Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103802

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

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Experimental characterization of an ammonia – water – hydrogen

diffusion absorption refrigeration system
Abdullah Abuhabaya, Mohamed Rady *, Mohanad Aljahdli, Eydhah Almatrafi,
Faisal Al Batati, Alaa Attar
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering at Rabigh, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia

H I G H L I G H T S

• Experimental investigation of the H2O-NH3-H2 diffusion absorption refrigeration system.

• Experiments are carried out for different values of thermal power input to the generator and imposed evaporator load.
• Unit performance is characterised by the cooling capacity and the cooling achieved below ambient temperature.
• Performance maps useful for the design and integration of DAR system with low temperature energy sources are developed.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling editor: Huihe Qiu A diffusion absorption refrigerator (DAR) is a heat powered refrigeration system. It uses the
Keywords:
ammonia-water mixture as a working fluid in addition to an auxiliary inert gas. In the present
Diffusion absorption refrigeration work, experimental investigation and dynamic analysis of the H2O-NH3-H2 diffusion absorption
Performance map refrigeration system have been carried out using different values of thermal power input to the
Experimental generator and evaporator load. Experimental results show that the temperature evolution of
Ammonia-water-hydrogen system components, transient response, amount of cooling below ambient, and coefficient of
performance are significantly sensitive to the values of generator power input and evaporator
load. Analysis of DAR system behavior for different start up conditions is used to estimate the time
and energy required for the initiation of cooling effect. Steady-state experimental results obtained
over a wide range of generator input power and evaporator load are used to characterize the unit
performance. Performance maps useful for the design and integration of DAR systems with low-
temperature energy sources are developed. These maps can be used to estimate the generator
input power required for a given cooling load at a specified value of cooling temperature below
ambient.

1. Introduction
The increase in heating and cooling demands driven by extreme weather conditions increased global CO2 emissions. According to
IEA recent reports [1], CO2 emissions reached a new high of over 36.8 Gt in 2022. In 2022, CO2 emissions increased by 321 Mt, two
thirds of which came from additional cooling needs. The global reduction of CO2 emissions can be greatly supported using sustainable
cooling systems that utilize alternative renewable energy sources or waste heat recovery.
In contrast to conventional vapor compression systems, which uses electricity as the main energy source, absorption refrigeration

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: maradhi@kau.edu.sa (M. Rady).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2023.103802
Received 14 September 2023; Received in revised form 11 November 2023; Accepted 20 November 2023
Available online 22 November 2023
2214-157X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Abuhabaya et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103802

