.16,ȱ newestȱ edition:ȱ Claudiusȱ Aelianus,ȱ Deȱ natura
animalium,ȱed.ȱManuelaȱGarcíaȱValdés,ȱLuisȱAlfonsoȱLleraȱFueyo,ȱandȱLucíaȱRodríguezȬNoriega
Guillén.ȱBibliothecaȱscriptorumȱGraecorumȱetȱRomanorumȱTeubneriana,ȱ2006ȱ(Berlin:ȱdeȱGruyter,
2009),ȱtheȱlinkageȱpointedȱoutȱbyȱFabreȬVassas,ȱTheȱSingularȱBeast,ȱ108.ȱTheȱfearȱofȱcontacting
leprosyȱasȱaȱreasonȱforȱtheȱJews’ȱabhorrenceȱofȱporkȱhadȱbeenȱtheȱpunȱofȱseveralȱjokesȱinȱGreek
andȱRomanȱantiqueȱliterature,ȱseeȱSevenster,ȱTheȱRootsȱofȱPaganȱantiȬSemitism,ȱ135–39.
67
Seeȱ Shachar,ȱ Judensau,ȱ pl.ȱ 18ȱ (Metz,ȱ Regensburg),ȱ 19–21ȱ (Uppsala),ȱ 23ȱ (Gniezno),ȱ 25bȱ andȱ c
(Nordhausen),ȱ26–27ȱ(Wittenberg).ȱOtherȱJudensauȱstatuesȱhaveȱbeenȱdocumentedȱforȱAhrweiler
(ca.ȱ 1295,ȱ gargoyleȱ atȱ Stȱ Laurent’sȱ church),ȱ Bacherachȱ (ca.ȱ 1290,ȱ Werner’sȱ chapel,ȱ gargoyle),
Bambergȱ (Cathedral),ȱ Baselȱ (ca.ȱ 1432,ȱ destroyed),ȱ Bayreuthȱ (parishȱ church),ȱ Bützowȱ (midȬ
fourteenthȱcentury,ȱabbeyȱchurch),ȱCalbeȱ(gargoyleȱatȱSt.ȱStephen’sȱchurch),ȱNurembergȱ(ca.1370,
eastȱchoirȱofȱSt.ȱSebald’sȱchurch)ȱandȱZerbstȱ(twoȱexamples:ȱStȱNicolas’ȱchurch,ȱca.ȱ1447;ȱcarved
woodenȱ beamȱ fromȱ aȱ residentialȱ houseȱ atȱ theȱ marketȱ place,ȱ nowȱ municipalȱ museum),ȱ see
HermannȱRusam,ȱJudensauȬDarstellungenȱinȱderȱplastischenȱKunstȱBayerns:ȱeinȱZeugnisȱchristlicher
Judenfeindschaft.ȱBegegnungen,ȱ90,ȱSonderheftȱ(Hanover:ȱEvangelischȬLutherischerȱZentralverein
fürȱ Begegnungȱ vonȱ Christenȱ undȱ Juden,ȱ 2007)ȱ andȱ theȱ illustratedȱ bookȱ byȱ Reginaȱ E.ȱ G.
Schymiczek,ȱHöllenbrutȱundȱHimmelswächter:ȱMittelalterlicheȱWasserspeierȱanȱKirchenȱundȱKathedralen
(Regensburg:ȱSchnellȱ&ȱSteiner,ȱ2006).ȱTheȱoftenȱlistedȱgateȱatȱRemagenȱshowsȱaȱsowȱandȱpiglets
thatȱ is,ȱ despiteȱ theȱ similaritiesȱ inȱ theȱ structure,ȱ withoutȱ anyȱ referenceȱ toȱ Jews,ȱ seeȱ Shachar,
Judensau,ȱ12ȱandȱpl.ȱ2ȱandȱ3a.
68
additionalȱaspect(s)ȱthatȱwasȱalreadyȱpresentȱinȱtheȱearliestȱsculpturesȱwasȱdrifting
moreȱandȱmoreȱintoȱtheȱfocus:ȱwithȱtheȱJewsȱtakingȱupȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱspace,
becomingȱmoreȱprominentȱforegroundȱplayers,ȱtheyȱwereȱbeingȱmoreȱandȱmore
condemnedȱsolelyȱforȱbeingȱJewsȱthanȱforȱbeingȱsinnersȱstickingȱtoȱtheirȱvices.
Evenȱifȱweȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱsetȱtheȱ‘explicitȱabusiveȱintention’ȱaȱlotȱearlierȱthanȱShachar,
inȱfactȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱappearanceȱofȱtheȱJudensau,ȱitȱisȱquiteȱobviousȱthatȱaȱshiftȱin
theȱcentralȱmeaningȱofȱtheȱmotifȱoccured.ȱ
Firstȱ andȱ foremost,ȱ theȱ Judensauȱ movesȱ fromȱ insideȱ toȱ theȱ outsideȱ ofȱ the
churches.ȱWithȱtheȱexceptionȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱgargoyleȱofȱBadȱWimpfen,ȱwhichȱis
placedȱ aboutȱ eightȱ metresȱ aboveȱ ground,69ȱ theȱ thirteenthȬcenturyȱ Judensäue
remainedȱonȱtheȱinside:ȱtheȱatriumȱofȱtheȱrespectiveȱchurchesȱinȱMagdeburgȱand
Lemgo,ȱtheȱnaveȱinȱEberswalde,ȱandȱtheȱchoirȱandȱtheȱcloistersȱofȱXantenȱand
Brandenburg,ȱ respectively.ȱ Theseȱ sculpturesȱ andȱ friezesȱ were,ȱ unlikeȱ their
successors,ȱvisibleȱonlyȱbyȱtheȱvisitorsȱofȱtheȱchurch,ȱsomeȱtoȱanȱevenȱmoreȱlimited
groupȱofȱpeople,ȱthoseȱwithȱlimitedȱaccess,ȱe.g.,ȱtoȱtheȱcloistersȱofȱtheȱBrandenburg
Cathedral.ȱ Howeverȱ much,ȱ though,ȱ theseȱ Judensäueȱ mightȱ haveȱ educated,
disgusted,ȱandȱamusedȱChristianȱchurchgoers,ȱthereȱwasȱonlyȱaȱscantȱchanceȱthat
theyȱwereȱeverȱseenȱbyȱJews,70ȱandȱevenȱso,ȱtheirȱpositioningȱinsideȱchurchesȱgives
evidenceȱthatȱJewsȱwereȱnotȱtheȱtargetȱaudience.ȱTheyȱwereȱnotȱintendedȱasȱjokes,
andȱevenȱifȱtheyȱevokeȱaȱsmileȱfromȱaȱpassingȬbyȱmonkȱorȱvisitor,ȱtheirȱunderlying
meaningȱisȱdeadȱserious:ȱaȱwarningȱforȱtheȱChristiansȱnotȱtoȱbecomeȱaȱsinner,
whichȱwasȱillustratedȱbyȱaȱseriesȱofȱdepictionsȱtheȱJewsȱwereȱmerelyȱaȱpartȱof.
TheȱJudensäueȱ(pl.)ȱthatȱfollowȱtheseȱearlyȱexamplesȱareȱplacedȱquiteȱdifferently
withinȱtheȱecclesiasticalȱandȱurbanȱspace.ȱAlthoughȱsomeȱremainȱprivyȱtoȱtheȱeyes
ofȱaȱfew,ȱlikeȱtheȱcarvedȱreliefsȱinȱtheȱchoirȱstallsȱofȱtheȱCathedralsȱofȱNordhausen
andȱCologne,ȱtheȱlatterȱofȱwhich,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱsowȬfeedingȱandȱ–suckling,
featuresȱaȱquiteȱlikelyȱallusionȱtoȱtheȱWernerȱofȱOberweselȱlegend,71ȱorȱtheȱcapitals
inȱGnieznoȱ(Poland)ȱandȱMetzȱ(France)ȱthatȱareȱstillȱinȱtheȱinsideȱofȱtheȱchurches.
TheȱmajorityȱofȱtheȱJudensäueȱofȱtheȱfollowingȱcenturies,ȱhowever,ȱwereȱvisible
fromȱtheȱoutside:ȱgargoyles,ȱlikeȱonȱtheȱStȱMartin’sȱMinsterȱofȱColmarȱ(France,
southȱ ofȱ Strasbourg)ȱ orȱ theȱ Stȱ Mary’sȱ churchȱ ofȱ Heiligenstadtȱ (southȬeastȱ of
Göttingen),ȱorȱreliefȱsculpturesȱlikeȱtwoȱofȱtheȱmostȱprominentȱexamples,ȱthoseȱof
theȱ Cathedralȱ ofȱ Regensburgȱ (Ratisbon,ȱ seeȱ figureȱ 2)ȱ andȱ theȱ parishȱ churchȱ at
Wittenbergȱ (seeȱ figureȱ 3).ȱ Althoughȱ theyȱ areȱ placedȱ upȱ highȱ (sevenȱ andȱ eight
69
70
Whileȱ thereȱ isȱ definiteȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ Christiansȱ showingȱ noȱ qualmsȱ toȱ enterȱ aȱ synagogue,ȱ the
questionȱwhetherȱJewsȱhadȱ(andȱwanted)ȱaccessȱtoȱchurchesȱisȱmuchȱdebated,ȱseeȱlatelyȱMartha
Keil,ȱ “Orteȱ derȱ jüdischenȱ Öffentlichkeit:ȱ Judenviertel,ȱ Synagoge,ȱ Friedhof,”ȱ Einȱ Themaȱ –ȱ zwei
Perspektiven,ȱ170–86.
71
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ24–25;ȱRohrbacherȱandȱSchmidt,ȱJudenbilder,ȱ310–11.
340 BirgitȱWiedl
metersȱrespectively),ȱtheyȱareȱinȱplainȱviewȱofȱanyȱpasserȬbyȱwhoȱnoȱlongerȱhad
toȱenterȱtheȱchurchȱtoȱexperienceȱaȱshudderȱofȱdisgustȱandȱshareȱaȱgoodȱlaughȱat
theȱbizarreȱsightȱofȱhumansȱorȱhalfȬhumansȱsucklingȱtheȱteatsȱofȱaȱswine.ȱShachar
identifiesȱtheȱRegensburgȱsculptureȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱcycleȱofȱvirtuesȱandȱvices—there
areȱ sculpturesȱ ofȱ otherȱ animalsȱ nextȱ toȱ andȱ aboveȱ theȱ buttressȱ thatȱ carriesȱ the
Judensau—butȱheȱisȱdefinitelyȱaȱtadȱtooȱgentleȱwhenȱheȱdoubtsȱanyȱintentionȱas
antiȬJewishȱmockery.72ȱ
Howeverȱ muchȱ theȱ cityȱ ofȱ Regensburg,ȱ whereȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ largestȱ Jewish
communitiesȱ withinȱ theȱ realmsȱ ofȱ theȱ Holyȱ Romanȱ Empireȱ wasȱ allowedȱ to
flourish,ȱtendedȱtoȱbeȱprotectiveȱofȱtheirȱJewsȱandȱevenȱactivelyȱshieldedȱthem
fromȱtheȱRindfleischȱriotsȱinȱ1298ȱandȱtheȱpersecutionsȱaccompanyingȱtheȱBlack
Deathȱinȱ1349/50,73ȱthereȱisȱnoȱdenyingȱtheȱatȱleastȱadditional,ȱifȱnotȱalreadyȱbasic
purposeȱ ofȱ deridingȱ theȱ Jewsȱ byȱ useȱ ofȱ aȱ metaphoricalȱ languageȱ evenȱ the
inhabitantsȱofȱaȱ‘JewȬfriendly’ȱcityȱasȱRegensburgȱwouldȱunderstandȱimmediately;
evenȱmoreȱsoȱsinceȱtheȱmainȱJewishȱlivingȱquartersȱwereȱlocatedȱinȱclosestȱvicinity
ofȱtheȱCathedral,ȱtheȱJudensauȱthereforeȱbeingȱwithinȱimmediateȱsightȱofȱthoseȱit
wasȱmocking.74ȱ
Theȱ caseȱ isȱ differentȱ inȱ Wittenberg:75ȱ perhapsȱ theȱ mostȱ wellȬknownȱ ofȱ the
Judensauȱ sculpturesȱ dueȱ toȱ Martinȱ Luther’sȱ referenceȱ toȱ itȱ inȱ hisȱ Vomȱ Schem
Hamphorasȱ undȱ vomȱ Geschlechtȱ Christiȱ andȱ theȱ inscriptionȱ subsequentlyȱ placed
aboveȱtheȱsculpture,ȱitȱwasȱhoweverȱquiteȱsingularȱalreadyȱinȱitsȱtimeȱofȱorigin.
Notȱonlyȱisȱthereȱnoȱevidenceȱofȱitȱbeingȱpartȱofȱaȱlargerȱmotifȱorȱcycle,ȱbutȱitȱtakes
upȱtheȱtopicȱofȱoneȱofȱtheȱJewsȱfondlingȱtheȱsow’sȱhindquartersȱinȱaȱveryȱdistinctly
obsceneȱway.ȱHadȱtheȱpreviousȱexecutionȱofȱthisȱmotifȱconsistedȱinȱJewsȱmerely
touchingȱtheȱsow’sȱhindquartersȱorȱtail,ȱtheȱJewȱofȱWittenbergȱgrabsȱtheȱsow’s
behindȱwithȱbothȱhands,ȱwithȱoneȱhandȱliftingȱtheȱanimal’sȱrightȱhindȬleg,ȱwithȱthe
otherȱliftingȱorȱholdingȱitsȱtail.ȱHisȱheadȱisȱtiltedȱtoȱtheȱside,ȱandȱthereȱcanȱbeȱno
mistakingȱasȱtoȱwhereȱhisȱgazeȱisȱdirected:ȱrightȱatȱtheȱsow’sȱanus.ȱWhereasȱearlier
Judensäueȱ serveȱ multipleȱ purposes—representationȱ ofȱ vices,ȱ warningȱ toȱ the
72
73
GermaniaȱJudaica,ȱvol.ȱII:ȱVonȱ1238ȱbisȱzurȱMitteȱdesȱ14.ȱJahrhunderts,ȱpartȱ2:ȱMaastrichtȱ–ȱZwolle,ȱed.
ZwiȱAvneriȱ(Tübingen:ȱJ.ȱC.ȱB.ȱMohr,ȱ1968),ȱ679–80;ȱJonathanȱElukin,ȱLivingȱTogether,ȱLivingȱApart:
RethinkingȱJewishȬChristianȱRelationsȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱJews,ȱChristians,ȱandȱMuslimsȱfromȱthe
AncientȱtoȱtheȱModernȱWorldȱ(PrincetonȱandȱOxford:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2007),ȱ106–09.
74
Forȱtheȱlocationȱofȱtheȱ‘Jewishȱquarter’,ȱseeȱGermaniaȱJudaica,ȱvol.ȱI:ȱVonȱdenȱältestenȱZeitenȱbisȱ1238,
ed.ȱIsmarȱElbogen,ȱAronȱFreimann,ȱandȱHaimȱTykocinskiȱ(Tübingen:ȱJ.ȱC.ȱB.ȱMohr,ȱ1963),ȱ287–88,
andȱwithȱsomeȱcorrectionsȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱII/2,ȱ686,ȱandȱMarkusȱWenninger,ȱ“Grenzenȱinȱder
Stadt?ȱ Zurȱ Lageȱ undȱ Abgrenzungȱ mittelalterlicherȱ deutscherȱ Judenviertel,”ȱ Grenzenȱ und
Grenzüberschreitungen:ȱKulturelleȱBeziehungenȱzwischenȱJudenȱundȱChristenȱimȱMittelalter,ȱed.ȱEdith
Wenzel.ȱPartȱofȱAschkenas:ȱZeitschriftȱfürȱGeschichteȱundȱKulturȱderȱJudenȱ14.1ȱ(2004):ȱ9–29;ȱhereȱ19.ȱ
75
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ30–31,ȱ43–51ȱ(onȱtheȱlaterȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱWittenbergȱJudensau),ȱpl.ȱ26–27.
Christians,ȱjibingȱatȱJews—theȱ‘new’ȱonesȱshowȱaȱsingleȱintention,ȱandȱthatȱisȱto
insultȱtheȱJewsȱonȱasȱmanyȱlevelsȱasȱpossible.ȱ
Withȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱcomicalȱfactor,ȱthisȱmoveȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱfromȱtheȱinsideȱto
theȱoutsideȱcannotȱbeȱunderestimatedȱinȱitsȱimpact.ȱTheȱrecognitionȱofȱlaughing,
orȱratherȱtheȱdifferentȱformsȱlaughterȱcanȱtakeȱon,ȱasȱaȱwayȱofȱsocialȱinteraction
goesȱbackȱaȱlongȱway,76ȱwhileȱtheȱideaȱofȱtheȱimminentȱimportanceȱofȱ(ritualsȱof)
laughterȱforȱtheȱconstitution,ȱconsolidation,ȱandȱcommunicationȱofȱcommunities
hasȱbeenȱunderrepresented,77ȱatȱleastȱinȱaȱhistoricalȱcontext.ȱWernerȱRöckeȱand
HansȱRudolfȱVeltenȱhaveȱinȱtheirȱanthologyȱtranslatedȱtheȱconceptȱofȱ‘laughing
communities’ȱ (Lachgemeinschaften)ȱ intoȱ theȱ historicalȱ perspective,ȱ stressingȱ its
