FLOW CONTROL TECHNIQUES

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ACTIVE FLOW CONTROL TECHNIQUES

i. Fluidic Actuators
ii. Sweeping jet actuator
iii. Pulsed Jet Actuators
iv. Micro-jet Actuators
v. Piezoelectric Actuators
vi. Plasma Actuators
vii. Suction and Blowing Systems
viii. Morphing Wing Technology
ix. Active Flow Control Valves

3. PASSIVE FLOW CONTROL TECHNIQUES

i. Vortex Generators
ii. Gurney Flaps
iii. Leading-Edge Slats and Flaps
iv. Surface Roughness Modifications
v. Winglet Technology
vi. Passive Porous Surfaces

Created and edited by :

Aaditya Shah & Krisha Patel
 Introduction
Flow control is a field of fluid dynamics. It involves a small configuration
change to serve an ideally large engineering benefit, like drag reduction, lift
increase, mixing enhancement or noise reduction. This change may be
accomplished by passive or active devices.
Passive devices require no energy. Passive techniques include turbulators
or roughness elements geometric shaping, the use of vortex generators, and the
placement of longitudinal grooves or riblets on airfoil surfaces.
Active control requires actuators that require energy and may operate in
a time-dependent manner. Active flow control includes steady or unsteady
suction or blowing, the use of synthetic jets, valves, and plasma actuators.
Actuation may be pre-determined (open-loop control) or be dependent on
monitoring sensors (closed-loop control).

Development of active flow control (AFC) traces its origins back to

Prandtl's groundbreaking work on boundary layers in 1904, particularly focusing
on mitigating boundary-layer separation. Early methods, known as traditional
boundary layer control (BLC), involved altering momentum flux to maintain
attached boundary layers, reaching a pinnacle with innovations like "blown
flaps" in mid-20th-century aircraft. However, the space race diverted R&D
funding, stalling BLC advancements until the 1973 oil crisis refocused efforts on
efficiency and drag reduction.
Active methods emerged to delay transition from laminar to turbulent
flow, utilizing techniques such as suction, temperature variations, and controlled
perturbations. Despite initial skepticism, studies revealed that small
perturbations could induce significant changes in turbulent flows, sparking
extensive research into instability-driven flow control.
AFC, however, must demonstrate clear advantages over passive methods,
such as slotted flaps and vortex generators, while also meeting criteria for safety,
simplicity, and energy efficiency.
 ACTIVE FLOW CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Active flow control techniques have emerged as powerful tools in aerospace engineering for
enhancing aerodynamic performance, reducing drag, and mitigating flow separation. These
techniques involve the deliberate manipulation of the boundary layer and flow field through active
interventions such as suction, blowing, plasma actuators, piezoelectric actuators, synthetic jets, and
dynamic surface roughness. By actively modifying the flow properties, active flow control methods
offer advantages over passive techniques, allowing for real-time adjustments to optimize aerodynamic
efficiency and stability. AFC is employed to overcome flow separation (caused by high adverse pressure
gradients) on smooth surfaces, on after-bodies and on two surfaces junctions. This abstract provides
an overview of active flow control techniques and their significance in aerospace applications,
highlighting their potential to improve aircraft performance, reduce fuel consumption, and enhance
safety.

AFC can be classified into two categories, Predetermined methods, and interactive methods.
Predetermined methods involve introduction of steady or unsteady energy inputs without considering
the state of flow field. Examples of pre-determined methods are jet vectoring using several types of
actuators, form drag reduction using oscillatory blowing. In Interactive methods, the input to say an
actuator is continuously adjusted based on sensors. Interactive method can be a feed forward (open)
or feedback (closed). In case of feed forward, sensor is placed upstream of the actuator.

Before inflicting any AFC method, it is mandatory to understand the influence of various
parameters which would affect the flow field. Shape, temperature, porosity, roughness are few of the
mainstream parameters which influences the flow. Heating and cooling of the surface will result into
varying viscosity and density gradient. Porous walls may lead to mass transfer. Suction and injection of
fluid may influence the flow field resulting into alteration of the velocity profile near the wall and the
boundary will be vulnerable to separation. Main advantage of active flow control which cannot be
achieved by passive type is that with a small input applied, it is possible to control the natural stability
of the flow for better results.
 For reasons of safety, simplicity, reliability, and power consumption, AFC becomes viable only
when a decisive aerodynamic advantage can be demonstrated over passive flow control (PFC)
techniques—for example, slotted-flaps and vortex generators (VGs) for separation control, chevrons
for jet noise reduction, and riblets for near-wall drag reduction. Moreover, apart from aerodynamic
benefits, actuators or actuation techniques must be safe, small, light, and robust with associated low
energy consumption. Realize the full potential of AFC, it must be integrated into the vehicle design and
not introduced as a post design add-on.