systems are heat driven. In early 1928, Von Platen [2] originally proposed the Diffusion Absorption Refrigeration Cycle (DAR), which
uses a binary mixture of ammonia and water with an extra inert gas, such as hydrogen or helium. Ammonia acts as the refrigerant, and
water acts as the absorbent solution. The fluid in the DAR cycle is circulated using a heat-powered bubble pump generator (BPG). The
addition of the inert gas at the evaporator inlet causes the ammonia liquid refrigerant to expand. Ammonia liquid starts to evaporate at
low temperature and take over the cooling load imposed at the evaporator.
Studies investigating into using waste heat and solar energy to power the DAR system have considered different working fluids
[3–5] and bubble pump generator designs [6]. Chien et al. [7] tested an absorption refrigerator driven by an electric heater using solar
cells. The experiments were carried out for solar irradiance from 550 to 700 W/m2. A water tank of 500 ml capacity initially at the
ambient temperature was used as cooling load. After 160 min of operation, the temperature of water tank reached 5–8 ◦ C and the
coefficient of performance (COP) was about 0.25. Freeman et al. [8] numerically examined the performance of a solar-driven DAR
refrigeration cycle on a sunny day. Solar collectors with heat pipes were used to drive the bubble pump generator. The results show an
increase in solar collector efficiency with the decrease of DAR system pressure. However, the cooling power was observed to decrease
with the decrease in system pressure. Selection of the optimum DAR system pressure is dependent on the weather conditions.
The effectiveness of a DAR system powered by a solar parabolic reflector with an evacuated tube was experimentally studied by
ÖZBAŞ [9]. Two types of systems with/without subcooling using ammonia-water-helium were tested on a sunny day. The COP values
for the two systems were reported as 0.2362 and 0.2254 for the cases with and without sub-cooling, respectively. Arputham and K.
Victor [10] reported a COP value of 0.14–0.18 using a photovoltaic system to drive a DAR system for water cooling. Using a solar
simulator and outdoor experiments on a demonstration plant for a solar-driven DAR system, Fabian Schmid et al. [11] demonstrate
that the process’s overall maximum efficiency, calculated as the ratio of produced cooling capacity to the incident solar radiation,
reaches a value of 11.4%. An experimental investigation of a DAR system powered by an electrical heater and engine exhaust gas has
been reported in [12,13]. The results reveals that the two energy sources have different warm-up/start-up durations and maximum
temperatures attained. The maximum COP value obtained was only around 0.05. This was explained because of an improper design of
the DAR system to operate with heat supplied from engine exhaust gases.
The previous research work on testing of DAR systems driven by solar energy were limited to the evaluation of delivered cooling of
DAR system in a single sunny day without the utilization of proper control system for the integrated system. The dynamic behaviour of
the DAR system with intermittent or time-varying heat sources from solar radiation or cooling load was not considered. The DAR
system characteristics were not evaluated for optimization of its integration with the solar system. The conditions of start-up of the
system and design steady-state characteristics are essential for successful integration.
A minimum generator temperature is needed to initiate the evaporation and bubbles generation in the BPG. Nucleate boiling is
initially established in the generator. With continuous heating, transition from nucleate to slug flow or churn flow takes place and
starts to push the liquid along the entire length of the BPG. According to Mazouz et al. [14] and Ben Jemaa et al. [15], the start-up
characteristics of DAR systems vary greatly with the rate of heat input. The conditions under which slug flow or churn flow re­
gimes dominate bubble pump processes have been studied by Shelton and White [16]. Experimental transient laboratory tests show
that the geometry of the system and the minimum value of input heat power that is needed to initiate the operation of BPG are
important parameters that significantly affect the DAR unit performance and the measured values of coefficient of performance [17,
18].
Parametric investigations of the dynamic response and steady characteristics of the DAR unit for different values of cooling load
and input power have received little research attention. Few studies have been reported on the development of dynamic models for the
transient behaviour of DAR systems. A black-box model based on the first-order system transfer function with a time delay is developed
for a single compartment mini bar refrigerator [19,20]. The cooling capacity and generator power were only considered as the system
output and input. The effects of cooling load variation were not considered. Najjaran et al. [21] calculated the generator thermal
capacitance by tracking the temperature change of the generator over time in response to a sudden change in heat input to the
generator. The thermal capacitance of the generator is included in a thermodynamic model to predict the dynamic performance of a
solar-powered DAR system under conditions of changing solar irradiation.
An important issue in dynamic testing and modelling of DAR units is related to methodology of cooling load implementation or
estimation during experiments. In the previous studies, different approaches have been implemented to measure the delivered cooling
of the DAR unit. In Refs. [19,20], The cooling compartment’s temperature and the surrounding temperature were measured over time.
The delivered cooling was estimated by calculating the rate of heat transfer from the compartment to the ambient. Najjaran et al. [22,
23] used an insulated box around the evaporator. The air temperature inside the box was maintained using an electric fan heater. The
cooling capacity of the DAR unit was calculated by measuring the electric power consumed by the fan heater. Choi et al. [24,25] used
constant nitrogen flow in a cylindrical heat exchanger made of acrylic installed around the evaporator tube. The cooling rate was
measured by calculating the heat transfer from the nitrogen using the measured values of nitrogen mass flow rate and temperature
difference.
In the above-mentioned methods, the measured cooling is the cooling delivered by the DAR unit as a function of its input power.
The ratio of the heat input to the generator to the cooling output given in the evaporator is used to calculate the DAR system coefficient
of performance. The attained value of evaporator temperature was not considered in the analysis. In actual practice, the designer
searches to investigate the performance of the DAR unit at different values of imposed load conditions. The results may be totally
different as it includes the interaction between load and unit input power and their effects on the obtained cooling temperature.
The above review shows that, there is still potential pathways for substantial efficiency gains and performance improvement of
DAR systems using solar and low-temperature sustainable energy sources. Understanding the operation of the system is an important
step for optimization and control of the system. The system performance can be increased by proper selection of solar system and DAR