importanceȱforȱtheȱconstitutionȱofȱcommunitiesȱandȱtheirȱselfȬdefinition.ȱInȱthe
contextȱofȱtheseȱlaughingȱcommunities,78ȱitȱbecomesȱobviousȱthatȱtheȱrelocationȱof
theȱJudensauȱhadȱmultipleȱeffectsȱonȱbothȱtheȱlaughersȱandȱthoseȱlaughedȱat.ȱBy
translatingȱitȱfromȱtheȱecclesiasticalȱintoȱtheȱlayȱsphereȱandȱmovingȱitȱdownȱfrom
itsȱ formerȱ heightsȱ toȱ theȱ (almost)ȱ eyeȱ levelȱ ofȱ theȱ commoners,ȱ theȱ laughing
communityȱincreasedȱrapidlyȱinȱnumber.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱthat,ȱtheȱlaughterȱtookȱon
aȱnewȱqualityȱsinceȱtheȱJewsȱwereȱexcludedȱfromȱthisȱcommunityȱinȱaȱcompletely
differentȱway.79ȱInȱcontrastȱtoȱbefore,ȱwhenȱtheyȱwereȱexcludedȱfromȱaȱjokeȱthat
wasȱtoldȱatȱaȱplaceȱwhereȱtheyȱhadȱnoȱorȱatȱbestȱonlyȱveryȱrestrictedȱaccessȱto,ȱthey
wereȱnowȱshutȱoutȱfromȱitȱinȱpublic,ȱmaybeȱevenȱinȱtheirȱpresence,ȱunderȱtheȱeyes
ofȱthoseȱwhoȱwere,ȱatȱthatȱveryȱmoment,ȱhavingȱfunȱatȱtheirȱexpense.ȱAlthough
thisȱpracticeȱofȱcombiningȱtwoȱactions—excludingȱaȱspecificȱgroupȱfromȱtheȱ‘inȬ
group’ȱofȱlaughersȱandȱsimultaneouslyȱexposingȱthemȱasȱtheȱtargetedȱlaughing
stocksȱinȱtheirȱpresence—wasȱquiteȱcommonlyȱusedȱbothȱinȱpictoralȱartȱandȱon
stageȱagainstȱseveralȱgroupsȱorȱindividuals,ȱe.g.,ȱwomen,ȱ beggars,ȱorȱevenȱthe
authority,ȱtheȱJewsȱremainedȱaȱprimeȱtarget.80ȱTheȱfurtherȱdevelopmentȱofȱthe
76
ForȱaȱrecentȱsumȬupȱofȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheoriesȱonȱlaughter,ȱseeȱWernerȱRöckeȱandȱHans
RudolfȱVelten,ȱ“Einleitung,”ȱLachgemeinschaften:ȱKulturelleȱInszenierungenȱundȱsozialeȱWirkungen
imȱMittelalterȱundȱinȱderȱFrühenȱNeuzeit,ȱed.ȱWernerȱRöckeȱandȱHansȱRudolfȱVelten.ȱTrendsȱin
MedievalȱPhilologyȱ4ȱ(BerlinȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱdeȱGruyter,ȱ2005),ȱix–xxxi;ȱhereȱxi–xxiv.
77
Gerdȱ Althoff,ȱ “Vomȱ Lächelnȱ zumȱ Verlachen,”ȱ Lachgemeinschaften,ȱ 3–16;ȱ hereȱ 4.ȱ Ofȱ extreme
importanceȱforȱtheȱrecognitionȱofȱlaughterȱasȱaȱsocialȱprocessȱisȱMaryȱDouglas’sȱanthropological
essayȱ“TheȱSocialȱControlȱofȱCognition:ȱSomeȱFactorsȱinȱJokeȱPperception,”ȱfirstȱpublishedȱinȱ1970,
latestȱreprintȱinȱImplicitȱMeanings:ȱSelectedȱEssaysȱinȱAnthropology.ȱSec.ȱed.ȱCollectedȱworksȱofȱMary
Douglas,ȱ5ȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledgeȱ&ȱKeganȱPaul,ȱ1975),ȱ146–64.ȱSeeȱalsoȱAlbrecht
Classen’sȱcommentȱinȱtheȱIntroductionȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱvolume.
78
Forȱaȱdefinitionȱofȱtheȱtermȱ‘Lachgemeinschaften,’ȱseeȱRöckeȱandȱVelten,ȱ“Einleitung,”ȱix–xxxi.
79
Unfortunately,ȱIȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱtheȱpossibilityȱtoȱlookȱintoȱtheȱbasicȱworkȱofȱEugèneȱDupreel,ȱwho
hasȱdistinguishedȱinȱhisȱsociologicalȱessayȱLeȱproblèmeȱsociologicqueȱduȱrireȱbetweenȱ‘including’ȱand
‘excluding’ȱlaughterȱ(rireȱd’acceuilȱvs.ȱrireȱd’exclusion,ȱquotedȱafterȱRöckeȱandȱVelten,ȱ“Einleitung,”
xiii),ȱyetȱhisȱdistinctionȱrequiresȱfurtherȱsubdivisions.
80
Christophȱ Auffarth,ȱ “Alleȱ Tageȱ Karneval?ȱ Reformation,ȱ Provokationȱ undȱ Grobianismus,”
GlaubensstreitȱundȱGelächter,ȱ79–105;ȱhereȱ87.
342 BirgitȱWiedl
Judensauȱ givesȱ ampleȱ evidenceȱ toȱ this.ȱ Standingȱ alone,ȱ outsideȱ anyȱ context,
moralisingȱorȱotherwise,ȱtheȱJudensauȱisȱnoȱlongerȱanȱallegoryȱofȱsinnersȱinȱthe
‘shape’ȱofȱJewsȱbutȱaȱdepictionȱofȱJews.ȱFurthermore,ȱtheȱtendencyȱtoȱanȱemphasis
ofȱtheȱobsceneȱisȱincreasingȱandȱtranslatedȱintoȱotherȱmeansȱofȱdisseminationȱthat
takeȱupȱtheȱtopic.
Oneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱshiftsȱthatȱcharacterizesȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱmotif
duringȱtheȱfifteenthȱandȱsixteenthȱcenturiesȱisȱaȱfurtherȱexpansionȱofȱnotȱonlyȱthe
audienceȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱ‘owners’ȱofȱJudensauȱsculptures.ȱ Hadȱtheȱmoveȱfromȱthe
insideȱtoȱtheȱoutsideȱofȱchurchesȱandȱmonasteriesȱalreadyȱbroughtȱnewȱqualities
andȱ aspects—whileȱ reducingȱ others—theȱ Judensauȱ becomesȱ moreȱ andȱ more
personalizedȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱPeriod.ȱSecularȱauthorities,ȱbutȱalso
nonȬofficialȱ parties,ȱ evenȱ individuals,ȱ beginȱ toȱ takeȱ holdȱ ofȱ theȱ possibilityȱ to
acquireȱtheirȱown,ȱpersonalȱJudensau.ȱTheȱtownȱofficialsȱofȱSalzburgȱ(Austria)ȱpaid
theȱconsiderableȱsumȱofȱsixȱflorinsȱtoȱtheȱknownȱsculptorȱHansȱValkenauerȱandȱthe
painterȱHeinrichȱumbȱdenȱJudenȱundȱsawȱratturmȱ(‘forȱtheȱJewsȱandȱsowȱ[onȱthe]
towerȱofȱtheȱtownȱhall’,ȱseeȱfigureȱ4)ȱinȱ1487,81ȱtheȱgateȱofȱtheȱcastleȱatȱCadolzburg
(westȱofȱNuremberg)ȱasȱwellȱasȱ(presumably)ȱaȱgateȱinȱtheȱtownȱofȱAschersleben
(southȱofȱMadgeburg)ȱsportedȱaȱJudensau.82ȱReliefsȱwithȱsowsȱsucklingȱJewsȱappear
onȱ privateȱ houses,ȱ likeȱ aȱ pharmacyȱ inȱ Bavaria’sȱ Kelheimȱ (southwestȱ of
Regensburg),ȱorȱinȱSpaltȱ(southȱofȱNuremberg)83ȱandȱWienerȱNeustadt,ȱ(Austria,
southȱofȱVienna)84—everyoneȱcouldȱhaveȱtheirȱownȱJudensau,ȱatȱleastȱthoseȱwho
couldȱaffordȱit,ȱcouldȱbringȱitȱintoȱtheirȱownȱhomeȱandȱenjoyȱtheȱjokeȱinȱprivate.
Theyȱcouldȱpresentȱtheȱjokeȱtoȱothersȱandȱshareȱaȱlaughȱwithȱthem.ȱTheȱonceȱrather
sophisticatedȱ(yetȱnoȱlessȱcruel)ȱwitticism,ȱunderstandableȱinȱitsȱentiretyȱtoȱonlyȱa
fewȱlearnedȱscholars,ȱhadȱliterallyȱmovedȱdownȱfromȱchurchȱspiresȱandȱoutȱof
cloistersȱandȱhadȱturnedȱintoȱaȱbroadȱjokeȱthatȱwasȱaccessibleȱtoȱeveryoneȱwho
happenedȱtoȱpassȱby.ȱTheȱJudensauȱhadȱnowȱentirelyȱmovedȱfromȱtheȱecclesiastical
toȱtheȱlayȱsphere;ȱnotȱonlyȱcouldȱitȱbeȱseenȱbutȱalsoȱownedȱbyȱlayȱpeople.ȱThisȱalso
81
Archivȱ derȱ Stadtȱ Salzburgȱ (Municipalȱ Archivesȱ ofȱ Salzburg),ȱ BUȱ 264,ȱ Raitbuchȱ Hans
Glavenberger,ȱentryȱtoȱ1487.ȱElevenȱyearsȱlater,ȱtheȱJewsȱofȱSalzburgȱwereȱexpulsed,ȱseeȱMarkus
Wenninger,ȱ “Zurȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Judenȱ inȱ Salzburg,”ȱ Geschichteȱ Salzburgsȱ Stadtȱ undȱ Land,ȱ I.2:
Mittelalter,ȱed.ȱHeinzȱDopschȱundȱHansȱSpatzeneggerȱ(Salzburg:ȱAntonȱPustet,ȱ1983),ȱ747–56,ȱhere
755–56.
82
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ37–38,ȱwhoȱisȱhoweverȱdoubtfulȱofȱtheȱAscherlebenȱexampleȱsinceȱtheȱonly
referenceȱisȱtoȱaȱgateȱcalledȱSautorȱ(‘sow’sȱgate’).
83
ThereȱisȱaȱsecondȱJudensauȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱSpalt,ȱatȱtheȱparishȱchurchȱStȱWenceslasȱofȱTheilenberg,
todayȱanȱurbanȱdistrictȱofȱSpalt.
84
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ38–40;ȱEvelineȱBrugger,ȱ“VonȱderȱAnsiedlungȱbisȱzurȱVertreibungȱ–ȱJudenȱin
Österreichȱ imȱ Mittelalter,”ȱ Geschichteȱ derȱ Judenȱ inȱ Österreich,ȱ ed.ȱ ead.,ȱ Christophȱ Lind,ȱ Albert
Lichtblau,ȱandȱBarbaraȱStaudinger.ȱÖsterreichischeȱGeschichte,ȱ15ȱ(Vienna:ȱUeberreuter,ȱ2006),
123–228;ȱhereȱ176ȱ(illustrationȱofȱtheȱWienerȱNeustädterȱJudensau).
meantȱthatȱJewsȱnowȱcouldȱnotȱonlyȱseeȱtheȱJudensau,ȱbutȱknewȱpreciselyȱwho
meantȱthemȱtoȱseeȱit,ȱaddingȱaȱpersonalȱlayerȱtoȱtheȱmultipleȱlevelsȱofȱinsult.ȱ
Amongȱ these—thoughȱ notȱ aȱ sculptureȱ butȱ aȱ painting—isȱ theȱ Judensauȱ of
Frankfurt,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱWittenbergȱexampleȱtheȱmostȱinfluentalȱandȱwidespread
depiction.85ȱPlacedȱinȱtheȱpublicȱpassageȱofȱtheȱAlteȱBrückenturm,ȱtheȱbusyȱpassage
acrossȱtheȱriverȱMain,ȱandȱoriginallyȱsetȱnextȱtoȱaȱcrucifixion,ȱitȱintroducedȱinȱall
clarityȱwhatȱtheȱJudensauȱofȱtheȱchoirȱstallȱinȱCologneȱhadȱmerelyȱhintedȱat:ȱAbove
theȱJudensau,ȱaȱmaleȱchildȱwasȱdepicted,ȱhisȱnakedȱbodyȱcoveredȱinȱwoundsȱwhile
aȱdescriptionȱexplainedȱtoȱtheȱpasserȬbysȱthatȱthisȱwas,ȱinȱfact,ȱtheȱfamousȱchildȬ
martyrȱ Simonȱ ofȱ Trentȱ whoȱ hadȱ beenȱ allegedlyȱ murderedȱ byȱ Jewsȱ inȱ 1475,
triggeringȱ aȱ productionȱ ofȱ broadsheetsȱ thatȱ aidedȱ inȱ spreadingȱ theȱ ‘facts’ȱ inȱ a
‘propagandaȱcampaignȱuniqueȱtoȱtheȱlateȱmiddleȱages’.86ȱCombinedȱwithȱaȱdisplay
ofȱ hithertoȱ unsurpassedȱ obscenity,ȱ theȱ effectȱ theȱ Frankfurtȱ renditionȱ ofȱ the
Judensauȱhadȱmustȱhaveȱbeenȱoverwhelming,ȱevokingȱaȱplethoraȱofȱfeelingsȱand
sentimentsȱthatȱspannedȱfromȱabhorrenceȱandȱloathingȱtoȱdisgustȱandȱfear,ȱand,
noȱdoubt,ȱlaughterȱofȱallȱkinds.ȱMoreȱthanȱitsȱpredecessors,87ȱtheȱFrankfurtȱJudensau
isȱ blatantly,ȱ evenȱ agressivelyȱ obscene,ȱ addingȱ andȱ reȬarrangingȱ elementsȱ that
derivedȱnotȱonlyȱfromȱtheȱotherȱsculpturedȱJudensäueȱbutȱshowedȱclearȱinfluence
ofȱtheȱperhapsȱmostȱcrucialȱmeansȱinȱtheȱfurtherȱdisseminationȱofȱtheȱmotif,ȱthe
woodcutȱpamphletsȱthatȱhadȱappearedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcenturyȱ(see
figureȱ5).88ȱTheȱsimilaritiesȱareȱstriking:ȱapartȱfromȱtheȱsucklingȱJews,ȱthereȱisȱa
85
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ43–51ȱ(laterȱhistoryȱofȱtheȱWittenbergȱJudensau),ȱ52–61ȱ(laterȱhistoryȱofȱthe
FrankfurtȱJudensau).
86
ChristineȱMaginȱandȱFalkȱEisermann,ȱ“‘Ettwasȱzuȱsagenȱvonȱdenȱiuden’.ȱThemenȱundȱFormen
antijüdischerȱ Einblattdruckeȱ imȱ spätenȱ 15.ȱ Jahrhundert,”ȱ Frömmigkeit—Theologie—FrömmigȬ
keitstheologie:ȱ Contributionsȱ toȱ Europeanȱ Churchȱ History.ȱ Festschriftȱ fürȱ Berndtȱ Hammȱ zumȱ 60.
Geburtstag,ȱed.ȱGudrunȱLitz,ȱHeidrunȱMunzertȱandȱRolandȱLiebenberg.ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱof
ChristianȱTraditions,ȱ124ȱ(LeidenȱandȱBoston:ȱBrill,ȱ2005),ȱ173–193;ȱhereȱ180.ȱSeeȱtheȱseminalȱstudy
byȱ Wolfgangȱ Treue,ȱ Derȱ Trienterȱ Judenprozeß:ȱ Voraussetzungen—Abläufe—Auswirkungen
(1475–1588).ȱForschungenȱzurȱGeschichteȱderȱJuden,ȱAbteilungȱA:ȱAbhandlungen,ȱ4ȱ(Hanover:
HahnscheȱBuchhandlung,ȱ1996),ȱwhoȱprovidesȱevidenceȱforȱtheȱfactȱthatȱnoȱincidentȱhadȱuntilȱthen
provokedȱsuchȱaȱnumberȱofȱprintingsȱtoȱcirculateȱ(521).ȱForȱaȱuseȱofȱtheȱdogȬimageȱinȱtheȱcourse
ofȱtheȱaccusationȱofȱtheȱmurderȱofȱSimonȱofȱTrent,ȱseeȱStow,ȱJewishȱDogs,ȱ6.
87
TheȱdatingȱofȱtheȱFrankfurtȱJudensauȱisȱstillȱdebated:ȱShachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ36–37,ȱsuggestsȱaȱdate
betweenȱ1475ȱandȱ1507,ȱTreue,ȱJudenprozeß,ȱ452–56,ȱpostponesȱitȱtoȱtheȱmidȬsixteenthȱcentury,
whileȱGrebner,ȱ“DieȱJudensaudarstellungȱamȱFrankfurterȱBrückentorȱalsȱSchandbild,”ȱ90,ȱpleads