AFC holds great promise for improving aircraft efficiency and maneuverability, significant
challenges remain, including the optimization of actuator designs, integration with existing flight
control systems, and validation through extensive flight testing. Nonetheless, ongoing advancements
in AFC technology underscore its potential to revolutionize aerospace engineering and shape the
future of flight.

Fluidic, mechanical, and plasma actuators play pivotal roles in modern aerospace technology,
offering innovative solutions for aerodynamic control and propulsion systems. These actuators harness
fluid dynamics, mechanical principles, and plasma physics to manipulate airflow, enhance control
surfaces, and optimize propulsion efficiency. In the aerospace domain, their application ranges from
improving aircraft maneuverability to enhancing engine performance, underscoring their significance
in advancing aerodynamic design and flight capabilities.
Classification of flow control actuators based on function:

Fluidic Actuators:

Fluidic actuators use fluid dynamics to manipulate airflow. They often involve no moving parts
and rely on the manipulation of pressure, velocity, and direction of fluid flow. They are used for various
purposes such as controlling boundary layer separation, enhancing lift, reducing drag, and improving
aerodynamic performance. They can be used in boundary layer control systems, jet engine thrust
vectoring, active flow control for wings and airfoils, and in reducing noise generation.

Mechanical Actuators:

Mechanical actuators rely on mechanical motion to control various systems. They involve
components such as motors, gears, cams, and linkages. They are used for controlling flight surfaces
(such as ailerons, elevators, and rudders), deploying landing gear, controlling engine components, and
managing various mechanical systems. They convert electrical or hydraulic signals into mechanical
motion, enabling precise control over various aerospace systems and flight controls.

Plasma Actuators:

Plasma actuators use ionized gas to generate localized forces or modify airflow. They typically
consist of electrodes that apply an electric field to the surrounding gas, ionizing it and producing
plasma. They are used for flow control, boundary layer manipulation, drag reduction, and noise
reduction. They can be employed to control airflow over wings, improve mixing in combustion
chambers, manipulate shock waves, and reduce aerodynamic drag by energizing the airflow and
altering its properties.
 i. Fluidic Actuators
A fluidic actuator is a device that uses fluid flow to generate motion or perform control
functions without the need for mechanical components like valves or pistons. Instead, they rely
on the manipulation of fluid dynamics to achieve their desired outcomes.
Fluidic actuators can be found in various locations throughout an aircraft, depending on
their specific applications. Aerodynamic Control Surfaces: Fluidic actuators can be embedded
within wings, flaps, ailerons, elevators, and rudders to provide aerodynamic control during flight.
They may also be employed within the engine system for functions like thrust vectoring or active
flow control to optimize engine performance. Fluidic actuators are used in fly-by-wire systems to
control the movement of flight control surfaces. They can play a role in managing airflow within
environmental control systems, regulating cabin pressure, and controlling temperature. The
working principle of fluidic actuators involves the manipulation of fluid flows to induce
mechanical motion or control. This is achieved through the application of principles such as
Bernoulli's principle, fluid amplification, and fluidic logic.
They are utilized to control the movement of flight surfaces such as ailerons, elevators,
rudders, and flaps, enabling precise maneuverability and stability during flight. In certain aircraft,
fluidic actuators are employed to control thrust vectoring, allowing for enhanced maneuverability
and agility. Fluidic actuators play a crucial role in regulating fuel flow, adjusting nozzle
configurations, and managing airflow within aircraft engines, thereby optimizing combustion
efficiency and performance. They can be used to manipulate the boundary layer flow over aircraft
surfaces, reducing drag and improving aerodynamic efficiency. Fluidic actuators are employed in
active flow control systems to manipulate airflow over wings, control separation, and mitigate
flow-induced vibrations.
Fluidic actuators enable precise control of aircraft movement and stability by regulating
airflow over flight surfaces. They help optimize aircraft performance by controlling engine
parameters, enhancing aerodynamic efficiency, and reducing fuel consumption. Fluidic actuators
contribute to the safety and reliability of aircraft systems by providing robust and responsive
control mechanisms. In advanced aircraft, fluidic actuators facilitate enhanced agility and
maneuverability by enabling rapid adjustments to flight control surfaces and engine parameters.
Synthetic actuators: Synthetic actuators are advanced electromechanical devices used to
control and manipulate mechanical systems in aerospace applications. They are typically driven
by electrical or hydraulic power sources and are designed to convert input signals into mechanical
motion.
Actuators are found on control surfaces such as ailerons, elevators, rudders, and flaps to
control the aircraft's attitude and maneuverability. They are utilized to extend or retract landing
gear during take-off and landing phases. They play a role in adjusting thrust vectoring
mechanisms in advanced aircraft to enhance maneuverability. They engage in controlling various
functions within aircraft engines, such as adjusting throttle settings, fuel flow, and nozzle
positions in jet engines.
The working principle of synthetic actuators involves converting input signals, typically
electrical or hydraulic, into mechanical motion. This is achieved through various mechanisms
such as motors, hydraulic pistons, solenoids, or electromagnets, depending on the specific type of
actuator. Actuators are crucial for maintaining stability, controlling flight surfaces, and ensuring
safe maneuvering of the aircraft. They assist in the deployment and retraction of landing gear to
facilitate take-off and landing operations. They are used to adjust thrust vectoring mechanisms in
advanced fighter jets and space vehicles for improved control and maneuverability. They play a
critical role in regulating engine parameters such as throttle settings, fuel flow, and nozzle
positions to optimize performance and efficiency.
Actuators enable precise control of flight surfaces, allowing pilots to maneuver the aircraft
safely and efficiently. They contribute to the safety and reliability of aerospace systems by
providing responsive and accurate control over critical components such as flight surfaces and
landing gear. They are integral to enhancing the performance of aircraft by enabling advanced
features such as thrust vectoring, which improves agility and maneuverability in combat and
space missions. They help optimize engine performance and efficiency by regulating various
parameters such as fuel flow and nozzle positions, leading to improved fuel economy and reduced
emissions.
 i. Sweeping jet actuator:
Sweeping jet actuators are small-scale fluidic devices that emit controlled jets of air over
surfaces, such as wings, control surfaces, or other aerodynamic components of an aircraft. These
actuators are typically embedded within the aircraft structure, allowing for precise manipulation of
airflow without the need for traditional mechanical control surfaces like flaps or ailerons.