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components size. Another important issue is related to the prediction of DAR system performance when integrated with solar energy
which arises due to the intermittent nature of solar radiation. This represents a variable heat power input to the DAR unit. Also, in
actual practice, the evaporator load is time variant. Therefore, understanding and modelling of DAR system operation under part load/
off-design conditions require further investigation. There is a need for an improved dynamic model that can simulate the operation of
DAR system at part load and off-design conditions. Successful development of this model requires a careful analysis of the transient as
well as steady-state physical phenomena occurring in different system components. The difficulty arises due to the passive nature of
the operation of the DAR system, the coupling between different components of the system, and the sensitivity of the flow rate of
solution, refrigerant, and hydrogen to the operating conditions.
The aim of the present paper is to investigate experimentally the performance of a heat-powered diffusion absorption refrigerator
(DAR). The present experimental analysis is utilized to develop DAR system performance characteristics that is essential for its
integration with various solar thermal systems. In particular, experiments are conducted under different system start-up conditions,
different values of thermal power input to the generator, and imposed evaporator load. The temperature of the generator, condenser,
absorber, and evaporator is measured at both the inlet and the outlet. Steady-state experimental results obtained over a wide range of
generator input power and evaporator load are used to characterize the unit performance. Performance maps useful for the design and
integration of DAR systems with low-temperature energy sources are developed. The present results and developed performance maps
shall be helpful as effective tools for analysis and optimization of solar integrated DAR systems. These maps can be used to estimate the
required generator power for a given cooling load at a specified value for cooling temperature below ambient.

2. DAR cycle physics

Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the DAR cycle function diagram. The working fluid for the diffusion-absorption cycle is ammonia,
water, and hydrogen. Water serves as the absorbent, ammonia serves as the refrigerant, and hydrogen serves as a capping gas to
maintain pressure balance throughout the cycle. The cycle is composed of a boiler with a vacuum bubble pump that acts as a generator.
In addition to the condenser, evaporator, absorber, liquid heat exchanger SHX, storage tank, and gas heat exchanger GHX. The storage
tank’s ammonia-water solution is made up of 65% water and 35% ammonia. As shown in Fig. 1, three flow circuits can be distin­
guished, including the ammonia flow circuit, the water circuit, and the hydrogen circuit.
The cycle operates under Dalton’s law principle. The system pressure consists of the sum of the partial pressures of hydrogen and
working fluid. The partial pressure of ammonia and hydrogen varies throughout the cycle. Except for minor hydrostatic and viscous
effects, the addition of hydrogen keeps the system pressure constant throughout the entire apparatus. In the present cycle, the total
pressure is kept constant at 25 bar by adjusting the charge of the auxiliary gas.
The P-T-X diagram in Fig. 2 can be used to represent the processes of the entire cycle. The graphs of the vapor pressure (P) versus
the saturation temperature (T) in this diagram are nearly straight lines for the constant mass fraction (x). Rectification, condensation,
and subcooling of ammonia (1–2) takes place in the air-cooled heat exchanger, expansion (2–3) is induced by introduction of hydrogen
at the inlet of the evaporator, evaporation (3–4), gas heat exchanger GHX (4–6), solution heat exchanger (6–7, 1–5). Ammonia
refrigerant is produced from the solution by the heat input delivered to the boiler (7–1). The vapor, which is mostly made up of the
ammonia refrigerant rises inside the bubble pump due to buoyancy effect and flows through the inclined rectifier before entering the

Fig. 1. DAR cycle function diagram.

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Fig. 2. Representation of the DAR cycle on the P-T-X diagram.

condenser where water vapor condenses and return to bubble pump to join the weak solution moving down to the absorber. The
ammonia gas passes to the condenser and dissipates heat to the surrounding air. The first drop of condensate occurs when the tem­
perature reaches a value of 58 ◦ C that is equivalent to the saturation temperature of pure NH3 at 25 bar. It should be mentioned that the
ammonia liquid at the condenser exit may contain tiny amounts of water. In the present DAR system design shown in Fig. 1, any water
droplets entering the evaporator ultimately return to the absorber by gravity to mix with the solution. The representation of the DAR
cycle on the P-T-X diagram shown in Fig. 2 assumes that the pure ammonia liquid, point 2 in the figure, exits the condenser, and enters
the evaporator. The liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator by gravity. Hydrogen gas is expelled from the absorber and rises to the top
through the GHX to enter the evaporator. At the inlet of the evaporator, hydrogen occupies a large amount of the evaporator. As a
result, the vapor pressure of the refrigerant and its temperature rapidly decrease as the liquid refrigerant gets into the evaporator (2–3).
The cycle’s lowest temperature is at the evaporator inlet and corresponds to the refrigerant’s saturation temperature at the vapor
pressure. This value is not constant and varies with operating conditions. Evaporation occurs continuously along the evaporator by
exchanging heat with the evaporator load. The continuous evaporation of ammonia in the evaporator is accompanied by slow increase
of its partial pressure and evaporation temperature (3–4). The cold mixture of ammonia and hydrogen gases passes through the GHX
and cools the hot gases rising from the absorber (4–5). After the GHX, the evaporated refrigerant makes its way down toward the
reservoir. In SHX, the strong solution (with a high concentration of refrigerant) is heated by heat transfer from the weak hot solution
(6–7). The weak solution is separated from the refrigerant at the top and travels down through the bubble pump (1–5). In the absorber,
the weak solution enters at the top of the refrigerant in a counterflow with the rising mixed gas of the refrigerant and hydrogen.
Following the completion of absorption, the weak solution recovers its concentration and becomes a strong solution (5-6). After heat
exchange with the weak solution at the SHX, a strong solution is again sent to the generator (6–7).