inȱ favourȱ ofȱ aȱ timeȱ ofȱ originȱ duringȱ theȱ reignȱ ofȱ Emperorȱ Maximilianȱ Iȱ (whoȱ hadȱ aȱ distinct
preferenceȱforȱtheȱcultȱofȱSimonȱofȱTrent,ȱseeȱRonnieȱPoȬChiaȱHsia,ȱTrentȱ1475:ȱStoriesȱofȱaȱRitual
MurderȱTrial.ȱSec.ȱed.ȱ(NewȱHaven:ȱYaleȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996),ȱ129,ȱTreue,ȱJudenprozeß,ȱ473–74).
88
Forȱ theȱ earlyȱ woodcuts,ȱ seeȱ Shachar,ȱ Judensau,ȱ 34–35;ȱ Mellinkoff,ȱ Outcasts,ȱ 108;ȱ Maginȱ and
Eisermann,ȱ“‘Ettwasȱzuȱsagenȱvonȱdenȱiuden”;ȱKurtȱErichȱSchöndorf,ȱ‘JudenhaßȱundȱToleranzȱim
SpiegelȱvonȱFlugschriftenȱundȱEinblattdruckenȱdesȱ16.ȱJahrhunderts,’ȱHaß,ȱVerfolgungȱundȱToleranz:
BeiträgeȱzumȱSchicksalȱderȱJudenȱvonȱderȱReformationȱbisȱinȱdieȱGegenwart,ȱed.ȱThomasȱSirgesȱandȱid.
OsloerȱBeiträgeȱzurȱGermanistik,ȱ24ȱ(Frankfurtȱa.ȱM.,ȱBerlin,ȱBern,ȱetȱal.:ȱPeterȱLang,ȱ2000),ȱ11–46,
344 BirgitȱWiedl
Jew,ȱinȱsomeȱreproductionsȱidentifiedȱasȱtheȱMessiah,89ȱridingȱbackwardsȱwhile
liftingȱtheȱsow’sȱtail,ȱanotherȱoneȱisȱkneelingȱbehindȱtheȱsow,ȱwithȱtheȱanimal’s
excrementȱgushingȱintoȱhisȱeagerlyȱopenedȱmouthȱwhileȱinȱsomeȱrenditions,ȱthe
sowȱtooȱisȱdevouringȱaȱpileȱofȱexcrement.ȱThisȱparticularlyȱdisgustingȱmotifȱofȱthe
Jewsȱ notȱ onlyȱ sucklingȱ theȱ sow’sȱ milkȱ butȱ devouringȱ itsȱ excrement,ȱ hadȱ been
introducedȱbyȱtheȱwoodcuts,ȱitsȱonlyȱpossibleȱforerunnerȱbeingȱtheȱJudensauȱatȱthe
eastȱchoirȱofȱStȱSebald’’sȱchurchȱinȱNurembergȱ(ca.ȱ1380,ȱseeȱfigureȱ6),ȱwhereȱaȱJew
isȱcollectingȱtheȱsow’sȱexcrementȱinȱaȱbowl.ȱFaecesȱwere,ȱbyȱbothȱscholarlyȱand
popularȱbelief,ȱtheȱfoodȱofȱtheȱdevil,90ȱthusȱestablishing,ȱorȱratherȱcementing,ȱthe
demonizationȱofȱtheȱJewsȱthatȱwasȱfurtherȱenhancedȱbyȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱtheȱgoat
inȱtheȱbackground.ȱTheȱwoodcuts,ȱdistributedȱviaȱtheȱnewȱ‘massȱmedia’ȱofȱleaflets
andȱbroadsheetsȱthatȱliterallyȱfloodedȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpireȱinȱtheȱReformation
period,91ȱ areȱ theȱ singleȱ antiȬJewishȱ joke,ȱ oftenȱ accompanyiedȱ byȱ variousȱ texts
whichȱfurtherȱemphasizeȱtheȱjokesȱthatȱwereȱmadeȱatȱtheȱJews’ȱexpense:ȱatȱthe
bottomȱofȱtheȱearliestȱofȱitsȱrenditions,92ȱitȱisȱexplainedȱthatȱ‘thisȱisȱwhyȱweȱdoȱnot
eatȱroastȱpork,ȱandȱthusȱweȱareȱlustfulȱandȱourȱbreathȱstinks’ȱ(umbȱdazȱwirȱnitȱessen
swininȱ brotten,ȱ darumbȱ sindȱ wirȱ gelȱ undȱ stincktȱ untzȱ derȱ oten).ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewsȱ is
encouragingȱtheȱJewȱridingȱonȱtheȱsow’sȱbackȱtoȱsuckȱitsȱtailȱsoȱasȱtoȱuncoverȱher
rectum,ȱwhileȱanotherȱoneȱisȱcallingȱtheȱsowȱ‘ourȱmother’:ȱampleȱinsinuationsȱat
theȱdesireȱofȱtheȱJewsȱtoȱconsumeȱporkȱandȱtoȱinteractȱsexuallyȱwithȱwhatȱisȱboth
aȱfilthyȱanimalȱandȱtheirȱmother.
WhileȱtheȱWittenbergȱJudensauȱdevelopedȱmoreȱintoȱaȱtheologicalȱemblemȱdue
toȱtheȱworksȱofȱLutherȱandȱFabriciusȱandȱtheirȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱShemȱHamphoras,93
theȱwholeȱimageȱofȱtheȱFrankfurtȱJudensauȱisȱtheȱepitomeȱofȱtopsyȬturvynessȱthat
cateredȱtoȱtheȱ(even)ȱbroaderȱmasses:ȱridingȱwithȱyourȱbackȱtoȱtheȱheadȱofȱthe
whoȱclassifiesȱtwelveȱdifferent,ȱifȱoverlapping,ȱmotifsȱthatȱwereȱpresentedȱonȱbroadsheetsȱ(27–33).
SeeȱalsoȱWinfriedȱFreyȱandȱAndreaȱFrölich,ȱDasȱJudenbildȱinȱdenȱFlugschriftenȱdesȱ16.ȱJahrhunderts
(Nordhausen:ȱBautzȬVerlag,ȱ2008,ȱCD).
89
Yuval,ȱTwoȱNationsȱinȱYourȱWomb,ȱ174–75.
90
PoȬChiaȱHsia,ȱTheȱMythȱofȱRitualȱMurder,ȱ213–14,ȱwhoȱpointsȱoutȱLuther’sȱwritingsȱaboutȱfaeces
andȱdemonicȱpollutionȱasȱwellȱasȱpopularȱstoriesȱsuchȱasȱTillȱEulenspiegel,ȱwhereȱJewsȱareȱtricked
intoȱbuyingȱaȱpeasant’sȱfaecesȱasȱaȱrareȱmedicament,ȱthusȱexposingȱbothȱtheȱJews’ȱstupidnessȱand
theirȱcravingȱforȱ‘wrong’ȱfoodȱtoȱridicule.
91
Schöndorf,ȱ “Judenhaßȱ undȱ Toleranz,”ȱ 27.ȱ Theȱ literatureȱ onȱ theȱ usageȱ ofȱ broadsheetsȱ and
pamphletsȱduringȱtheȱReformationȱcan,ȱifȱonlyȱforȱaȱlackȱofȱspace,ȱnotȱbeȱdiscussedȱhere.ȱWithȱa
referenceȱtoȱtheȱJews,ȱseeȱapartȱfromȱtheȱotherwiseȱquotedȱRainerȱWohlfeil,ȱ“DieȱJudenȱinȱder
zeitgenössischenȱbildlichenȱDarstellung,”ȱReuchlinȱundȱdieȱJuden,ȱed.ȱArnoȱHerzigȱandȱJuliusȱH.
Schoeps.ȱPforzheimerȱReuchlinschriften,ȱ3ȱ(Sigmaringen:ȱThorbecke,ȱ1993),ȱ21–36.
92
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ34–35,ȱpl.ȱ30.ȱSeeȱasȱaȱrepresentativeȱofȱtheȱinnumerableȱreproductionsȱofȱthis
perhapsȱmostȱfamousȱwoodcutȱtheȱrenditionsȱbyȱHeinzȱSchreckenberg,ȱDieȱJudenȱinȱderȱKunst
Europas:ȱ Einȱ historischerȱ Bildatlasȱ (1996;ȱ Göttingen:ȱ Vandenhoeckȱ &ȱ Ruprecht,ȱ 2002),ȱ 345,ȱ and
Wenzel,ȱ“DoȱwordenȱdieȱJuddenȱalleȱgeschant”,ȱ300,ȱfig.ȱ7.ȱ
93
mount,ȱaȱmaleȱdevilȱwhoȱsportsȱbreasts,ȱaȱfemaleȱswineȱwithȱaȱboar’sȱfangs,ȱfaeces
asȱ edibleȱ food,ȱ adultsȱ sucklingȱ likeȱ infants—allȱ thisȱ contributesȱ toȱ theȱ general
compositionȱ ofȱ theȱ imageȱ whichȱ featuresȱ inversionȱ asȱ aȱ keyȱ element.ȱ Yetȱ the
clothesȱtheȱJewsȱareȱdressedȱinȱremainȱrealistic,ȱeverydayȱclothesȱanyȱJewȱ(and
nonȬJewȱalike)ȱofȱthisȱtimeȱmightȱbeȱseenȱwearingȱonȱtheȱstreet,ȱandȱthusȱestablish
aȱlinkȱtoȱnormalcyȱandȱreality,ȱenablingȱtheȱspectatorȱtoȱdrawȱaȱparallelȱtoȱ‘realȬlife’
Jews,ȱevenȱtheirȱJewishȱneighboursȱtheyȱwouldȱencounterȱduringȱtheirȱeveryȬday
contact.94ȱFurthermore,ȱtheȱcontrastȱbetweenȱtheȱtwoȱscenes—theȱ“martyrdom”ȱof
SimonȱofȱTrentȱandȱtheȱJudensau—emphasizesȱtheȱtwoȱantagonists,ȱtheȱ(absolute)
Pureȱandȱtheȱ(equallyȱabsolute)ȱImpure,ȱwherebyȱtheȱswineȱaddsȱanotherȱdetailȱof
defamation:ȱinȱtheȱparticularȱsphereȱofȱtheirȱlivesȱwhereȱtheȱJewsȱplaceȱtheȱhighest
valueȱonȱpurityȱ(inȱChristianȱobservation),ȱtheyȱareȱdepictedȱasȱultimatelyȱimpure.
Theyȱserveȱasȱanȱabstractȱmodelȱofȱallȱthatȱisȱhorrendousȱandȱrotten,ȱandȱyetȱthey
areȱreal;ȱandȱthus,ȱanyȱinsults,ȱhoweverȱviolentȱandȱvile,ȱandȱallȱpainfulȱmockery
wereȱ legitimizedȱ byȱ theȱ mostȱ horribleȱ crimeȱ theȱ Jewsȱ wereȱ accusedȱ ofȱ having
committed,ȱtheȱmurderingȱofȱthe—almostȱsaintly—youngȱchildȱSimon.95ȱ
TheȱFrankfurtȱJudensauȱsoonȱbecameȱtheȱmostȱpopularȱtypeȱofȱJudensauȱtoȱbe
usedȱforȱleafletsȱandȱbroadsheetsȱupȱuntilȱtheȱnineteenthȱcenturyȱ(seeȱfigureȱ7),
supplantingȱtheȱearlierȱones.ȱInȱitsȱvariousȱrenditions,ȱitȱstoodȱeitherȱaloneȱorȱwith
otherȱinsultingȱdepictions,ȱorȱitȱaccompanied,ȱaccentuated,ȱorȱliterallyȱillustrated
catchphrases,ȱpoems,ȱorȱevenȱlongerȱtexts,ȱwithȱtheȱphraseȱsauffȱduȱdieȱmilchȱfrißȱdu
denȱdreck,ȱdasȱistȱdochȱ euerȱ bestesȱgeschleckȱ(‘youȱguzzleȱdownȱtheȱmilkȱ andȱyou
devourȱtheȱfilth,ȱthisȱisȱafterȱallȱyourȱfavoriteȱdish’)ȱbeingȱtheȱmostȱpopularȱone.
Pigsȱandȱdisgusting,ȱmurderousȱJewsȱareȱeverywhere:ȱinȱtheȱearlyȱseventeethȬ
centuryȱbroadsheetȱDerȱJudenȱSynagogȱ(‘TheȱJews’ȱSynagogue),96ȱtheȱsynagogue
itselfȱ isȱ aȱ pigsty:ȱ pigsȱ peepȱ outȱ ofȱ everyȱ possibleȱ windowȱ whileȱ Jewsȱ devote
themselvesȱ toȱ eitherȱ criminalȱ activitiesȱ orȱ studyingȱ theirȱ falseȱ andȱ treacherous
books.ȱSurroundedȱbyȱotherȱderogatoryȱsymbolsȱofȱJudaismȱlikeȱtheȱGoldenȱCalf,
theȱFrankfurtȱJudensauȱmakesȱupȱtheȱcenter,ȱformingȱtheȱepitomeȱofȱevil,ȱfilth,ȱand
perversion.ȱClaudineȱFabreȬVassasȱhasȱpointedȱoutȱtheȱomnipresenceȱofȱtheȱpig
notȱonlyȱinȱJudensauȱwoodcuts—suchȱasȱtheȱbadgesȱofȱtheȱJewsȱslaughteringȱSimon
ofȱTrentȱinȱaȱlateȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱItalianȱengravingȱthatȱhaveȱlittleȱpigsȱinȱtheir
centers—playingȱonȱtheȱimageȱofȱtheȱJewȱasȱtheȱcannibalȱbutcherȱwhoȱperforms
onȱaȱhumanȱbeingȱwhatȱtheȱChristiansȱcarryȱoutȱaroundȱEaster,ȱafterȱaȱperiodȱof
abstinanceȱfromȱeatingȱporkȱduringȱLent:ȱtheȱslaughteringȱofȱtheȱpigletsȱtheyȱhad
94
TheȱaspectȱofȱinversionȱhasȱbeenȱpointedȱoutȱbyȱGundulaȱGrebnerȱinȱherȱhighlyȱinstructiveȱarticle,
“DieȱJudensaudarstellungȱamȱFrankfurterȱBrückentorȱalsȱSchandbild,”ȱ93.
95
Grebner,ȱ“DieȱJudensaudarstellungȱamȱFrankfurterȱBrückentorȱalsȱSchandbild,”ȱ93–94.
96
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱ57–58,ȱpl.ȱ49.
346 BirgitȱWiedl
bredȱandȱraisedȱatȱtheirȱhomes,97ȱspanning,ȱifȱweȱwantȱtoȱfollowȱherȱsuggestion,
theȱbridgeȱallȱtheȱwayȱbackȱtoȱtheȱcannibalisticȱhyenasȱandȱtheȱmanticoreȱofȱthe
Salisburyȱbestiary.98ȱ
BothȱtheȱbroadsheetsȱandȱJudensauȱsculpturesȱofȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱPeriodȱbring
toȱlightȱallȱtheȱantiȬJewishȱelementsȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱpartially,ȱifȱneverȱcompletely,
veiledȱbyȱlayersȱofȱmetaphoricalȱmeaningsȱduringȱtheȱMiddleȱAges.ȱYetȱalthough
thereȱisȱscarcelyȱanyȱotherȱintentionȱthanȱantiȬJewishȱpropaganda,ȱtheȱearlyȱmodern
Judensäueȱneverthelessȱconsistȱofȱseveralȱcomponentsȱthatȱcaterȱtoȱdifferentȱstimuli:
theȱJewsȱareȱmarkedȱasȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱsow,ȱasȱaȱdifferent,ȱandȱlesserȱformȱof
being,ȱasȱoffspringsȱofȱaȱbeastȱtoȱwhomȱtheyȱturnȱwhenȱinȱneedȱofȱnourishment;
theyȱareȱconnectedȱwithȱobscenityȱandȱareȱbrandedȱasȱborderingȱonȱtheȱsodomitic,
sportingȱshadyȱsexualȱproclivities.ȱThus,ȱtheȱJudensauȱstressesȱtheȱ‘alienȱquality’ȱof
theȱ Jewsȱ thatȱ allowsȱ theȱ Christianȱ hostilityȱ towardȱ Jewsȱ toȱ persistȱ beyondȱ the
MiddleȱAges;ȱitȱhasȱcontributedȱinȱtransferringȱtheȱprimarilyȱreligiousȱpolemics
andȱantagonismȱtoȱaȱbroaderȱlevel,ȱhelpingȱfixȱtheȱstereotypedȱimageȱinȱvarious
culturalȱlevelsȱasȱverbalȱabuse,ȱjokes,ȱproverbs,ȱandȱfirmlyȱestablishingȱtheȱdistinct
notionȱthatȱJewsȱsimplyȱwereȱ‘anotherȱcategoryȱofȱbeings’,ȱaȱnonȬhumanȱlifeȬform.
Atȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȱcentury,ȱtheȱJudensauȱalsoȱmadeȱitȱonȱstage,ȱaddingȱyet
anotherȱlayerȱofȱmockeryȱandȱcrudeȱhumour,ȱexploitingȱanotherȱmeansȱofȱdrawing
laughterȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱtheȱJews.99ȱ
HansȱFolz,100ȱwhoȱhadȱaȱconsiderableȱknowledgeȱofȱtalmudicȱscripture,101ȱaccuses
theȱJewsȱinȱhisȱdieȱaltȱundȱneuȱeeȱ(“theȱoldȱandȱtheȱnewȱmarriage”)ȱverbatimȱof
beingȱ“stepȬchildrenȱofȱsheȬmonkeys,ȱjennies,ȱandȱpigs”ȱwhileȱaȱrepentantȱJew,
shockedȱbyȱtheȱextentȱofȱhisȱownȱblindness,ȱsumsȱupȱallȱtheȱ“misdeeds”ȱofȱhis