Placing them along the wings allows for better control of airflow during different flight
conditions, such as takeoff, landing, and cruising. They can also be integrated into control surfaces like
ailerons, elevators, and rudders to enhance their effectiveness and improve aircraft maneuverability.
They can be installed near the leading edges or trailing edges of wings to actively control the boundary
layer airflow, which helps in reducing drag and improving overall aerodynamic performance.
 The working principle of sweeping jet actuators involves emitting controlled jets of air over
the aircraft's surface. These actuators typically consist of miniature nozzles that expel high-velocity air,
creating localized regions of high pressure. By manipulating the airflow using these actuators,
engineers can influence boundary layer separation, reduce flow separation, and delay stall onset.

By actively controlling airflow over the aircraft's surfaces, SJAs help reduce drag, which
improves fuel efficiency and extends the aircraft's range. They enable finer control of airflow, allowing
for improved maneuverability, stability, and control during different flight phases. By delaying stall
onset through boundary layer control, SJAs enhance the aircraft's safety margins, especially during
low-speed and high-angle-of-attack maneuvers. They can also be used to mitigate aerodynamic noise
generated by turbulent airflow over the aircraft's surfaces.

They actively manipulate the boundary layer airflow to maintain attached flow over the
aircraft's surfaces, thereby reducing drag and enhancing aerodynamic efficiency. In situations where
flow separation occurs, SJAs help reattach the boundary layer flow to the surface, preventing stall and
improving overall flight stability. They offer dynamic control capabilities, allowing for real-time
adjustments to airflow patterns based on changing flight conditions, pilot inputs, or mission
requirements.
 ii. Pulse jet actuators:
Pulse jet actuators are a type of flow control device used in aerospace applications to
manipulate airflow over wings, control surfaces, and other aerodynamic components of aircraft.
They work by emitting periodic pulses of air or fluid into the boundary layer of the airflow,
creating localized changes in pressure and momentum, which in turn alter the aerodynamic forces
acting on the surface.
photo
pulse jet actuators can be strategically placed in various locations on an aircraft depending on
the specific application and desired effect. It can be integrated into the wings to control airflow
over the wing surfaces, especially during take-off, landing, or maneuvers. They can be installed on
control surfaces such as ailerons, elevators, and rudders to enhance maneuverability and stability.
They may be positioned near engine nacelles to influence boundary layer separation and reduce
noise generated by the engines. In some cases, PJAs are placed along the fuselage to manage
airflow attachment and separation, particularly in regions prone to flow separation or turbulence.
The working principle of pulse jet actuators involves the generation of periodic, high
frequency pulsed jets of air. These actuators typically consist of a chamber filled with compressed
air, a valve mechanism, and an outlet nozzle. The operation proceeds as follows; Compressed air
is supplied to the chamber. The valve mechanism rapidly opens and closes, allowing the release
of compressed air in pulses. As the valve opens, a high-pressure pulse of air is expelled through
the outlet nozzle. The momentum of the pulsed jet influences the airflow, inducing desired
changes in aerodynamic properties or flow patterns. By modulating the timing and duration of
the pulses, it can exert precise control over airflow separation, boundary layer dynamics, and
aerodynamic forces.