3. Thermodynamic analysis
In general, the performance of DAR unit is determined by its ability to generate a sufficient refrigerant flow rate to take over the
cooling load in the evaporator by using the heat input to the generator. The ratio of the mass flow rate of the refrigerant vapor (ṁR ) to
that of the strong solution leaving the absorber and entering the generator (ṁg ) is known as the generator circulation ratio (fGR ).
ṁR
fGR = (1)
ṁg

Refrigerant is produced at a higher rate per unit mass flow rate of the strong solution when the generator circulation ratio is larger.
The partial pressure of refrigerant at the evaporator inlet (PR) regulates the temperature of the refrigerant there. The value of PR is
determined using Eq. (2).

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ṅR ṁR /MR 1

PR = Ptotal = Ptotal = ( ) ( ) Ptotal (2)
ṅR + ṅH ṁR /MR + ṁH /MH ṁH
1 + ṁR . MMHR

where Ptotal is the total system pressure, ṅRṅ+RṅH represents the mole fraction of the refrigerant. The molar flow rate for refrigernat and
hydrogen (ṅR , ṅH ) are calacuted using the mass flow rate and the molar mass, ṅ = ṁ/M. An additional significant circulation ratio is
introduced in this study. The mass flow rate of hydrogen leaving the absorber top and entering the evaporator to the refrigerant flow
entering the evaporator is represented by the evaporator circulation ratio (fHR).
ṁH
fHR = (3)
ṁR
Substituting Eq. (2), the evaporator circulation ratio fHR is calculated using Eq. (4).
[ ]
ṁH Ptotal MH
fHR = = − 1 (4)
ṁR PR MR
An increase in the value of fHR indicates a high flow rate of hydrogen produced in the absorber, which leads to a decrease in the
temperature and partial pressure of refrigerant at the evaporator’s inlet.
The values of fHR and fGR vary during the transient peroid of the DAR unit operation. However, an estimate of the values of fHR and
fGR at steady-state can be obtained by performing mass balance, ammonia balance, and energy balance for the generator and evap­
orator. The mass and energy conservations for the generator and evaporator are presented using Eqs. (5)–(8).
Generator:
ṁG − ṁR − ṁW = o (5)

ṁG XG − ṁR XR − ṁW XW = o (6)

Q̇gen = ṁR hR1 + ṁW hW1 − ṁG hG7 (7)

where G, R, and W refer to generator inlet strong solution, refrigerant ammonia vapor outlet from the generator, and weak solution
returning back from the generator to the absorber. The subscripts 1 and 7 relate to the locations indicated in Fig. 1.
Evaporator:

Q̇evap = (ṁR hR4 − ṁR hR3 ) + (ṁH hH4 − ṁH hH3 ) (8)

where the subscript H refers to Hydrogen. The EES software, which contains the thermodynamic properties for various fluids and
refrigerants, has been used to solve the above equations [26]. The measured values of temperature at the inlet and outlet of each

Fig. 3. DAR unit general view with main components and measuring points.

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component, generator power, and evaporator load are used as input values for claculations.