faith:ȱ theirȱ descentȱ fromȱ beasts,ȱ theȱ envyȱ andȱ hatredȱ theyȱ bearȱ againstȱ all
Christians,ȱtheirȱidlenessȱandȱgluttony,ȱandȱtheȱeventualȱresultȱofȱtheseȱcharacter
97
FabreȬVassas,ȱTheȱSingularȱBeast,ȱ130–36,ȱfig.ȱ12–14.ȱHersȱisȱdefinitivelyȱaȱcompellingȱstudy—the
historianȱmayȱcritisizeȱthatȱsomeȱofȱtheȱconclusionsȱareȱbasedȱonȱevidenceȱandȱsourceȱmaterialȱtoo
differentȱinȱtimeȱandȱregion,ȱandȱthatȱsheȱfallsȱforȱsomeȱ‘medieval’ȱmythsȱthatȱare,ȱinȱfact,ȱproducts
ofȱmuchȱlaterȱtimes,ȱyetȱoneȱcannotȱhelpȱbutȱacknowledgeȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱsheerȱamountȱof
symbolsȱandȱmetaphorsȱsheȱunveils.
98
Theȱ connectionȱ ritualȱ murderȬcannibalismȱ wasȱ alsoȱ suggestedȱ byȱ Georgȱ R.ȱ Schoubek,ȱ “Zur
Tradierungȱ undȱ Diffusionȱ einerȱ europäischenȱ Aberglaubensvorstellung,”ȱ Dieȱ Legendeȱ vom
Ritualmord,ȱ 17–24;ȱ hereȱ 17–18,ȱ whoȱ pointsȱ outȱ thatȱ theȱ accusationȱ ofȱ ritualȱ murderȱ andȱ its
associationȱ withȱ cannibalismȱ canȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ manyȱ societiesȱ andȱ religiousȱ communitiesȱ asȱ a
derogatoryȱincriminationȱofȱotherȱreligiousȱgroups.
99
StillȱbasicȱisȱWenzel,ȱ“DoȱwordenȱdieȱJuddenȱalleȱgeschant”.
100
SeeȱrecentlyȱChristineȱMagin,ȱ“HansȱFolzȱundȱdieȱJuden,”ȱEinblattdruckeȱdesȱ15.ȱundȱfrühenȱ16.
Jahrhunderts:ȱ Probleme,ȱ Perspektiven,ȱ Fallstudien,ȱ ed.ȱ Volkerȱ Honemann,ȱ Sabineȱ Griese,ȱ Falk
Eisermann,ȱandȱMarcusȱOstermannȱ(Tübingen:ȱNiemeyer,ȱ2000),ȱ371–95;ȱandȱWinfriedȱFrey,ȱ“The
IntimateȱOther:ȱHansȱFolz’ȱDialogueȱbetweenȱ“ChristianȱandȱJew,”“ȱMeetingȱtheȱForeignȱinȱthe
MiddleȱAges,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassenȱ(NewȱYorkȱandȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2002),ȱ249–67.
101
Wenzel,ȱ“DoȱwordenȱdieȱJuddenȱalleȱgeschant,”ȱ193–217.
traits:ȱusury.102ȱInȱhisȱlaterȱandȱmostȱaggressivelyȱantiȬJewishȱSpilȱvomȱHerzogȱvon
Burgundȱ(“PlayȱofȱtheȱDukeȱofȱBurgundy”),ȱFolzȱevenȱextendsȱtheȱcatalogueȱof
Jewishȱmisdeeds,ȱhavingȱtheȱAntichrist,ȱtheȱfraudulentȱJewishȱMessiah,ȱreelȱoffȱall
theȱ crimesȱ “common”ȱ toȱ Jews,ȱ fromȱ rapaciousȱ usuryȱ toȱ ritualȱ murdersȱ and
murdersȱcommittedȱbyȱJewishȱphysicians.ȱAsȱinȱDieȱaltȱundȱneuȱee,ȱtheȱeffectȱis
intensifiedȱbyȱmeansȱofȱtheȱselfȬaccusationȱofȱtheȱJews.ȱInȱtheȱfinalȱsceneȱofȱtheȱSpil,
theȱChristianȱcharactersȱcallȱforȱtheȱexecutionȱofȱtheȱJews,ȱoutdoingȱeachȱotherȱin
sadisticȱandȱhumiliatingȱvisionsȱofȱtorture,ȱandȱtheȱclimaxȱisȱreachedȱwhenȱaȱsow
isȱbroughtȱontoȱtheȱstageȱandȱtheȱJewsȱareȱforcedȱbyȱthreatsȱtoȱlieȱdownȱbelowȱthe
sow103—theȱsculpturesȱandȱpaintingsȱwereȱbroughtȱtoȱlife,ȱprovidingȱaȱhilariously
funnyȱsceneȱamidstȱtheȱmostȱcruelȱfantasies.ȱViciousȱhumourȱandȱfunnyȱcruelty,
bothȱ‘signatureȱfeatures’ȱofȱnotȱonlyȱlateȬmedievalȱhumorȱwereȱunited,ȱwithȱsome
obscenityȱasȱaȱtoppingȱtoȱtheȱdeliciouslyȱvenomousȱmix.
Theȱ knowledgeȱ amongȱ Christiansȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewishȱ dietaryȱ laws,ȱ particularly
concerningȱtheȱconsumptionȱofȱpork,ȱcannotȱbeȱdoubted,ȱandȱtheȱassociationȱwith
theȱ animalȱ theȱ Jewsȱ mostȱ keptȱ awayȱ from,ȱ evenȱ abhorred,ȱ wasȱ alreadyȱ inȱ its
beginningsȱdecidedlyȱantiȬJewish,ȱdespiteȱtheȱcontemporaryȱuseȱofȱtheȱpigȱasȱan
insultȱforȱChristiansȱinȱJewishȱpolemicsȱwhichȱtheȱChristiansȱwereȱprobablyȱaware
of.ȱ Uncleanȱ animals,ȱ withȱ theȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ pigs,ȱ frequentlyȱ functionedȱ as
metaphorsȱforȱenemiesȱinȱJewishȱtradition:ȱinȱtheȱLeviticusȱRabbah,ȱwrittenȱinȱfifthȬ
orȱsixthȬcenturyȱPalestine,ȱtheȱpigȱsymbolisedȱRome,ȱalongȱwithȱotherȱunclean
animalsȱthatȱrepresentedȱBabylonȱ(camel),ȱMediaȱ(badger),ȱandȱGreeceȱ(hare)104;
bothȱimpureȱonesȱ(meaningȱChristians)ȱandȱswineȱ‘layȱinȱwaitȱforȱJewishȱblood’
inȱaȱpoemȱreflectingȱtheȱhorrendousȱpersecutionsȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱcrusade.105ȱThe
usageȱofȱpigsȱinȱJewishȱtextsȱwasȱhoweverȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱnonȬJews—apartȱfrom
PagansȱandȱChristians,ȱalsoȱ‘bad’ȱJewsȱwereȱlinkedȱtoȱpigs,106ȱaȱquiteȱsimilarȱusage
toȱ theȱ Christianȱ traditionȱ ofȱ equatingȱ Jews,ȱ pigs,ȱ andȱ ‘bad’ȱ Christians.ȱ An
acquaintanceȱofȱbothȱChristiansȱandȱJewsȱwithȱtheȱimagesȱusedȱbyȱtheȱrespective
otherȱcanȱbeȱsafelyȱassumed,ȱandȱisȱsometimesȱputȱtoȱuseȱtoȱsecretlyȱmockȱthe
102
Wenzel,ȱ“SynagogaȱundȱEcclesia,”ȱ76.
103
Wenzel,ȱ“DoȱwordenȱdieȱJuddenȱalleȱgeschant,”ȱ252–54;ȱeadem,ȱ“SynagogaȱundȱEcclesia,”ȱ80–81;ȱPoȬ
Chiaȱ Hsia,ȱ Theȱ Mythȱ ofȱ Ritualȱ Murder,ȱ 63–64,ȱ withȱ theȱ conncetionȱ toȱ theȱ hostȱ desecrationsȱ of
DeggendorfȱandȱPassauȱthatȱappearȱinȱmanyȱofȱFolz’sȱplaysȱandȱpoems.
104
Higgsȱ Strickland,ȱ “Theȱ Jews,ȱ Leviticus,ȱ andȱ theȱ Unclean,”ȱ 218ȱ andȱ 226–28ȱ withȱ aȱ moreȱ than
convincingȱlinkageȱtoȱtheȱJudensau;ȱCuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgust,ȱ52–53.
105
Cuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgust,ȱ144.
106
Cuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgust,ȱ43–45.
348 BirgitȱWiedl
adversary,107ȱbutȱitȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱstressȱthatȱalthoughȱtheseȱinsultsȱmightȱhaveȱbeen
drawnȱ‘fromȱaȱcommonȱsetȱofȱsymbols,’ȱtheyȱdidȱnotȱcarryȱtheȱsameȱmeaningȱto
eitherȱofȱtheȱgroups.108ȱ
Yetȱ howeverȱ obviousȱ theȱ mockingȱ intentionȱ ofȱ equatingȱ Jewsȱ withȱ their
‘negativeȱ counterpart’ȱ inȱ medievalȱ artȱ mayȱ haveȱ been,ȱ theȱ reductionȱ toȱ and
focussingȱonȱtheȱderogatoryȱpurposeȱfromȱtheȱlateȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱonwards
gaveȱriseȱtoȱother,ȱmoreȱdistinctȱwaysȱofȱpresentingȱtheȱinsult.ȱNotȱonlyȱwereȱthe
Jewsȱdepictedȱasȱoffspringȱofȱtheȱsowȱandȱthereforeȱbeingȱfedȱbyȱit,ȱtheirȱ‘realȬlife
abstinence’ȱfromȱeatingȱitsȱmeatȱwasȱexploitedȱtoȱsupplementȱtheȱinsultȱwithȱa
further,ȱvirtuallyȱinverseȱlayer:ȱalthoughȱtheȱJewsȱ‘officially’ȱclaimȱthatȱtheyȱdoȱnot
eatȱporkȱtheyȱinȱfactȱsecretlyȱlustȱforȱit.ȱParticularlyȱinȱJudensauȱbroadsheets,ȱwhere
explanatoryȱ captionsȱ commentȱ onȱ theȱ ongoingȱ scene,ȱ theȱ Jewsȱ areȱ exposedȱ to
mockeryȱalsoȱbecauseȱtheyȱlustȱforȱwhatȱtheyȱmayȱnotȱhave:ȱbutȱinstinctȬdriven
beingsȱasȱtheyȱare,ȱtheyȱareȱeventuallyȱunableȱtoȱsuppressȱtheirȱgreed,ȱanȱideaȱthat
isȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱabovementionedȱcaptionȱofȱtheȱFrankfurtȱJudensauȱthatȱrefersȱto
theȱ‘favoriteȱdish’ȱofȱtheȱJews.
InȱtheȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱJudensauȱonȱtheȱstagesȱofȱtheȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱtheater,
thisȱmotifȱisȱexpressedȱverbatim:ȱHansȱFolz,ȱinȱhisȱDerȱJudenȱundȱderȱChristenȱstreit
vorȱkaiserȱConstantinus,ȱaȱmockȬversionȱofȱtheȱearlierȱdisputationsȱofȱEcclesiaȱand
Synagoga,109ȱultimatelyȱstatesȱthatȱitȱwasn’tȱforȱtheȱtheologicalȱargumentsȱofȱthe
ChristianȱthatȱtheȱJewsȱsawȱreasonȱandȱaskedȱforȱbaptismȱbutȱforȱtheirȱirrepressible
cravingȱforȱporkȱsausages—yet,ȱasȱsoonȱasȱtheȱJewsȱwillȱeatȱthem,ȱtheyȱwillȱ“turn
intoȱdifferentȱkindsȱofȱsausages”,ȱindicatingȱthatȱeverythingȱtheȱJewsȱtouchȱturns
intoȱsomethingȱfoul.110ȱTheȱlaughterȱtheseȱscenesȱevokedȱwas,ȱasȱEdithȱWenzelȱhas
107
Theȱquiteȱcommonȱimageȱofȱdogsȱ(Christians)ȱhuntingȱafterȱrabbitsȱ(Jews)ȱwasȱturnedȱupside
downȱinȱanȱilluminationȱofȱtheȱfamousȱKaufmannȱHaggadahȱ(Spain,ȱfourtheenthȱcentury,ȱnow
Ms.ȱAȱ422ȱofȱtheȱKaufmannȱCollectionȱinȱtheȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHungarianȱAcademyȱ ofȱ Science,
Budapest),ȱ whereȱ rabbitsȱ areȱ puttingȱ aȱ dogȱ toȱ flight,ȱ seeȱ Alexanderȱ (Sándor)ȱ Scheiber,ȱ The
KaufmannȱHaggadah.ȱPublicationsȱofȱtheȱOrientalȱLibraryȱofȱtheȱHungarianȱAcademyȱofȱSciences,
1ȱ (Budapest:ȱ Publishingȱ Houseȱ ofȱ theȱ Hungarianȱ Academyȱ ofȱ Sciences,ȱ 1957),ȱ 55,ȱ seeȱ also
GabrielleȱSedȬRajna,ȱTheȱKaufmannȱHaggadahȱ(Budapest:ȱKulturalȱInternational,ȱ1990).
108
Cuffel,ȱGenderingȱDisgust,ȱ15ȱ(withȱtheȱinclusionȱofȱMuslims);ȱseeȱalsoȱLipton,ȱImagesȱofȱIntolerance,
141ȱ(‘similarityȱofȱtheȱformȱinȱnoȱwayȱentailsȱtheȱidentityȱofȱmeaning’).
109
AnotherȱofȱFolz’ȱdialoguesȱbetweenȱaȱChristianȱandȱaȱJewȱhasȱbeenȱexaminedȱbyȱFrey,ȱ“The
IntimateȱOther.”
110
WinfriedȱFrey,ȱ“AntijüdischeȱTendenzenȱinȱeinemȱFastnachtspielȱdesȱHansȱFolz.ȱEinigeȱAspekte
zumȱUnterrichtsthemaȱ‘Antisemitismus’,”ȱWirkendesȱWortȱ32.1ȱ(1982):ȱ1–19;ȱhereȱ13–14;ȱWenzel,
“SynagogaȱundȱEcclesia,”ȱ72–73.ȱItȱmightȱseemȱquiteȱaȱstretchȱbutȱoneȱcannotȱhelpȱbeingȱreminded
ofȱtheȱnumerousȱmarketȱregulationsȱthatȱforbadeȱJewsȱtouchingȱmeatȱthatȱwasȱlaidȱoutȱforȱsale,
seeȱe.g.,ȱforȱFranceȱLipton,ȱImagesȱofȱIntolerance,ȱ68–69,ȱforȱAragonȱDavidȱNirenberg,ȱCommunities
ofȱViolence:ȱPersecutionȱofȱMinoritiesȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱ(Princeton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ1996),
169–72,ȱforȱAustriaȱBirgitȱWiedl,ȱ“JewsȱandȱtheȱCity.ȱParametersȱofȱJewishȱUrbanȱLifeȱinȱLate
MedievalȱAustria,”ȱUrbanȱSpaceȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱEarlyȱModernȱAge,ȱed.ȱAlbrechtȱClassen.
pointedȱout,ȱspringingȱratherȱfromȱrelishingȱinȱhumiliatingȱtheȱenemyȱthanȱfrom
havingȱ prevailedȱ inȱ aȱ battleȱ ofȱ wits,ȱ whileȱ combiningȱ itȱ withȱ theȱ delightȱ in
scatologicalȱhumourȱsoȱtypicalȱofȱtheȱFastnachtsspieleȱ(ShrovetideȱPlays).111ȱ
Jewsȱ lustingȱ after,ȱ eating,ȱ orȱ atȱ leastȱ tryingȱ toȱ eatȱ porkȱ remainedȱ aȱ central
elementȱofȱantiȬJewishȱandȱantiȬSemiticȱpropaganda;ȱinȱtheȱGermanȬspeakingȱarea,
theȱimageȱprevailedȱinȱprint,ȱliterature,ȱandȱeveryȬdayȱlanguage,ȱtheȱtermȱJudensau
developingȱintoȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱcommonȱverbalȱinsultsȱtowardȱJews.112ȱYetȱthe
impactȱ ofȱ theȱ Judensau,ȱ or,ȱ ratherȱ JewȬwithȬsowȱ image,ȱ wentȱ farȱ beyondȱ its
geographicalȱ scope.ȱ Englishȱ caricaturesȱ ofȱ theȱ lateȱ eighteenthȱ andȱ nineteenth
centuriesȱthematiseȱtheȱattemptedȱemancipationȱandȱassimilationȱofȱtheȱEnglish
Jewsȱbyȱusageȱofȱthisȱveryȱimage:ȱinȱdemonstratingȱtheirȱemancipation,ȱJewsȱstart