Pulse jet actuators typically use piezoelectric elements or electromagnetic actuators to

generate periodic pulses of air or fluid. These pulses are emitted from small nozzles or slots
installed on the aerodynamic surfaces of the aircraft. As the pulses are injected into the boundary
layer of the airflow, they create localized disturbances in the flow field. The pulses induce
momentum transfer, altering the airflow patterns and modifying aerodynamic forces such as lift,
drag, and control moments. By modulating the frequency, amplitude, and duration of the pulses,
pulse jet actuators can provide dynamic control over the aerodynamic characteristics of the
aircraft.
 Pulse jet actuators are used to control boundary layer separation, delay stall, and enhance lift
generation, particularly in high-lift configurations during take-off and landing. By manipulating
the airflow over the aircraft surfaces, pulse jet actuators can help reduce drag, improving fuel
efficiency and overall performance. Pulse jet actuators can also serve as active flow control
devices for controlling the deflection and effectiveness of control surfaces such as flaps, ailerons,
and rudders. In supersonic flight regimes, pulse jet actuators can be used to manage shock waves
and enhance aerodynamic performance. They can also be employed for noise reduction by
mitigating flow-induced noise and reducing aerodynamic vibrations.
Pulse jet actuators enable aircraft to achieve enhanced maneuverability by providing precise
control over aerodynamic forces and moments. By actively modifying the airflow, pulse jet
actuators contribute to increased aerodynamic efficiency, leading to reduced fuel consumption
and operating costs. They help improve the safety of flight operations by enhancing aircraft
stability, reducing the risk of stalls, and improving control authority, especially during critical
flight phases. Pulse jet actuators offer flexibility and adaptability, allowing aircraft to optimize
performance across a wide range of operating conditions and flight regimes. Their ability to
rapidly modulate airflow enables rapid response to changes in flight conditions, environmental
disturbances, and pilot commands.
iii. Micro-jet Actuators:
A micro-jet actuator is a small-scale device that generates and controls fluidic jets. These
actuators are typically composed of nozzles, chambers, and control valves. They operate by expelling
fluid (usually air or fuel) through a small orifice at high velocity to produce thrust or control
aerodynamic surfaces.

Micro-jet actuators can be strategically placed across various parts of the aircraft, depending
on their intended application. They may be integrated into the wings, flaps, ailerons, rudders, or
other control surfaces for aerodynamic control. They can also be positioned within the
propulsion system for thrust vectoring or flow control.
The working principle of micro-jet actuators involves the controlled release of fluid through
a tiny orifice. This release of fluid creates a reaction force that can be used to generate thrust,
alter aerodynamic forces, or manipulate airflow. The actuators are typically controlled
electronically or pneumatically to modulate the flow rate and direction of the jets, allowing for
precise control.
Micro-jet actuators are used to control the aerodynamic surfaces of aircraft, such as flaps,
ailerons, and rudders, providing enhanced maneuverability and stability. They are employed to
manipulate airflow over the wings, fuselage, and control surfaces to improve aerodynamic
performance, reduce drag, and mitigate flow separation. In propulsion systems, they can be utilized
for thrust vectoring, enabling aircraft to achieve enhanced agility and control during flight. They are
used to actively control the boundary layer flow around the aircraft, which can enhance lift, reduce
drag, and improve overall efficiency.

Micro-jet actuators provide precise and rapid control over aerodynamic surfaces and airflow,
enhancing the aircraft's maneuverability, stability, and performance. In some applications, micro-jet
actuators contribute to thrust generation by expelling high-velocity fluid, either as part of the
primary propulsion system or for thrust vectoring purposes. They help manipulate airflow patterns to
optimize aerodynamic performance, reduce drag, and improve fuel efficiency.
iv. Piezoelectric Actuators:
Piezoelectric actuators are devices that utilize the piezoelectric effect to generate motion or
mechanical displacement when an electrical voltage is applied. Piezoelectric actuators are a type of
electromechanical transducer that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa
using the piezoelectric effect. This effect involves the generation of electric charge in certain
materials when mechanical stress is applied, and conversely, the generation of mechanical stress
when an electric field is applied. Common piezoelectric materials include lead zirconate titanate
(PZT) and certain ceramics.