4. Experimental set-up
Fig. 3 depicts the experimental setup used in this study. Electric heaters with variable output are used to regulate the thermal
energy input to the generator and evaporator. The generator and evaporator are well insulated. Temperature measurements at
different points of the cycle indicated in Fig. 3 are conducted using type K thermocouples with an accuracy of ±0.5 ◦ C. The ther­
mocouples are fixed to the tube’s exterior with thermal paste, covered by a thin metal strip, and fastened with a plastic clamp. The
EXTECH SDL200 temperature data logger is used with a resolution of 0.1 ◦ C. The temperature readings are taken at regular time
intervals of 5 s, and the data are recorded on a flash memory card and then transferred to the PC. Power meters are used to measure the
generator input power (Q̇gen ) and the evaporator load (Q̇evap ) with an accuracy of ±0.1 W. The maximum uncertainty in measuring
(δ ) (δ )
Q̇evap is estimated as Q̇ evap = ±2% for an evaporator load of 5 W. The maximum uncertainty in measuring Q̇gen is Q̇ gen = ± 0.16% for
Q̇ Q̇

evap gen

a generator power input of 60 W. The input power value is set using a potentiometer. The COP is calculated using Eq. (9) as the ratio
between the evaporator load (Q̇evap ) and the generator input power (Q̇gen ).

Q̇evap
COP = (9)
Q̇gen

The uncertainty in estimating the value of COP is obtained using Eq. (10).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) ( )̅
δCOP δQ̇evap 2 δQ̇gen 2
UCOP = = + (10)
COP Q̇evap Q̇gen

The calculated value of UCOP ranges between a minimum of ± 0.3% at Q̇evap = 35 W, Q̇gen = 110 W and a maximum of ± 2% at Q̇evap
= 5 W, Q̇gen = 60 W.
A summary of the experiments conducted on the DAR unit is presented in Table 1. All the experiments have been conducted while
keeping the test unit inside an air-conditioned room with a controlled thermostat set point of 25 ◦ C. The variation of ambient tem­
perature during the experiments is recorded at regular time intervals of 5 s. All the calculations employ the actual measured value of
ambient temperature which varies along 25 ± 2 ◦ C. The experimental design considers the variation of start-up conditions of the unit
(loaded and unloaded evaporator), the value of evaporator load, and generator power input. During each experiment, the temperature
at measurement points is recorded using a 5 s sampling rate. In experiments A, B, and C, the startup evaporator load is set to zero, and
the effect of generator power input is studied for three different values of 109 W, 81 W, and 60.4 W. After attaining a steady-state
indicated by the stable temperature of the evaporator, a step rise in the evaporator load is implemented. For example, in experi­
ment A, a step rise in the evaporator load from zero to 5.5 W is implemented, and when the system reaches steady-state, another step
rise to 10.6 W is applied, and so on. In experiments sets D, E, F the startup evaporator load has values of 5.1 W, 10.2 W, and 15.0 W,
respectively. Similarly, after reaching a steady-state, a step rise in the evaporator load is implemented. In experiment set G, the
evaporator load is fixed at its start-up value of 5.5 W, and the effect of step variation in the generator power input is implemented.

5. Results and discussion

As mentioned above, the experimental design considers the variation of startup conditions of the unit (loaded and unloaded
evaporator) for various values of imposed evaporator load and generator power input. In the following sections, the behavior of DAR
system is first discussed at different start-up conditions. The steady-state experimental results for different conditions of evaporator
loading and generator power input for all experiments are then used to understand the steady-state characteristics and develop a
performance map for the DAR system. Detailed analysis and dynamic modeling of the transient behavior of the DAR system shall be
reported in a separate article.

5.1. DAR system behavior for different start-up conditions

Fig. 4 shows the variation of temperature at different points of the unit with time for experiment A. In experiment A, the evaporator
is unloaded at start-up and a step rise in generator input power is applied from zero to 109 W. It can be observed that there is a time

Table 1
Experiments using different start-up conditions, evaporator load, and generator power input.

Experiment Set Generator Input Power (W) Start-up Evaporator Load (W) Change of Evaporator Load (W)

A 109.0 0 5.5, 10.6, 15.1, 19.6

B 81.0 0 5.3, 10.6, 15.5, 20.9
C 60.4 0 5.2, 10.4, 15.6, 20.3
D 103.0 5.1 10.3, 16.1, 19.5, 25.6
E 102.6 10.2 15.8, 19.5, 25.2, 30.6
F 100.0 15.0 20, 25, 30, 35
G 100, 80, 60 5.5 No Change (constant load)