toȱeatȱpork,ȱpointedlyȱenjoyingȱit,ȱbutȱ‘getȱitȱwrong’ȱbyȱeatingȱtheȱwrongȱpartsȱor
tryingȱtoȱeatȱitȱalive—reflectingȱyetȱagainȱtheȱassociationȱwithȱcannibalism—or
kissing,ȱinȱtheirȱenthusiasm,ȱtheȱstillȱlivingȱswineȱandȱthusȱrepeatingȱtheȱoldȱmotif
withȱtheȱconnectionȱofȱobscenity,ȱsexualȱdeviances,ȱandȱsodomiticȱtendencies.ȱTo
furtherȱstressȱtheirȱalienness,ȱtheȱJewsȱofȱaȱnineteenthȬcenturyȱcaricatureȱspeak
withȱaȱheavyȱGermanȱaccentȱwhileȱbystandersȱlaughȱatȱtheȱobviousȱvainnessȱof
theirȱattemptsȱatȱbeingȱnaturalized.113ȱ
TheȱnineteenthȬcenturyȱEnglishȱcaricatureȱhasȱatȱitsȱbottomȱwhatȱhadȱdeveloped
intoȱaȱmainȱtargetȱofȱmockeryȱduringȱtheȱlateȱMiddleȱAgesȱandȱtheȱearlyȱmodern
period:ȱaȱcaptionȱofȱ(oftenȱfake)ȱHebrewȱthatȱaccompaniedȱJudensauȱwoodcuts114
orȱwasȱshownȱtoȱtheȱaudienceȱduringȱpassionȱplaysȱ(alsoȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱRoman
INRI).115ȱTheȱJews’ȱlanguageȱwasȱridiculed,ȱpresentedȱasȱsomeȱsortȱofȱgibberishȱno
rationalȱhumanȱwouldȱwantȱtoȱspeak;ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱ‘ominous’ȱqualityȱof
theirȱlanguageȱwasȱpointedȱout,ȱhintingȱatȱaȱclandestineȱandȱmostȱlikelyȱhostile
communicationȱthatȱwasȱtakingȱplaceȱbetweenȱtheȱJews,ȱbothȱlocalȱandȱforeign.116
Fundamentalsȱ ofȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Culture,ȱ 4ȱ (Berlinȱ andȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Walterȱ de
Gruyter,ȱ2009),ȱ273–308;ȱhereȱ297–99ȱandȱead.,ȱ“CodifyingȱJews:ȱJewsȱinȱAustrianȱTownȱCharters
ofȱtheȱThirteenthȱandȱFourteenthȱCenturies,”ȱTheȱConstructedȱJew:ȱJewsȱandȱJudaismȱthroughȱMedieval
ChristianȱEyes,ȱed.ȱMerrallȱL.ȱPriceȱandȱKristineȱT.ȱUtterbackȱ(Turnhout:ȱBrepols,ȱforthcomingȱin
2010).ȱ
111
Wenzel,ȱ“SynagogaȱundȱEcclesia,”ȱ73.
112
Itȱisȱaȱsadȱfactȱthatȱupȱuntilȱtoday,ȱtheȱequationȱofȱJewsȱwithȱswineȱisȱaȱcommonȱmeansȱofȱantiȬ
SemiticȱpropagandaȱlaunchedȱbyȱrightȬwingȱcircles,ȱtheȱexampleȱofȱaȱpigȱwithȱaȱpaintedȬonȱStar
ofȱDavidȱandȱtheȱnameȱofȱIgnatzȱBubisȱonȱitsȱbackȱthatȱwasȱherdedȱacrossȱAlexanderplatz,ȱBerlin,
inȱ1998ȱbyȱaȱgroupȱofȱneoȬNazisȱ(BerlinerȱZeitung,ȱ9ȱNovember,ȱ1998),ȱmayȱserveȱasȱoneȱamong,
unfortunately,ȱallȱtooȱmanyȱexamples.ȱSeeȱalsoȱBilderȱderȱJudenfeindschaft.ȱAntisemitismus,ȱVorurteile
undȱMythen,ȱed.ȱJuliusȱH.ȱSchoepsȱandȱJoachimȱSchlörȱ(Augsburg:ȱBechtermünz,ȱ1999).
113
Shachar,ȱJudensau,ȱfig.ȱ58a,ȱ59abȱandȱ60ab.
114
115
Heil,ȱ‘Gottesfeinde’—’Menschenfeinde’,ȱ173–74.
116
Heil,ȱ‘Gottesfeinde’—’Menschenfeinde’,ȱ174.ȱSeeȱalsoȱMellinkoff,ȱOutcasts,ȱ63ȱ(onȱtheȱconnection
JewsȬsorcery),ȱ95–110.
350 BirgitȱWiedl
Ecclesiasticalȱart,ȱneverȱreluctantȱtoȱuseȱgenuineȱHebrewȱlettering,ȱseizedȱonȱthis
trend,ȱperhapsȱtheȱmostȱfamousȱexampleȱbeingȱtheȱsixteenthȬcenturyȱaltarpieceȱof
StȱAnthony’sȱchurchȱatȱIsenheim,ȱpaintedȱbyȱMathiasȱGrünewaldȱandȱnowȱon
displayȱatȱtheȱUnterlindenȱMuseumȱinȱColmar,117ȱthatȱfeaturesȱaȱchamberȱpotȱwith
aȱ‘Hebrew’ȱinscription,ȱmockingȱtheȱlanguageȱandȱonceȱagainȱstressingȱtheȱlinking
ofȱJewsȱwithȱexcrement.118ȱ
Despiteȱ theȱ ongoingȱ reductionȱ ofȱ theȱ imageryȱ toȱ theȱ merelyȱ insulting,ȱ itȱ is
obviousȱthatȱtheȱconnectionȱJews–pigs–gulaȱwasȱneitherȱforgottenȱnorȱreducedȱto
depictionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Judensau.ȱ Theȱ connotationȱ withȱ usury,ȱ whichȱ theȱ medieval
depictionsȱ hadȱ partiallyȱ expressedȱ moreȱ subtly,ȱ wasȱ establishedȱ firmlyȱ inȱ the
courseȱofȱtheȱseventeenthȱcentury:ȱaȱmoneyȱpouchȱthatȱisȱdanglingȱoffȱtheȱbeltȱof
theȱ Jewȱ kneelingȱ behindȱ theȱ sowȱ wasȱ addedȱ toȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ renditionsȱ ofȱ the
FrankfurtȱJudensau,ȱmakingȱsureȱthatȱnoȱoneȱmissedȱtheȱconnection.119ȱHansȱFolz’
Dieȱ altȱ undȱ neuȱ ee,ȱ toȱ nameȱ butȱ oneȱ literaryȱ example,ȱ unmasksȱ theȱ Jewsȱ as
embodimentȱofȱgulaȱandȱluxuriaȱatȱtheȱend,120ȱwhileȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱmetaphorical
languageȱofȱHieronymusȱBoschȱ(whoȱcan,ȱthough,ȱnotȱbeȱaccusedȱofȱusingȱsimple
imagery)ȱshowȱthatȱalsoȱlateȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱartistsȱwouldȱstillȱputȱthisȱimagery
toȱ goodȱ andȱ effectiveȱ use.ȱ Althoughȱ noȱ Jewsȱ areȱ presentȱ inȱ personȱ inȱ theȱ two
paintingsȱthatȱmakeȱupȱtheȱleftȱwingȱofȱtheȱreconstructedȱ‘NewȱTriptych’ȱ(Shipȱof
FoolsȱandȱGula)ȱandȱcoverȱseveralȱmoreȱorȱlessȱdeadlyȱsins,ȱfromȱdrinkingȱand
unchasteȱloveȱtoȱselfishnessȱandȱsloth,ȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱexemplifiedȱvicesȱareȱthose
mostȱconventionallyȱassociatedȱwithȱJews,ȱbutȱthereȱareȱaȱnumberȱofȱsymbolsȱthat
pointȱtowardȱtheȱJews.ȱMostȱinterestingȱinȱtheȱpresentȱcontextȱisȱtheȱpig’sȱtrotter
inȱtheȱheraldicȱstandardȱofȱtheȱtentȱthatȱhousesȱtheȱtwoȱunchasteȱlovers:ȱnotȱonly
doȱpigs’ȱtrottersȱ‘alwaysȱcropȱupȱinȱBosch’sȱworkȱwhereverȱgluttonyȱorȱimpending
povertyȱareȱconcerned’,ȱtheȱassociationȱofȱpigsȱandȱJewsȱdefinitelyȱexceedsȱthe
mereȱconnotationȱwithȱtheȱdepictedȱvice(s).121
Inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theȱ earlyȱ modernȱ period,ȱ particularlyȱ enhancedȱ duringȱ the
Reformation,ȱwithȱCatholicsȱandȱProtestantsȱofȱvariousȱpersuasionsȱattackingȱeach
117
Reinerȱ Marquard,ȱ Mathiasȱ Grünewaldȱ undȱ derȱ Isenheimerȱ Altar.ȱ Erläuterungen—ErwäȬ
gungen—Deutungen.ȱMitȱeinemȱGeleitwortȱvonȱPantxikaȱBéguerie,ȱMuséeȱd’ȱUnterlindenȱ(Colmar
andȱStuttgart:ȱCalwerȱ1996).
118
Mellinkoff,ȱTheȱDevilȱatȱIsenheim,ȱ61,ȱwithȱlinkageȱtoȱtheȱJudensauȱ65–68,ȱandȱfigureȱ36,ȱandȱseveral
mentionsȱ ofȱ theȱ topicȱ inȱ Outcasts;ȱ Mentgen,ȱ Judenȱ imȱ Elsass,ȱ 453.ȱ Seeȱ alsoȱ Lipton,ȱ Imagesȱ of
Intolerance,ȱ36,ȱonȱtheȱconnectionȱfilth/excrement—money;ȱonȱtheȱusageȱofȱHebrewȱinȱwoodcuts,
seeȱSchöner,ȱJudenbilder,ȱ259–62.
119
Shachar,ȱ Judensau,ȱ pl.ȱ 41aȱ andȱ 41c,ȱ pointedȱ outȱ byȱ Grebner,ȱ “Dieȱ Judensaudarstellungȱ am
FrankfurterȱBrückentorȱalsȱSchandbild,”ȱ92.ȱSeeȱalsoȱHiggsȱStrickland,ȱSaracens,ȱDemons,ȱ&ȱJews,
140–43,ȱonȱtheȱmedievalȱmotif,ȱwithȱfurtherȱliterature.
120
Wenzel,ȱ“DoȱwordenȱdieȱJuddenȱalleȱgeschant”,ȱ217.
121
Hartau,ȱ“BoschȱandȱtheȱJews,”ȱ33–35,ȱfig.ȱ1ȱandȱ2.
otherȱ byȱ useȱ ofȱ argumentsȱ borrowedȱ fromȱ theȱ antiȬJewishȱ arsenal,122ȱ andȱ the
rapidlyȱincreasingȱuseȱofȱprintȱmedia,ȱotherȱdefamatoryȱantiȬJewishȱimagesȱevolve
alongȱwithȱandȱinȱinteractionȱwithȱtheȱJudensauȱwhileȱtheȱJudensauȱmanagesȱtoȱnot
onlyȱintrudeȱintoȱtheȱlayȱsphereȱbutȱtoȱeventuallyȱadvanceȱintoȱtheȱinsideȱofȱthe
Christians’ȱhouses.ȱObjectsȱofȱtheȱdailyȱroutine,ȱlikeȱplayingȱcards,123ȱfeaturedȱthe
imageȱofȱtheȱJudensau,ȱallowingȱitȱtoȱbecomeȱanȱintegralȱpartȱofȱeverydayȱlife—and,
presumably,ȱofȱdailyȱjokes.ȱOtherȱmotifs,ȱlikeȱtheȱdepictionȱofȱoneȱorȱmoreȱpersons
ridingȱwithȱtheirȱbackȱturnedȱtoȱtheȱheadȱofȱtheirȱmount,ȱwereȱadaptedȱbyȱandȱat
theȱsameȱtimeȱinfluencedȱbyȱtheȱJudensauȱcomplex.ȱTheȱSaurittȱ(‘sowȬride’,ȱalso
Eselsritt,ȱassȬride,ȱrarelyȱwithȱdogsȱorȱhorses)ȱisȱtheȱtypicalȱfeatureȱofȱaȱtypeȱof
pamphletȱthatȱisȱknownȱasȱSchandbildȱorȱSchmähbriefȱ(‘defamatoryȱpicture/letter’)
thatȱevolvesȱintoȱaȱcentralȱmeansȱofȱpunishmentȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱEhrenstrafen
(shameȱ sanction)ȱ andȱ isȱ utilisedȱ byȱ groupsȱ andȱ individualsȱ ofȱ variousȱ social
standingȱandȱintention.124ȱGenerally,ȱtheseȱdefamatoryȱpicturesȱshowȱtheȱperson(s)
theyȱareȱdirectedȱagainstȱasȱridingȱbackwards;ȱifȱgroupsȱofȱpeopleȱareȱdepicted,
theyȱmightȱalsoȱengageȱinȱtheȱ‘typical’ȱhabitȱofȱoccupyingȱthemselvesȱwithȱthe
animal’sȱ behind,ȱ shovingȱ sealsȱ orȱ moneyȱ pouchesȱ intoȱ itsȱ hindquarters,ȱ or
devouringȱitsȱexcrement.125ȱAsȱanȱillustrationȱtoȱLuther’sȱpamphletȱofȱ1545,ȱAgainst
theȱRomanȱPapacyȱfoundedȱbyȱtheȱdevilȱwithȱitsȱvituperationsȱofȱPaulȱIII,126ȱtheȱpope
himselfȱwasȱshownȱridingȱtheȱbackȱofȱaȱsow—aȱwoodcutȱthatȱstandsȱinȱaȱtradition
ofȱdefamatoryȱimagesȱagainstȱtheȱpopeȱ(Papstspottbilder)ȱthatȱshowedȱtheȱpope
(ClementȱIV)ȱinȱfullȱregaliaȱwhoȱisȱwieldingȱaȱsword,ȱaboutȱtoȱbeheadȱtheȱHoly
RomanȱEmperorȱ(ConradȱIII,ȱTheȱPope’sȱThreat),ȱorȱbeingȱhimselfȱhangedȱfromȱthe
gallowsȱalongȱwithȱhisȱ‘satanic’ȱcardinalsȱwhileȱdemonsȱtakeȱtheirȱsouls;127ȱimages
quiteȱunrelatedȱtoȱanyȱJewishȱaspects.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱtheȱmergerȱofȱhuman
andȱbeastȱintoȱanȱequallyȱhorridȱandȱhilarious,ȱ evenȱpathetic,ȱcreatureȱwasȱan
essentialȱ elementȱ ofȱ bothȱ politicalȱ andȱ religiousȱ polemics.ȱ Creaturesȱ likeȱ the
122
Onȱ theȱ complexȱ ‘relationship’ȱ ofȱ laughterȱ andȱ religionȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ reformation,ȱ see
Auffarth,ȱ“AlleȱTageȱKarneval?,”ȱwhoȱaddressesȱtheȱissueȱofȱlaughterȱasȱaȱlongȬexistentȱtoolȱin
religiousȱpracticeȱandȱritual,ȱ82–85.ȱSeeȱalsoȱAmishaiȬMaisels,ȱ“Demonizationȱofȱtheȱ‘Other’ȱinȱthe
VisualȱArts,”ȱ54,ȱonȱtheȱrepertoireȱofȱdemonȬlikeȱfeaturesȱ(horns,ȱclaws,ȱtails,ȱflames,ȱmonstrous
facialȱand/orȱbodilyȱfeatures)ȱandȱitsȱ(almostȱworldȬwide)ȱusageȱupȱuntilȱtheȱtwentyȬfirstȱcentury.
123
RohrbacherȱandȱSchmidt,ȱJudenbilder,ȱ162ȱ(illustration).
124
MatthiasȱLentz,ȱKonflikt,ȱEhre,ȱOrdnung:ȱUntersuchungenȱzuȱdenȱSchmähbriefenȱundȱSchandbildernȱdes
spätenȱ Mittelaltersȱ undȱ derȱ frühenȱ Neuzeitȱ (ca.ȱ 1350ȱ bisȱ 1600).ȱ Mitȱ einemȱ illustriertenȱ Katalogȱ der
Überlieferung.ȱVeröffentlichungenȱderȱHistorischenȱKommissionȱfürȱNiedersachsenȱundȱBremen,
217ȱ(Hanover:ȱHahnscheȱBuchhandlung,ȱ2004),ȱwho,ȱunfortunately,ȱdoesȱnotȱaddressȱtheȱparallels
inȱtheȱmetaphoricalȱimageȱbetweenȱtheȱSchmähbriefeȱandȱtheȱJudensau.
125
Lentz,ȱKonflikt,ȱEhre,ȱOrdnung,ȱ357–58.
126
Kurtȱ Stadtwald,ȱ Romanȱ Popesȱ andȱ Germanȱ Patriots:ȱ Antipapalismȱ inȱ theȱ Politicsȱ ofȱ theȱ German
HumanistȱMovementȱfromȱGregorȱHeimburgȱtoȱMartinȱLutherȱ(Geneva:ȱLibrairieȱDrozȱS.A.,ȱ1996),ȱ26.
127
Stadtwald,ȱRomanȱPopesȱandȱGermanȱPatriots,ȱ199–205.
352 BirgitȱWiedl
Papsteselȱ (‘PopeȬdonkey’)ȱ andȱ theȱ Mönchskalbȱ (‘monkȬcalf’),ȱ twoȱ ‘onlyȱ recently