It used in control surfaces such as ailerons, elevators, and rudders to provide precise control and
stabilization. It Installed in critical components to dampen vibrations and improve structural integrity.
It Employed to cancel out noise and vibrations in the aircraft cabin. It Integrated into structural
health monitoring systems to detect and mitigate fatigue, cracks, and other structural issues.

When a voltage is applied to a piezoelectric actuator, it undergoes dimensional changes, such

as expansion or contraction, due to the piezoelectric effect. This change in dimension produces
mechanical motion or displacement. Conversely, when mechanical force is applied to the
actuator, it generates an electrical charge. This bidirectional functionality makes piezoelectric
actuators versatile for both sensing and actuation applications.
Piezoelectric actuators are used in flight control systems to provide precise adjustments to
control surfaces, enhancing stability and maneuverability. They are employed to reduce vibrations in
aircraft components, such as wings and engine mounts, improving passenger comfort and structural
integrity. By generating counteracting vibrations, piezoelectric actuators help cancel out noise
generated by aircraft engines and airflow, contributing to quieter cabins. The sensors and actuators
are integrated into structural health monitoring systems to detect and mitigate fatigue, cracks, and
other structural issues in real-time.
 Providing precise control over aircraft surfaces and systems, enhancing flight performance and
safety. Dampening vibrations and cancelling out noise to improve passenger comfort and reduce
structural fatigue. Detecting and mitigating structural issues to ensure the integrity and longevity of
aircraft components. Converting mechanical vibrations into electrical energy to power onboard
sensors and monitoring systems, enhancing aircraft efficiency and reliability.
 v. Plasma Actuators:
A plasma actuator is a type of fluid control device that utilizes electrical discharges to
manipulate the flow of air around an aircraft's surface. It consists of two electrodes separated by
a dielectric material. When a high voltage is applied across the electrodes, it ionizes the
surrounding air, creating a plasma, which can generate localized forces to influence the airflow.
Plasma actuators can be strategically placed along the surface of an aircraft, typically near wings,
control surfaces (such as flaps and ailerons), or even on the fuselage depending on the desired effect.
When a high-voltage electrical potential is applied across the electrodes of the plasma actuator, it
creates a corona discharge or a plasma discharge. This ionizes the air around the actuator,
generating charged species. The electric field associated with these charged species interacts with
the surrounding airflow, inducing momentum transfer and thereby altering the flow pattern.
They can be used to enhance lift, reduce drag, and improve aircraft maneuverability. They are
employed to control boundary layer separation and reduce turbulence, which enhances
aerodynamic performance. By manipulating airflow, they can also be used to mitigate noise
generated by turbulent flow over surfaces.
Plasma actuators can prevent or delay flow separation over wings and control surfaces, which
is crucial for maintaining lift and control authority, especially at high angles of attack. By
controlling boundary layer separation and reducing turbulence, plasma actuators can help
minimize aerodynamic drag, leading to increased fuel efficiency and improved performance. It
enables precise control over aerodynamic loads, allowing for improved stability, maneuverability,
and overall flight performance.
The plasma actuator is an effective device that could be used for active flow control. There are
various kinds of plasma actuators, such as DBD plasma actuator, surface corona discharge
actuator, and plasma spark-jet actuator.
The DBD plasma actuators are paid particular attention. The two key features of the DBD
plasma actuator are that it can induce a wall jet and a starting vortex. Firstly, the conventional
applications of the plasma actuators are introduced. The plasma actuator can delay laminar to
turbulence transition. It can also delay or eliminate flow separation, and thus improve
aerodynamic performance of aerofoils, straight wings, delta wings, aircraft, and bluff bodies. On
the other hand, some novel flow control conceptions based on plasma actuators are also
introduced, including plasma synthetic jet, plasma Gurney flap, plasma circulation control, plasma
vortex generator. It has been indicated that those techniques could achieve similar control effects
to traditional techniques. Meanwhile, plasma-based techniques are easier to conduct in real-time
and unsteady active control, and more convenient to implement than conventional techniques.
vi. Suction and Blowing Systems:
Suction and blowing systems in aerospace play a crucial role in flow control techniques, particularly
in controlling airflow over wings, control surfaces, and other aerodynamic components of an aircraft.
These systems are primarily used to enhance aircraft performance, stability, and control during various
flight conditions.

Suction Systems: Suction systems in aerospace utilize low-pressure zones to extract boundary layer
air from aerodynamic surfaces such as wings, control surfaces, and engine inlets. This extraction helps
delay flow separation and reduce drag, improving aerodynamic efficiency and control effectiveness.

Blowing Systems: Blowing systems work in the opposite manner. They introduce high-pressure air
jets into the boundary layer to energize airflow and prevent separation. Blowing systems are often
used in conjunction with suction systems to further enhance aerodynamic performance and control.