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delay in the response of different system components. The change in temperature first starts at the boiler inlet after 125 s, followed by
the boiler outlet temperature, after 490 s, and then the condenser outlet after about 1000 s. The temperature of the solution entering
the boiler, absorber, and evaporator all start to change at about 1500 s. Two points are marked on the figure that deserve attention. The
blue labeled point indicates the initiation of flow rate in the bubble pump, as manifested by an increase in the generator outlet
temperature as compared to its inlet value. Also, at this point, the condenser outlet temperature starts to increase above the ambient
temperature. The initiation of cooling is labeled by the red point and marked by a simultaneous decrease in the evaporator temperature
and an increase in the absorber temperature. The bubble pump flow and refrigerant flow continue to increase with time accompanied
by a decrease in evaporator temperature and condenser outlet temperature, until reaching a steady-state after about 7000 s from start-
up. The evaporator inlet and outlet temperatures reach values of − 25 ◦ C, − 20 ◦ C, respectively.
The temperature variations at the inlet and exit of the condenser and evaporator shown in Fig. 4 show that, after generator flow
initiation, the temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of the condenser increases with time until it reaches its steady-state
value. On the contrary, after evaporator flow initiation, the temperature difference between evaporator outlet and outlet decreases
with time. Considering the energy balance of the condenser and evaporator, this shows that the value of the generator circulation ratio
(fGR) is higher at the beginning of generator flow, manifested by the small difference between inlet and outlet temperatures, and
ultimately deceases to its steady-state value. On the other hand, the value of the evaporator circulation ratio (fHR) is small at the
beginning and increases with time until reaching a steady-state. The evaporator flow ratio is strongly dependent on the evaporator load
and controls the cooling achieved below ambient. The DAR system’s cooling capacity is controlled by the generator circulation ratio.
The temperature variation with time for a 5 W evaporator load at start-up is shown in Fig. 5 for experiment D, during which the
generator input power is 103 W. Points indicating the initiation of bubble pump flow and refrigerant flow in the evaporator are also
marked on the figure. As compared to the case of no load at start-up, the behavior of the unit changes in response to the evaporator load
at start-up. The evaporator temperature initially increases above the ambient value and starts to decrease only when the flow is first
started in the bubble pump, and then followed by the initiation of flow in the evaporator.
Analysis of the experimental results shows that the times of initiation of bubble pump flow and evaporator cooling significantly
decrease with the increase in generator input power. The initiation times of bubble pump flow and evaporator cooling are (1310, 1620,
2400 s) and (1570, 1920, 3525 s) for generator input power of (100, 80, 60 W), respectively. The effect of the evaporator load on the
bubble pump flow and evaporator cooling initiation is marginal. For a generator power input of about 100 W, the initiation times of
bubble pump flow and evaporator cooling are (1190, 1300, 1165 s) and (1595, 1555, 1500 s) for evaporator load of (5, 10, 15 W),
respectively. The importance of these data is related to the calculation of the required generator input energy for the initiation of
cooling. The input energy for initiation of cooling is estimated as 168, 152, 210 kJ for generator power inputs of 100, 80, 60 W,
respectively. This is an important parameter to consider for DAR unit integration with solar systems.
Fig. 6 shows the effects of a step change in evaporator load on the components’ inlet and outlet temperatures for a generator input
power of 109 W, corresponding to experiment A. A step rise in the evaporator load from zero to 5.5 W is implemented, and when the
system reaches steady-state, another step rise to 10.6 W is applied, and so on. It can be observed that, upon a step change in evaporator
load, the evaporator inlet and outlet temperatures increase with time. The change in condenser and generator temperatures is mar­
ginal. As compared to start-up response time, the response time of the DAR unit to the step change in evaporator load is relatively
small.

5.2. DAR system steady-state characteristics

The steady-state results for different conditions of evaporator loading and generator power input for all experiments indicated in

Fig. 4. Variation of components inlet and outlet temperatures with time during experiment A, generator input power 109 W, no load on the evaporator.

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Fig. 5. Variation of components inlet and outlet temperatures with time for experiment D, generator input power 102 W, 5.1 W load on the evaporator.

Fig. 6. Variation of components inlet and outlet temperatures with time during experiment A, generator input power 109 W and no load on the evaporator, effects of
step rise in evaporator load.