discoveredȱhorridȱmonsters’ȱwhoseȱexistenceȱandȱappearanceȱwasȱbroughtȱtoȱthe
attentionȱofȱaȱwiderȱaudienceȱbyȱbroadsheets,ȱprovokedȱbothȱhorrorȱandȱlaughter,
wherebyȱ theseȱ emotionalȱ reactionsȱ wereȱ notȱ mutuallyȱ exclusiveȱ butȱ couldȱ be
experiencedȱsimultaneously.128ȱYetȱthereȱisȱaȱdifferenceȱtoȱbeȱdetectedȱbetweenȱthe
humanȬbeastȱhybrids,ȱhoweverȱcommonlyȱused,129ȱandȱtheȱsowȬriding:ȱlikeȱthe
Schmähbriefe,ȱtheȱsowȬridingȱpopeȱnotȱonlyȱtranslatedȱanȱalreadyȱwellȬestablished
imageȱintoȱaȱnewȱsettingȱthatȱonlyȱ“worked”ȱbecauseȱpeopleȱwereȱalreadyȱsocially
conditionedȱtoȱreactȱproperlyȱtoȱtheȱprimaryȱstimulus,130ȱbutȱplayedȱwithȱanȱimage
thatȱwouldȱatȱleastȱwithȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱaudienceȱevokeȱother,ȱandȱdefinitelyȱnonȬ
papal,ȱassociations:ȱunlikeȱtheȱbeastȬhumanȱhybrids,ȱtheȱsowȬwithȬhumanȱimage
wasȱquiteȱfirmlyȱlinkedȱtoȱoneȱspecificȱgroup—theȱJews.
Fromȱtheȱsixteenthȱcenturyȱonwards,ȱwithȱtheȱmanyȱvariationsȱofȱtheȱJudensau
spreadȱbyȱuseȱofȱprintedȱmatters,ȱtheȱJudensauȱwasȱoftenȱnoȱlongerȱstandingȱalone
butȱbeingȱsurroundedȱbyȱother,ȱequallyȱderogatoryȱsymbols.ȱWhileȱtheȱFrankfurt
Judensauȱisȱinȱmanyȱofȱitsȱrenditionsȱaccompaniedȱbyȱaȱwomanȱleadingȱtheȱsymbol
ofȱtheȱdevilȱparȱexcellence,ȱaȱheȬgoat,131ȱtheȱviciouslyȱantiȬJewishȱtextȱofȱtheȱleaflet
Derȱ Judenȱ Erbarkeitȱ (“Onȱ theȱ Jews’ȱ respectability”,ȱ 1571)ȱ wasȱ illustratedȱ byȱ a
woodcutȱonȱtheȱfrontȱcoverȱthatȱshowsȱthreeȱgrotesque,ȱbarelyȱhumanȬshaped
figures:ȱtwoȱcreaturesȱfeaturingȱdevilishȱsymbolsȱlikeȱhoovesȱandȱtalons,ȱhornsȱand
antlers,ȱlongȱsnoutsȱandȱpointedȱears.ȱTheirȱcloaks,ȱhowever,ȱbearȱaȱcircleȬshaped
emblemȱthatȱisȱeasilyȱrecognisableȱasȱtheȱinfamousȱyellowȱbadgeȱthatȱhadȱbecome
widelyȱ acceptedȱ asȱ aȱ derogativeȱ distinctiveȱ featureȱ forȱ Jewishnessȱ throughout
128
PhilippȱMelanchtonȱandȱMartinȱLutherȱemphasizedȱinȱtheirȱaccompanyingȱexplanationȱofȱLucas
CranachȱtheȱElder’sȱwoodcutsȱtheȱbeastlinessȱofȱtheseȱcreaturesȱandȱtheȱthreatȱtheyȱ(andȱwhatȱthey
allegoricallyȱrepresented)ȱposed,ȱthusȱtriggeringȱorȱatȱlastȱfuellingȱaȱmoreȱfearfulȱreaction;ȱBianca
Frohneȱ hasȱ howeverȱ rightlyȱ pointedȱ outȱ thatȱ bothȱ theȱ intentionȱ ofȱ theȱ broadsheetȱ andȱ the
reaction(s)ȱitȱprovokedȱencompassedȱmoreȱthanȱfearfulȱandȱdisgustedȱemotions,ȱandȱemphasizes
theȱsatirical,ȱgrotesque,ȱandȱcomicalȱcharacterȱofȱtheseȱhybridȱcreaturesȱ,ȱseeȱFrohne,ȱ“Narren,
TiereȱundȱgrewlicheȱFiguren,”ȱ19–22ȱandȱ47–49,ȱandȱfig.ȱ1ȱandȱ2.
129
Forȱtheȱ‘master’ȱofȱtheseȱhumanȬbeastȬdemonȱhybridsȱandȱtheirȱequallyȱterrifyingȱandȱridiculing
purpose,ȱ Hieronymusȱ Bosch,ȱ seeȱ latelyȱ andȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ thisȱ aspectȱ Guidoȱ Boulboullé,
“GroteskeȱAngst.ȱDieȱHöllenphantasienȱdesȱHieronymusȱBosch,”ȱGlaubensstreitȱundȱGelächter,
55–78,ȱparticularlyȱ67–68.ȱSeeȱalsoȱAmishaiȬMaisels,ȱ“Demonizationȱofȱtheȱ‘Other’ȱinȱtheȱVisual
Arts,”ȱ54,ȱonȱtheȱdepictionȱofȱMuslimsȱwithȱtheȱheadsȱofȱanimals.
130
Heil,ȱ ‘Gottesfeinde’—’Menschenfeinde’,ȱ 151;ȱ onȱ theȱ similaritiesȱ ofȱ Catholicȱ reproachesȱ against
heretics,ȱwitches,ȱandȱJews;ȱonȱthe—muchȱdiscussed—linkageȱofȱJewsȱandȱheretics,ȱseeȱLipton,
ImagesȱofȱIntolerance,ȱchapterȱ4ȱ(83–111).
131
SeeȱPoȬChiaȱHsia,ȱTheȱMythȱofȱRitualȱMurder,ȱ213–15,ȱwithȱfigureȱ14ȱ(renditionȱofȱtheȱFrankfurt
Judensau),ȱonȱtheȱdemonizationȱofȱJewsȱbyȱuseȱofȱJudensauȱandȱgoat.
Europe,132ȱ complementingȱ andȱ partiallyȱ replacingȱ theȱ Jewishȱ hat.ȱ Theȱ third
creatureȱtoȱtheirȱright,ȱwithȱtheȱsameȱsmallerȱhoovesȱandȱtalons,ȱisȱridingȱonȱthe
backȱofȱaȱsowȱandȱplayingȱsomeȱsortȱofȱbagpipeȱwhileȱtheȱsowȱisȱdevouringȱaȱpile
ofȱexcrement.133ȱWhereasȱtheȱsowȱremainsȱprimarilyȱconnotatedȱwithȱtheȱJews,ȱthe
onlyȱ‘rival’ȱtoȱtheȱswine,ȱtheȱheȬgoatȱwithȱitsȱequallyȱstrongȱconnectionȱwithȱdirt
andȱ filth,ȱ andȱ theȱ evenȱ strongerȱ allusionsȱ ofȱ theȱ devil,ȱ servesȱ evenȱ more
comprehensiveȱpurposes,ȱasaȱfrequentȱcompanionȱofȱwitchesȱandȱsorcerers,ȱto
nameȱbutȱoneȱexample.ȱTheȱilluminationȱhoweverȱinȱtheȱthirteenthȬcenturyȱBible
moraliséeȱ thatȱ showsȱ Jewsȱ kissingȱ aȱ heȬgoat’sȱ anus134ȱ andȱ theȱ fifteenthȬcentury
capitalȱinȱaȱFlemishȱchurchȱthatȱfeaturesȱaȱJewȱonȱtheȱbackȱofȱaȱheȬgoat135ȱmightȱbe
centuriesȱ apartȱ andȱ wereȱ meantȱ forȱ audiencesȱ ratherȱ differentȱ inȱ numberȱ and
status,ȱyetȱtheȱimageryȱisȱsimilarȱinȱitsȱintent.ȱTheȱSynagogaȱstatueȱatȱErfurtȱholds
aȱgoatȬhead,ȱgoatsȱappearȱasȱmountsȱofȱSynagoga,ȱandȱduringȱtheȱEarlyȱModern
Period,ȱ theȱ goatȱ withȱ itsȱ lasciviousȱ characterȱ andȱ incessantȱ sexualȱ desire,ȱ its
stubbornnessȱ andȱ itsȱ hornsȱ becameȱ almostȱ asȱ popularȱ andȱ widespreadȱ asȱ the
Judensauȱwhenȱitȱappearedȱonȱvariousȱdefamatoryȱpamphlets.136ȱLikeȱtheȱJudensau
ofȱthisȱtime,ȱitȱcombinedȱimagesȱderivingȱfromȱtheȱantiȬJewishȱarsenalȱwithȱimages
thatȱwereȱgenerallyȱusedȱinȱaȱdefamatoryȱcontext:ȱgoatȬriders,ȱinȱparticularȱthe
EllenritterȱorȱEllenreiterȱ(literallyȱcubitȬknightȱorȱcubitȬrider),ȱaȱtailorȱridingȱaȱheȬ
132
EarlierȱinȱWesternȱEurope:ȱInȱbothȱAshkenzaicȱEnglandȱandȱSephardicȱSpain,ȱyellowȱwasȱaȱ“sign”
ofȱJewsȱasȱearlyȱasȱtheȱearlyȱ13thȱcentury;ȱinȱ1269ȱandȱ1274,ȱtheȱkingsȱofȱFranceȱandȱEngland
respectivelyȱdecreedȱthatȱJewsȱhadȱtoȱwearȱaȱyellowȱbadgeȱonȱtheirȱclothingȱ(Blumenkranz,ȱJuden
undȱJudentum,ȱ23–24,ȱfig.ȱ14ȱandȱ15ȱthatȱshowȱexamplesȱfromȱearlyȱ14thȱcenturyȱFlorenceȱand
France,ȱrespectively),ȱwhileȱinȱtheȱrealmȱofȱtheȱHolyȱRomanȱEmpire,ȱtheȱbadgeȱwasn’tȱgenerally
implementedȱasȱaȱsignȱbeforeȱtheȱ15thȱcenturyȱ(firstȱmentionȱisȱ1294ȱinȱErfurt,ȱwhereȱtheȱJewish
communityȱobtainedȱtheȱpermissionȱtoȱnotȱwearȱtheȱbadgeȱwhichȱhadȱofficiallyȱbeenȱimplemented
twoȱyearsȱearlier,ȱGermaniaȱJudaicaȱI,ȱ216).
133
WinfriedȱFreyȱhasȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱinȱtheȱcopyȱofȱthisȱleafletȱthatȱisȱkeptȱinȱtheȱBavarianȱState
LibraryȱinȱMunichȱ(BayerischeȱStaatsbibliothekȱMünchen),ȱthere’sȱanotherȱdefamatoryȱtextȱadded
toȱtheȱpamphletȱlistingȱ(again)ȱantiȬJewishȱresentmentsȱwhich,ȱamongȱothers,ȱexpressȱtheȱauthor’s
wishȱthatȱtheȱJewsȱ‘mayȱbeȱhangedȱlikeȱdogs’.ȱFrey,ȱ“VergleicheȱvonȱJudenȱmitȱHunden,”ȱ131.
134
Theȱ manuscriptȱ wasȱ madeȱ inȱ theȱ 1220sȱ forȱ theȱ kingȱ ofȱ France;ȱ theȱ contextȱ inȱ whichȱ the
illuminationȱisȱplaced—theȱworshipȱofȱtheȱgoldenȱcalfȱwhichȱisȱalsoȱillustratedȱinȱtheȱroundel
above,ȱtheȱJewȱholdingȱtheȱgoatȱcarriesȱaȱmoneybag—firmlyȱestablishesȱtheȱconnectionȱavariceȬ
worshipȱofȱtheȱdevilȬJews;ȱmanyȱofȱtheȱimagesȱreferȱinȱsomeȱwayȱtoȱmoneylending.ȱAnother
roundelȱinȱtheȱcodexȱshowsȱaȱJewȱkissingȱtheȱanusȱofȱaȱcat;ȱLipton,ȱImagesȱofȱIntolerance,ȱ1ȱ(dating),
42–43,ȱwithȱfig.ȱ26,ȱ49,ȱwithȱfig.ȱ32,ȱ50–51.
135
JosuahȱTrachtenberg,ȱTheȱDevilȱandȱtheȱJews:ȱTheȱMedievalȱConceptȱofȱtheȱJewȱandȱItsȱRelationȱto
ModernȱAntisemitismȱ(1943;ȱNewȱYork:ȱJewishȱPublicationȱSociety,ȱ2001),ȱ45.
136
Hassig,ȱ“SexȱinȱtheȱBestiaries,”ȱ72.
354 BirgitȱWiedl
goat,137ȱ wereȱ anȱ imageȱ thatȱ wasȱ oftenȱ usedȱ inȱ aȱ mockingȱ contextȱ upȱ untilȱ the
nineteenthȱcenturyȱinȱbothȱvisualȱartȱandȱliterature.138ȱ
InȱtheȱcontextȱofȱantiȬJewishȱmockeryȱandȱdefamation,ȱtheȱgoadȬridingȱtakesȱon
aȱ particularȱ developmentȱ thatȱ featuresȱ strikingȱ parallelsȱ toȱ theȱ Judensau:ȱ The
“traditional”ȱ medievalȱ pairingȱ ofȱ theȱ allegoricalȱ embodimentsȱ ofȱ Ecclesiaȱ and
Synagoga,139ȱadorningȱasȱsculpturesȱmanyȱaȱRomanesqueȱandȱGothicȱchurchȱinȱthe
shapeȱofȱtwoȱbeautifulȱfemaleȱfigures140ȱandȱdiscussingȱtheirȱrespectiveȱpostulates
inȱ variousȱ dialogues,ȱ developedȱ intoȱ aȱ derogatoryȱ imageȱ ofȱ aȱ barelyȱ human
SynagogaȱridingȱaȱheȬgoatȱandȱanȱopenȱdisputeȱthatȱnotȱonlyȱendedȱinȱfavourȱof
Ecclesiaȱ butȱ withȱ aȱ crushingȱ defeatȱ ofȱ Synagoga,ȱ oftenȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ violent
insults.ȱ Whereasȱ theȱ dialoguesȱ wereȱ likeȱ theȱ earlyȱ Judensauȱ statuesȱ andȱ the
bestiariesȱ limitedȱ toȱ aȱ specificȱ groupȱ ofȱ readers/viewersȱ bothȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ the
accessibilityȱofȱtheȱobjectsȱandȱtoȱtheȱlevelȱofȱeducationȱofȱtheȱ‘consumers,’141ȱboth
theȱvituperationsȱthatȱbecameȱaȱtypicalȱpartȱofȱpreludesȱtoȱpassionȱplays142ȱandȱthe
imaginaryȱ thatȱ developedȱ moreȱ andȱ moreȱ intoȱ aȱ broadȱ jokeȱ wereȱ meantȱ forȱ a
broaderȱpublic.ȱ
137
RohrbacherȱandȱSchmidt,ȱJudenbilder,ȱ161.
138
Inȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ storiesȱ thatȱ theȱ nineteenthȱ centuryȱ constructedȱ aroundȱ theȱ historicalȱ figureȱ of
Appolloniusȱ vonȱ Gailingen,ȱ aȱ fourteenthȬcenturyȱ “robberȬknight”ȱ inȱ Franconia,ȱ heȱ callsȱ the
wealthyȱmerchantsȱofȱaȱtownȱ“Käsewürmer,ȱEllenreiterȱundȱPfeffersäcke”ȱ(cheeseȬworms,ȱcubitȬriders,
andȱpepperȬbags).
139
SeeȱtheȱoverviewȱbyȱWolfgangȱGreisenegger,ȱ“EcclesiaȱundȱSynagoge”ȱLexikonȱderȱchristlichen
Ikonographie,ȱvol.ȱ1ȱ(rpt.ȱ1968;ȱFreiburg:ȱHerder,ȱ1994),ȱcol.ȱ569–78,ȱandȱJochum,ȱ“Ecclesiaȱund
Synagoga,”ȱ248–51.
140
Thereȱhasȱbeenȱmuchȱdiscussionȱaboutȱtheȱbroadȱvarietyȱofȱmeaningsȱtheseȱstatuesȱconveyedȱto
theȱcontemporaries,ȱwithȱnewerȱworksȱstressingȱtheȱintrinsicȱstageȬcharacterȱofȱtheseȱstatuesȱthat
wouldȱcauseȱanȱentireȱsceneȱtoȱreelȱoffȱinȱtheȱmindsȱofȱtheȱspectators,ȱimpressivelyȱ“reȬenacted”
byȱHelgaȱSciurie,ȱ“EcclesiaȱundȱSynagogeȱanȱdenȱDomenȱzuȱStraßburg,ȱBamberg,ȱMagdeburgȱund
Erfurt.ȱ Körpersprachlicheȱ Wandlungenȱ imȱ gestalterischenȱ Kontext,”ȱ Wienerȱ Jahrbuchȱ für
KunstgeschichteȱXLVI/XLVII:ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱmittelalterlichenȱKunst,ȱvol.ȱ2ȱ(1993/94):ȱ679–88,ȱ871–74
(illustrations);ȱhereȱ684–85,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱstatuesȱofȱErfurtȱandȱStrasbourg,ȱseeȱalsoȱWeber,
“GlaubeȱundȱWissen,”ȱandȱElizabethȱMonroe,ȱ“‘FairȱandȱFriendly,ȱSweetȱandȱBeautiful’:ȱHopes
forȱJewishȱConversionȱinȱSynagoga’sȱSongȱofȱSongsȱImagery,”ȱBeyondȱtheȱYellowȱBadge,ȱ33–61,ȱfor
aȱmoreȱpositiveȱimageȱofȱSynagoga.
141
Weber,ȱ“GlaubeȱundȱWissen,”ȱ94ȱ(education),ȱ96ȱ(accessibility).
142
EdithȱWenzel,ȱ“SynagogaȱundȱEcclesia—ZumȱAntijudaismusȱimȱdeutschsprachigenȱSpielȱdes
spätenȱ Mittelalters,”ȱ Internationalesȱ Archivȱ fürȱ Sozialgeschichteȱ derȱ deutschenȱ Literaturȱ 12ȱ (1987):
57–81;ȱhereȱ66–69.
TheȱfourteenthȬcenturyȱcarvings143ȱatȱtheȱchoirȱstallȱofȱtheȱcathedralȱofȱErfurt
showsȱaȱquiteȱuntypicalȱJudensau,ȱaȱmixtureȱofȱJudensauȱandȱSynagogaȱinȱfact,ȱthat
isȱpartȱaȱ“Battleȱofȱfaiths”ȱinȱwhichȱEcclesiaȱisȱjoustingȱinȱquiteȱchivalricȱaȱmanner
againstȱSynagoga.144ȱTheȱcarvingsȱshowȱtheȱmomentȱofȱdefeat;ȱEcclesiaȱisȱaboutȱto
driveȱ theȱ tipȱ ofȱ herȱ lanceȱ intoȱ Synagoga’sȱ throatȱ whileȱ Synagogaȱ isȱ rendered
defenceless.ȱNotȱonlyȱdoesȱsheȱhaveȱneitherȱshieldȱnorȱweaponȱtoȱprotectȱherself
with,ȱsheȱisȱclearlyȱmarkedȱinferiorȱbecauseȱofȱherȱmount—andȱhereȱisȱwhereȱthe
ridiculousȱelementȱisȱtiedȱin:ȱwhileȱEcclesiaȱisȱridingȱaȱhorseȱinȱknightlyȱfashion,
Synagogaȱhasȱtoȱmakeȱdoȱwithȱaȱsow.145ȱItȱmightȱwellȱbeȱthatȱtheȱ(exaggeratedly)
largeȱteatsȱofȱtheȱsowȱremindedȱspectatorsȱofȱotherȱ“pairings”ȱofȱJewsȱwithȱsows
theyȱhadȱcomeȱacross,ȱthusȱderidingȱtheȱJewsȱnotȱonlyȱinȱanȱallegoricalȱsense,ȱas
endingȱupȱonȱtheȱlosingȱsideȱofȱtheȱbattleȱofȱfaiths,ȱbutȱasȱthoseȱwhoȱdrinkȱaȱbeast’s
milk,ȱobviouslyȱbeingȱonlyȱhalfȬhumansȱthemselves.ȱ
TheȱquiteȱfrequentȱinclusionȱofȱtheȱSynagogaȱsculptureȱintoȱtheȱrowȱofȱtheȱFoolish
VirginsȱmightȱhaveȱeludedȱinȱitsȱdeeperȱtheologicalȱmeaningsȱtheȱaverageȱbyȬgoer,
yetȱtheyȱwouldȱneverthelessȱgrinȱatȱtheȱFoolishȱVirgins,ȱwithȱtheirȱoftenȱgrotesque
grimacing,ȱandȱthuslyȱatȱSynagogaȱwhoȱstandsȱinȱtheirȱline,ȱmarkedȱasȱfoolish,
lackingȱprudence,ȱandȱthereforeȱbeing,ȱwithȱnoȱoneȱtoȱblameȱbutȱherself.146ȱWith
theȱemergenceȱofȱwhatȱisȱreferredȱtoȱasȱLebendesȱKreuzȱ(‘LivingȱCross’),147ȱaȱtypeȱof
depictionȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱinȱbookȱilluminationsȱandȱwallȱpaintings
fromȱ theȱ fifteenthȱ centuryȱ onwardsȱ inȱ Centralȱ Europe,ȱ Synagogaȱ takesȱ onȱ a
completelyȱdifferentȱshape:ȱblindfoldedȱasȱusual,ȱyetȱnoȱlongerȱbearingȱherself
regallyȱbutȱwithȱattributesȱthatȱareȱmeantȱtoȱevokeȱbothȱlaughterȱandȱdisgustȱinȱthe
spectators:ȱsheȱisȱridingȱanȱassȱorȱ(lessȱoften)ȱaȱgoat,ȱthatȱisȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱalready
143
Theȱdatingȱofȱearlyȱ15thȱcenturyȱ(thuslyȱShachar,ȱJudensau,ȱpl.ȱ28)ȱhasȱbeenȱcorrectedȱbyȱmeansȱof
dendrochronologicalȱexaminationȱcarriedȱoutȱinȱ2002ȱthatȱplacedȱtheȱfellingȱofȱtheȱtreesȱusedȱfor
theȱstallsȱinȱtheȱyearsȱ1329ȱandȱ1364/65,ȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱsecondȱexpansionȱofȱtheȱchoir,ȱseeȱRainer
MüllerȱandȱThomasȱNitz,ȱForschungenȱzumȱDomȱErfurt.ȱDasȱChorgestühlȱdesȱErfurterȱDomes,ȱ2ȱvols.
ArbeitsheftȱdesȱThüringischenȱVereinsȱfürȱDenkmalpflege,ȱN.F.ȱ20.1ȱ(2003;ȱAltenburg:ȱVerlag
Reinhold,ȱ2005).
144
TheȱCathedralȱalsoȱhostsȱaȱ“classical”ȱpairingȱofȱEcclesia/Synagogaȱstatuesȱatȱtheȱjambȱofȱtheȱmain
entranceȱportalȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱTenȱVirgins.
145
Illustration:ȱShachar,ȱJudensau,ȱpl.ȱ28.
146
Scurie,ȱ“EcclesiaȱundȱSynagoge,”ȱ683.
147
Oldȱ butȱ stillȱ essentialȱ isȱ Robertȱ L.ȱ Füglister,ȱ Dasȱ Lebendeȱ Kreuz.ȱ IkonographischȬikonologische
UntersuchungȱderȱHerkunftȱundȱEntwicklungȱeinerȱspätmittelalterlichenȱBildideeȱundȱihrerȱVerwurzelung
imȱWortȱ(Einsiedeln,ȱZurich,ȱandȱCologne:ȱBenzingerȱVerlag,ȱ1964).ȱMostȱofȱtheȱimagesȱshareȱa
quiteȱhomogenousȱsetup:ȱInȱtheȱcenter,ȱthereȱisȱGolgatha,ȱwithȱChristȱonȱtheȱcross,ȱandȱaboveȱthe
joist,ȱGodȱhimselfȱappears—inȱvariousȱshapes—withȱaȱblessingȱgestus.ȱTypicalȱareȱtheȱtwoȱfemale
figuresȱthatȱapproachȱtheȱcross—toȱtheȱleft,ȱthereȱisȱEcclesiaȱwithȱherȱcrown,ȱridingȱaȱtetramorph
thatȱsymbolizesȱtheȱfourȱEvangelists,ȱsheȱcarriesȱtheȱchaliceȱtoȱcollectȱChrist’sȱbloodȱandȱtheȱlance
withȱHisȱsymbol.ȱToȱtheȱrightȱisȱtheȱaboveȱdescribedȱSynagoga,ȱwhoȱisȱsometimesȱpairedȱwithȱEve
whileȱMaryȱstandsȱatȱEcclesia’sȱside.
356 BirgitȱWiedl
dying,ȱsheȱnotȱonlyȱholdsȱonȱtoȱaȱbrokenȱlanceȱbutȱcarriesȱaȱgoat’sȱheadȱwithȱher.
Itȱisȱquiteȱevidentȱthatȱherȱownȱpostureȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱsituationȱsheȱisȱinȱisȱdesigned
notȱonlyȱtoȱdegradeȱbutȱdecry,ȱbutȱtheȱmostȱstriking—andȱtelling—differenceȱisȱthe
swordȱthatȱcomesȱthrustingȱdownȱfromȱtheȱjoist:ȱtheȱoldȱstatuesȱofȱStrasbourgȱand
BambergȱmightȱhaveȱshownȱaȱSynagogaȱthatȱhadȱbeenȱdefeated,ȱthatȱwasȱblindȱand
submissivelyȱloweringȱherȱhead,ȱyetȱaȱSynagogaȱthatȱwasȱstillȱalive,ȱwhereasȱinȱthe
Livingȱ Crossȱ theȱ distinctiveȱ featureȱ isȱ thatȱ sheȱ isȱ beingȱ killed,ȱ piercedȱ byȱ the
sword.148ȱLikeȱtheȱJudensau,ȱtheȱSynagogaȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱLivingȱCrossȱisȱa
figureȱthatȱisȱtoȱbeȱlaughedȱat—moreȱonȱtheȱpathetic,ȱevenȱdeplorableȱsideȱthanȱthe
Judensau,ȱyetȱtheȱmethaphoricalȱlanguageȱshowsȱmanyȱparallels:ȱtheȱusageȱofȱfilthy
animals—swine,ȱgoat,ȱass—andȱtheȱcloseȱconnectionȱthatȱisȱestablishedȱbetween
theȱSynagoga/Jewsȱandȱthoseȱsoiledȱcreatures,ȱtheȱridingȱwithȱone’sȱbackȱtoȱthe
animal’sȱ headȱ (althoughȱ seldomlyȱ usedȱ inȱ theȱ Livingȱ Cross),ȱ andȱ theȱ general
exclusionȱfromȱtheȱhumanȱworld.
TheȱquestionȱremainsȱhowȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtheȱremainingȱJudensäueȱthatȱareȱstill
presentȱinȬȱandȱoutsideȱmedievalȱandȱearlyȱmodernȱbuildings.ȱSomeȱhaveȱbeen
removedȱinȱearlierȱtimes,ȱlikeȱtheȱoneȱatȱtheȱTownȱHallȱofȱSalzburgȱwhichȱwas
takenȱdownȱbyȱcommandȱofȱtheȱArchbishopȱinȱ1785,ȱorȱhaveȱweatheredȱaway,ȱlike
theȱbarelyȱrecognisableȱsculptureȱatȱtheȱparishȱchurchȱofȱBayreuth.ȱSomeȱhave
beenȱremovedȱ‘byȱaccident,’ȱlikeȱtheȱFrankfurtȱJudensauȱthatȱwas,ȱdespiteȱtheȱpleas
ofȱtheȱJewishȱcommunityȱofȱFrankfurtȱfromȱasȱearlyȱasȱ1609ȱonwards,149ȱtornȱdown
alongȱwithȱtheȱBrückenturmȱinȱ1801,ȱalbeitȱsurvivingȱinȱitsȱmanifoldȱversionsȱon
broadsheetsȱandȱpamphlets.ȱ
Duringȱtheȱlastȱdecades,ȱsomeȱhaveȱbeenȱtakenȱdown,ȱlikeȱtheȱonesȱinȱWiener
NeustadtȱandȱBadȱWimpfenȱthatȱareȱnowȱonȱdisplayȱinȱtheȱrespectiveȱmunicipal
museums.ȱUpȱuntilȱtoday,ȱthough,ȱmanyȱsculpturesȱstillȱareȱwhereȱtheyȱhadȱbeen
placedȱcenturiesȱago,ȱinȱplainȱsight.ȱAtȱsomeȱplaces,ȱplaquesȱhaveȱbeenȱattached
toȱ orȱ inȱ closeȱ vicinityȱ ofȱ theȱ respectiveȱ Judensau,ȱ explainingȱ theȱ meaningȱ and
historicalȱcontextȱofȱtheȱsculpture,ȱalbeitȱinȱvaryingȱdegreesȱofȱdistancing:ȱwhile
theȱ Wittenbergȱ (mountedȱ 1988)ȱ andȱ Bayreuthȱ (2005)ȱ pointȱ toȱ guiltȱ and
responsibilityȱofȱtheȱchurch,ȱtheȱplaqueȱatȱRegensburgȱ(2005)ȱmerelyȱspeaksȱofȱ‘a
documentȱthatȱisȱtoȱbeȱseenȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱitsȱtime,ȱandȱwillȱseemȱstrangeȱtoȱus
today.’ȱInȱNuremberg,ȱforȱinstance,ȱaȱrecentȱcommentȱonȱtheȱchurch’sȱwebsite
(www.sebalduskirche.de,ȱ 2005)ȱ andȱ aȱ flyerȱ thatȱ isȱ beingȱ distributedȱ insideȱ the
148
Aȱparticularlyȱimpressiveȱexampleȱ(altoughȱnotȱtheȱonlyȱone)ȱisȱtheȱMinsterȱofȱFreiburgȱthatȱhas
bothȱaȱpairingȱofȱEcclesiaȱandȱSynagogaȱsculpturesȱandȱ(asȱstainedȬglassȱwindows)ȱaȱLivingȱCross,
fromȱtheȱthirteenthȱandȱsixteenthȱcenturies,ȱrespectively,ȱseeȱHeikeȱMittmann,ȱDieȱGlasfensterȱdes
FreiburgerȱMünsters.ȱGroßerȱKunstführerȱSchnellȱ&ȱSteiner,ȱ219ȱ(Regensburg:ȱSchnellȱ&ȱSteiner,
2005).
149
PoȬChiaȱHsia,ȱTheȱMythȱofȱRitualȱMurder,ȱ210–11.
churchȱ bearȱ bothȱ explanationȱ andȱ apology;ȱ andȱ artistsȱ likeȱ Wolframȱ Kastner
(www.christlicheȬsauerei.de)ȱhaveȱalertedȱbothȱauthoritiesȱandȱgeneralȱpublicȱto
theȱproblem,ȱdrawingȱbothȱpositiveȱandȱnegativeȱreactions,ȱandȱevenȱtheȱGerman
PigȱMuseumȱ(www.deutschesȬschweinemuseum.de)ȱhasȱdevotedȱaȱsmallȱpartȱof
itsȱ2004ȱexhibitionȱtoȱtheȱJudensau.ȱ
Manyȱ sculptures,ȱ however,ȱ stillȱ remainȱ uncommented,ȱ continuingȱ toȱ stand
amidstȱ otherȱ testamentsȱ ofȱ medievalȱ humor,ȱ yetȱ bothȱ theirȱ existenceȱ andȱ the
negligent,ȱevenȱindifferentȱhandlingȱofȱthatȱfactȱareȱindeedȱnoȱmatterȱtoȱlaugh
about.