Suction and blowing systems are often integrated into the leading edges, trailing edges, or upper
surfaces of wings to control airflow and optimize aerodynamic performance. These systems may also
be installed on control surfaces such as flaps, ailerons, elevators, and rudders to improve control
authority and stability during separate phases of flight. In some aircraft designs, suction and blowing
systems are incorporated into the engine inlets to manage airflow and reduce inlet distortion,
particularly at high angles of attack or during transonic flight.

Suction Systems:

Suction systems typically employ porous surfaces or small openings connected to a vacuum source
to remove boundary layer air. The extracted air is then discharged either overboard or re-energized
before being reintroduced into the airflow.

Blowing Systems:

Blowing systems utilize high-pressure air sources, such as compressors or bleed air from the
engine, to generate jets of air that are directed into the boundary layer. This energizes the airflow,
reduces separation, and improves aerodynamic performance.
 Suction systems are primarily used to reduce drag by preventing boundary layer separation
and delaying stall onset. By maintaining attached airflow over aerodynamic surfaces, suction
systems help improve overall aerodynamic efficiency and reduce fuel consumption. Blowing
systems enhance the effectiveness of control surfaces by ensuring airflow attachment even at
high angles of attack or during aggressive maneuvers. This improves aircraft controllability,
especially during take-off, landing, and combat situations. Suction and blowing techniques are
commonly employed in high-lift systems, such as leading-edge slats and trailing-edge flaps, to
improve lift generation and stall characteristics during low-speed flight regimes. These systems
are also used for boundary layer control on critical aerodynamic surfaces to minimize flow
separation, increase maximum lift coefficient, and improve overall aircraft performance across a
wide range of flight conditions.
vii. Morphing Wing Technology:
Morphing wing technology in active flow control refers to the design and implementation of wings
that can change their shape during flight to optimize aerodynamic performance. This technology draws
inspiration from nature, where birds and insects adapt the shape of their wings to suit different flight
conditions.

The primary goal of morphing wing technology is to enhance aircraft maneuverability, efficiency,
and overall performance. It achieves this by dynamically altering the wing's geometry, such as its span,
chord, camber, or twist, in response to varying aerodynamic conditions encountered during flight.

The system relies on sensors placed strategically across the aircraft's surface to gather data on
airflow, pressure distribution, wing deformation, and other relevant parameters. These sensors
continuously monitor the flight conditions and provide real-time feedback to the control system. The
control system processes the data collected by the sensors and determines the optimal wing
configuration for the current flight regime. It uses algorithms and computational models to analyse
the aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft and calculates the adjustments needed to optimize
performance. Actuators are the mechanisms responsible for physically morphing the wing shape
according to the commands issued by the control system. These actuators can be hydraulic, pneumatic,
electromechanical, or a combination thereof, depending on the specific design requirements and
constraints.

There are various morphing mechanisms employed in morphing wing technology, including:

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs): These materials change shape in response to temperature
variations. They can be embedded within the wing structure to induce controlled deformations.

Piezoelectric Materials: Piezoelectric materials change shape when subjected to an electric

field. They are often used in small-scale morphing applications, such as wing trailing edge flaps.

Hydraulic or Pneumatic Actuators: These actuators use pressurized fluids to control the
movement of wing segments, allowing for larger-scale morphing capabilities.

Flexible Structures: Wings can be designed with flexible materials that deform under
aerodynamic loads, enabling passive morphing without the need for external actuators.

One example of morphing wing technology is adaptive camber morphing, where the wing's
camber (curvature of the airfoil) is adjusted in real-time to optimize lift and drag characteristics.
During take-off and landing, the wing camber can be increased to generate more lift and improve
low-speed performance. Conversely, during cruising, the camber can be reduced to minimize drag
and improve fuel efficiency. It is called as Adaptive Camber Morphing.

Variable Wing Sweep: Another application involves changing the sweep angle of the wings
during separate phases of flight. Swept wings are more efficient at high speeds, while straight wings
are better suited for low-speed maneuvering. By adjusting the wing sweep angle, aircraft can
 PASSIVE FLOW CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Passive flow control does not require external energy inputs or control mechanisms, but rather
directs the flow of fluids by designing properties such as the shape, texture, and surface coating of
materials. The advantages of passive flow control are simple, reliable, low-cost, and suitable for many
practical applications.

Passive flow control refers to a method of regulating the flow of fluids through geometry or
material properties, etc., without external energy input. In passive flow control, the design of geometry
and material properties plays a crucial role. One of the most common methods in passive flow control
is the design of geometry. By designing special geometries, the flow pattern of the fluid can be
changed, so that the flow can be controlled.