Table 1 are collected and analyzed to characterize the steady-state performance of the DAR system. Fig. 7 shows the DAR steady-state
temperature of the absorber, generator inlet, and generator outlet for different values of evaporator load and generator input power. It
can be observed that, for the range of generator power input from 60 to 109 W, the change in the values of the absorber and generator
inlet temperature with the generator input power is relatively small and ranges from 30 to 36 ◦ C and 102–107 ◦ C, respectively. The
change in generator outlet temperature with power input is relatively higher and ranges between 125 and 153 ◦ C. The values of the
temperature of the absorber and generator slightly increase with the increase in evaporator load.
Fig. 8 shows steady-state values of generator circulation ratio fGR and evaporator circulation ratio fHR for different values of
evaporator load and generator input power. It can be observed that the values of refrigerant flow rate and generator circulation ratio
(ṁR and fGR) increase, as expected, with the increase of evaporator load and slightly decrease with the increase of generator input
power. The slight reduction of fGR with the increase in generator input power is attributed to the increase in exit temperature from the
generator with the increase in generator power; see Fig. 7. This represents an increase in the heat energy of the refrigerant inlet to the
condenser, which ultimately affects the evaporation performance [23,27]. Also, the increase in generator temperature results in a
decrease in the concentration of strong solution and, consequently, a decrease in the amount of regenerated refrigerant. The increase in

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Fig. 7. DAR steady-state components temperature for different values of evaporator load and generator input power.

Fig. 8. DAR steady-state values of generator circulation ratio fGR and evaporator circulation ratio fHR for different values of evaporator load and generator
input power.

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the values of ṁR and fGR indicates an increase in the cooling capacity. The variation of evaporator circulation ratio fHR with evaporator
load and generator power is remarkable. The value of evaporator circulation ratio fHR decreases with the decrease in generator power
and increase of evaporator load. As shown in Eq. (4), the evaporator inlet temperature is an important input parameter required for the
calculation of f HR. High values of fHR correspond to high attained values of cooling below ambient by operation at low values of
evaporator temperature.
The evaluation of cooling capacity and performance coefficient was the focus of earlier studies for the analysis of steady-state
performance of DAR systems. The amount of cooling below ambient temperature, which is assessed here by measuring the temper­
ature difference between ambient temperature and average evaporator temperature, is an important parameter that needs to be
studied.
In Fig. 9, the steady-state results of experiments A, D, E, F in which the generator input power ranges between 100 and 109 W, are
plotted for different values of evaporator load. The coefficient of performance increases linearly with the evaporator load and reaches
0.25 at an evaporator load of 25 W with an average evaporator temperature of about 13.3 ◦ C, which is equivalent to about 12.7 ◦ C
cooling below the ambient. An average evaporator temperature of − 20 ◦ C, which represents about 45 ◦ C of cooling below ambient
temperature, can be achieved at low values of evaporator load of 5 W. In view of the variation of generator and evaporator circulation
ratios shown in Fig. 8, the results of Fig. 9 confirm the increase of the DAR system coefficient of performance with the increase of fGR
and decrease of fHR. However, the degree of cooling below ambient temperature increases with the increase of fHR.
Fig. 10 shows the variation of the steady-state value of COP, cooling below ambient, and average evaporator temperature with the
value of the evaporator load at a constant value of 60 W of generator input power. It can be observed that the use of low values of input
power to the generator increases the value of COP at the expense of an increase of evaporator temperature and a decrease in cooling
below ambient. The results demonstrate that the unit can be used for freezing with a power input of 109 W at load values of about 20
W. Effective cooling can be produced for evaporator loads as large as 20 W.
The above results are particularly important for understanding the steady-state performance of DAR units. However, in practice,

Fig. 9. DAR steady-state average evaporator temperature, cooling below ambient, and coefficient of performance for different values of evaporator load at generator
input power of 100–109 W.

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A. Abuhabaya et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103802

Fig. 10. DAR steady-state cooling below ambient and coefficient of performance for different values of generator power input at an evaporator load of 5 W.