358 BirgitȱWiedl
Figureȱ1:ȱBamberg,ȱcloisterȱofȱtheȱCarmeliteȱmonastery:ȱcorbelȱwithȱaȱJewȬbeast
hybrid,ȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱ(photo:ȱ@BirgitȱWiedl)

Figureȱ2:ȱRegensburgȱCathedral,ȱsculptureȱofȱaȱJudensauȱonȱaȱbuttressȱonȱthe
southȱwallȱofȱtheȱCathedral,ȱaroundȱ1330ȱ(fromȱwikipedia.de,ȱpublicȱdomain)

360 BirgitȱWiedl
Figureȱ3:ȱBroadsheetȱshowingȱtheȱWittenbergȱJudensau,ȱWolfgangȱMeissnerȱ
1596.ȱTheȱrenditionȱfeaturesȱtheȱcommonȱadditionȱofȱaȱsecond,ȱsmallerȱJudensau
toȱtheȱleft,ȱwhileȱtheȱsucklingȱJewsȱhaveȱbadgesȱonȱtheirȱbacksȱ(from
wikipedia.de,ȱpublicȱdomain)

Figureȱ4:ȱEntryȱtoȱtheȱaccountȱbookȱofȱtheȱSalzburgȱMayorȱHansȱGlavenberger,
1487,ȱbillingȱtheȱcostsȱforȱtheȱJudensauȱonȱtheȱtowerȱofȱtheȱtownȱhallȱ(Municipal
ArchivesȱofȱSalzburg,ȱBUȱ264)