Another common passive flow control method is design that takes advantage of material
properties. By touching the fluid to the surface of a special material, the properties of the flow can be
changed, and the flow can be controlled. Passive flow control is a method of regulating fluid flow
through geometry and material properties without external energy input.
 I. VORTEX GENERATOR
A vortex generator (VG) is an aerodynamic device, consisting of a small vane
usually attached to a lifting surface (or airfoil, such as an aircraft wing) or a rotor
blade of a wind turbine. VGs may also be attached to some part of an
aerodynamic vehicle such as an aircraft fuselage or a car. When the airfoil or the
body is in motion relative to the air, the VG creates a vortex, which, by removing
some part of the slow-moving boundary layer in contact with the airfoil surface,
delays local flow separation and aerodynamic stalling, thereby improving the
effectiveness of wings and control surfaces, such as flaps, elevators, ailerons, and
rudders.

Vortex generators are most often used to delay flow separation. To

accomplish this, they are often placed on the external surfaces of vehicles and
wind turbine blades. On both aircraft and wind turbine blades they are usually
installed quite close to the leading edge of the airfoil to maintain steady airflow
over the control surfaces at the trailing edge. VGs are typically rectangular or
triangular, about as tall as the local boundary layer, and run in spanwise lines
usually near the thickest part of the wing. They can be seen on the wings and
vertical tails of many airliners.

Vortex generators are positioned obliquely so that they have an angle of

attack with respect to the local airflow to create a tip vortex which draws
energetic, rapidly moving outside air into the slow-moving boundary layer in
contact with the surface. A turbulent boundary layer is less likely to separate
than a laminar one and is therefore desirable to ensure effectiveness of trailing-
edge control surfaces. Vortex generators are used to trigger this transition.
2. GURNEY FLAPS
The Gurney flap (or wicker bill) is a small tab projecting from the trailing
edge of a wing. Typically, it is set at a right angle to the pressure-side surface of
the airfoil and projects 1% to 2% of the wing chord. This trailing edge device can
improve the performance of a simple airfoil to nearly the same level as a complex
high-performance design. The device operates by increasing pressure on the
pressure side, decreasing pressure on the suction side, and helping the boundary
layer flow stay attached all the way to the trailing edge on the suction side of the
airfoil. Common applications occur in auto racing, helicopter horizontal
stabilizers, and aircraft where high lift is essential, such as banner-towing
airplanes. It is named for its inventor and developer, American race car driver
Dan Gurney.
The Gurney flap increases the maximum lift coefficient (CL,max),
decreases the angle of attack for zero lift (α0), and increases the nose down
pitching moment (CM), which is consistent with an increase in camber of the
airfoil. It also typically increases the drag coefficient (Cd), especially at low angles
of attack, although for thick airfoils, a reduction in drag has been reported. A net
benefit in overall lift-to-drag ratio is possible if the flap is sized appropriately,
based on the boundary layer thickness.
The Gurney flap increases lift by altering the Kutta condition at the trailing
edge. The wake behind the flap is a pair of counter-rotating vortices that are
alternately shed in a von Kármán vortex street. In addition to these spanwise
vortices shed behind the flap, chordwise vortices shed from in front of the flap
become important at high angles of attack.
The increased pressure on the lower surface ahead of the flap means the
upper surface suction can be reduced while producing the same lift.
In conclusion, the Gurney flap is a simple yet effective device that has
had a significant impact on aerodynamic performance. The device works by
improving the airflow over an airfoil, creating a larger downforce, and
reducing drag. The Gurney flap has found applications in motorsports,
aviation, and wind power, and its impact on these fields has been significant.
3. LEADING EDGE FLAPS AND SLATS
A slat is an aerodynamic surface on the leading edge of the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Slats,
when deployed, allow the wings to operate at a higher angle of attack. A higher coefficient of lift is
produced because of angle of attack and speed, so by deploying slats an aircraft can fly at slower
speeds or take off and land in shorter distances. They are used during take-off and landing or while
performing low speed maneuvers which may take the aircraft close to a stall. Slats are retracted in
normal flight to minimize drag.

Slats are high-lift devices typically used on aircraft intended to operate within a wide range of
speeds. Trailing-edge flap systems running along the trailing edge of the wing are common on all
aircraft. The chord of the slat is typically only a few percent of the wing chord. The slats may extend
over the outer third of the wing, or they may cover the entire leading edge. Many early
aerodynamicists, including Ludwig Prandtl, believed that slats work by inducing a high energy stream
to the flow of the main aerofoil, thus re-energizing its boundary layer, and delaying stall. The slat does
not give the air in the slot a high velocity (it reduces its velocity) and it cannot be called high-energy
air since all the air outside the actual boundary layers has the same total heat. The actual effects of
the slat are:

The slat effects:

 The velocities at the leading edge of the downstream element (main airfoil) are reduced due
to the circulation of the upstream element (slat) thus reducing the pressure peaks of the downstream
element.