there is a need to develop a performance map for DAR systems. The development of the performance map will be useful in the design
stage for DAR unit integration with various sources of thermal energy, such as renewable and waste energy sources.
Table 2 shows a summary of steady-state results obtained for different experiments. The results are sorted according to the value of
cooling below ambient. An overall map of system effectiveness is indicated by using the color bands in Table 2. The green area
highlights the region of effective freezing and cooling of the unit, with values of cooling below ambient greater than 30 ◦ C. The yellow
area indicates the region accepted for cooling applications with minimum cooling below ambient temperature above 15 ◦ C. While the
red area indicates insufficient input power for cooling applications where the cooling below ambient is small or negative. The results
demonstrate that the unit can be used for freezing with power input of 109 at load values of about 20 W. Effective cooling can be
produced for evaporator loads as large as 20 W. For an input power of 81 W, an evaporator load as high as 10.6 W can be used for
freezing or cooling. Increasing the evaporator load to 15.5 W and 20.9 W results in a higher evaporator temperature that is insufficient
for cooling application. For an input power of 60.4 W, the produced evaporator temperature is acceptable for some cooling appli­
cations for evaporator loads as high as 5 W. Integration of the unit with solar or waste heat recovery systems should take this point into
account.
The above data can be used to develop a performance map for the DAR unit. The essential parameters for evaluation of unit
performance are identified as the evaporator load, required cooling below ambient, required generator input power, and coefficient of
performance. The development of the map is based on the requirements of the design process which starts by identifying the evap­
orator load and the required temperature for cooling below ambient. The designer then seeks to estimate the required generator power
input and the unit coefficient of performance. Data obtained from the steady-state analysis of the experimental results is plotted to
construct the unit performance map shown in Fig. 11. For example, using the performance map, for cooling below ambient temper­
ature of about 20–30 ◦ C, the blue box determines the range of evaporator load, COP, and subsequently required input power to drive
the DAR system. Other boxes for different values of cooling below ambient requirements can be constructed on the map.

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A. Abuhabaya et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103802

Table 2
DAR steady-state components temperature, cooling below ambient, and coefficient of performance for different
values of evaporator load and generator input power.

6. Conclusion
Experimental investigation and dynamic analysis of the H2O-NH3-H2 diffusion absorption refrigeration system have been carried
out using different values of thermal power input to the generator and evaporator load. Experimental results show that the temperature
evolution of system components, transient response, amount of cooling below ambient, and coefficient of performance are significantly
sensitive to the values of generator power input and evaporator load.
The performance of the DAR system is characterized by its cooling capacity and the amount of cooling achieved below ambient
temperature. Two circulation ratios are suggested to relate the flow rates of refrigerant flow to the evaporator to the strong solution to
the generator (generator circulation ratio fGR), and hydrogen flow to refrigerant flow to the evaporator (evaporator flow ratio fHR). The
coefficient of performance of the DAR system increases with an increase of fGR and a decrease of fHR. The degree of cooling below
ambient increases with the increase in fHR.
Two points indicating the time of initiation of flow rate in the bubble pump and initiation of cooling in the evaporator are
determined for all experiments. The initiation times of bubble pump flow and cooling significantly decrease with the increase in
generator input power. The effect of the evaporator load on the flow initiation time is marginal.
The results demonstrate that the unit can be used for freezing with a power input of 109 at load values of about 20 W. Effective
cooling can be produced for evaporator loads as large as 20 W. For an input power of 81 W, an evaporator load as high as 10.6 W can be
used for freezing or cooling. Increasing the evaporator load to 15.5 W and 20.9 W results in a higher evaporator temperature which is
insufficient for cooling applications. For an input power of 60.4 W, the produced evaporator temperature is acceptable for some
cooling applications for evaporator loads as high as 5 W. The input energy for the initiation of cooling is estimated as 168, 152, 210 kJ
for generator power inputs of 100, 80, and 60 W, respectively. Integration of the unit with solar or waste heat recovery systems should
take these points into account.
Steady-state experimental results obtained over a wide range of generator input power and evaporator load are used to characterize
the unit performance. Performance maps useful for the design and integration of DAR systems with low-temperature energy sources
are developed. These maps can be used to calculate the required generator power for a given cooling load at a specified value for
cooling temperature below ambient.

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A. Abuhabaya et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103802

Fig. 11. DAR system steady-state performance map showing the amount of cooling below ambient and coefficient of performance for different values of evaporator
load and generator input power.

Author contributions
Abdullah Abuhabaya: Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Writing- Original draft prepa­
ration. Mohamed Rady: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing- Original draft prepa­
ration. Mohanad Aljahdli: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation. Eydhah Almatrafi: Resources, Investigation,
Writing - Review & Editing. Faisal Al Batati: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Alaa
Attar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgements
This research work was funded by Institutional Fund Projects under grant no. (IFPIP-607-829-1443). The authors gratefully
acknowledge technical and financial support from the Ministry of Education and King Abdulaziz University, DSR, Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia.

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