362 BirgitȱWiedl
Figureȱ5:ȱJudensau.ȱWoodcut,ȱGermany,ȱfromȱaȱfifteenthȬcenturyȱblockȱ(first
printedȱinȱ1472)ȱ(fromȱwikipedia.de,ȱpublicȱdomain)

Figureȱ6:ȱNuremberg,ȱStȱSebaldus,ȱsculptureȱofȱaȱJudensauȱonȱaȱbuttressȱatȱthe
eastȱchoir,ȱaroundȱ1380ȱ(BildarchivȱHansȬChristophȱDittscheid)

364 BirgitȱWiedl
Figureȱ7:ȱEighteenthȬcenturyȱbroadsheetȱshowingȱtheȱFrankfurtȱJudensau,ȱwith
theȱtypicalȱadditionsȱofȱSimonȱofȱTrentȱaboveȱtheȱJudensau,ȱandȱaȱwomanȱwithȱa
heȬgoat,ȱaȱhornedȱdevil,ȱandȱtheȱOldȱBridgeȱTowerȱasȱbackground.ȱTheȱline
aboveȱtheȱJudensauȱreads:ȱ“AuȱweyhȱRabbȱAnschȱauȱauȱmauschiȱauȱweyhȱau
au”ȱandȱisȱinȱmanyȱrenditionsȱfollowedȱbyȱtheȱ‘invitation’ȱtoȱ‘guzzleȱdownȱthe
milkȱandȱdevourȱtheȱfilth’ȱ(fromȱwikipedia.de,ȱpublicȱdomain)

Wiedl, B., Laughing at The Beast. The Judensau, Anti-Jewish Propaganda and Humor ,,, REICH, BILD, GEWALT, JEW USW

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Laughter in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times

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Epistemology of a Fundamental Human Behavior,

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Laughter in the Middle Ages and early modern times : epistemology

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derȱ Havelȱ (northeasternȱ Germany,ȱ betweenȱ Magdeburgȱ andȱ Berlin),ȱ whereȱ it

Papsteselȱ (‘PopeȬdonkey’)ȱ andȱ theȱ Mönchskalbȱ (‘monkȬcalf’),ȱ twoȱ ‘onlyȱ recently

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