The circulation effects:

The circulation of the downstream element increases the circulation of the upstream element
thus improving its aerodynamic performance.

The dumping effects:

The discharge velocity at the trailing edge of the slat is increased due to the circulation of the
main airfoil thus alleviating separation problems or increasing lift.

Off the surface pressure recovery

The deceleration of the slat wake occurs in an efficient manner, out of contact with a wall.

Fresh boundary layer effect:

Each new element starts out with a fresh boundary layer at its leading edge. Thin boundary
layers can withstand stronger adverse gradients than thick ones.

The slat has a counterpart found in the wings of some birds, the alula, a feather, or group of
feathers which the bird can extend under control of its "thumb".

4.SURFACE ROUGHNESS MODIFICATIONS

Roughness is used for boundary layer flow control. Some traditional knowledge from the
literature is first presented and then recent progress on roughness control is explained. Traditionally,
roughness was used as an approach to advance flow transition, however some recent work has found
an interesting result that roughness could delay flow transition and thus reduce the friction drag.
Roughness also influences the roadmap of bypass transition and the coherent structures in the
turbulent boundary layer. Since roughness can be made to form quite simple configurations and can
be easily attached to the object surface, such findings suggest significant potential applications of
roughness in engineering. There is ample evidence that increased surface roughness can be harnessed
to induce vortex shedding, insert energy into the boundary layer, and trigger an early transition to
turbulence. This has been shown to delay boundary layer separation and increase the extent of the
attached flow region. Regular patterns of surface features are employed, which are extended in the
flow direction and periodic across the span of the flow. These surface roughness patterns modulate
the base flow in prototypical flat plate boundary layers. Compared with conventional surface
roughness elements, the critical Reynolds number of a tested surface pattern is improved.

5.WINGLET
Wingtip devices are intended to improve the efficiency of fixed-wing aircraft by reducing drag.
Although there are several types of wing tip devices which function in different manners, their
intended effect is always to reduce an aircraft's drag. Wingtip devices can also improve aircraft handling
characteristics and enhance safety for following aircraft. Such devices increase the effective aspect
ratio of a wing without increasing the wingspan. Extending the span would lower lift-induced drag but
would increase parasitic drag and would require boosting the strength and weight of the wing. At some
point, there is no net benefit from further increased span. There may also be operational
considerations that limit the allowable wingspan (e.g., available width at airport gates).

Wingtip devices help prevent the flow around the wingtip of higher-pressure air under the
wing flowing to the lower pressure surface on top at the wingtip, which results in a vortex caused by
the forward motion of the aircraft, the winglet also reduces the lift-induced drag caused by wingtip
vortices and improves lift-to-drag ratio. This increases fuel efficiency in powered aircraft and increases
cross-country speed in gliders, in both cases increasing range. U.S. Air Force studies indicate that a
given improvement in fuel efficiency correlates directly with the causal increase in the aircraft's lift-to-
drag ratio.
 Winglets break down the vortices at the wingtips into smaller eddies, which partly cancel each
other out. This reduces flow resist-ance and improves lift—the air-craft rises faster and there-fore
generates less noise while taking off. It also needs less energy in flight, which increases its range.

6.PASSIVE POROUS SURFACE

Porous coatings are a passive flow control method that have received significant attention,
primarily for their ability to reduce aerodynamic noise. However, they have also shown potential about
drag reduction. 1981 NASA report states the importance of the study of turbulent boundary layer flow
over porous surfaces for applications such as drag reduction, noise control and boundary layer control.
the use of porous treatments has been investigated for decades, with flow over riverbeds, bluff bodies,
aerofoils, porous screens, and forest canopies, among the areas being studied. When it comes to flow
around bluff bodies, one of the main focuses is the control of vortex shedding, as this phenomenon
can result in structural vibration, acoustic noise, increased drag, stresses on structures etc. They have
been identified as an effective means for the control of aerodynamic noise and vibration from bluff
bodies, blunt edges and aerofoils with the consensus being that they lead to the stabilisation of
turbulence, vortex shedding attenuation, control of flow instabilities and reduction in noise. Many
studies concluded that the porous coating reduced the fluctuation of aerodynamic forces.

Porous passive surfaces are designed to manipulate fluid flow by incorporating a network of
small, interconnected pores or channels within a solid medium. These surfaces can be made from
materials like metal, polymers, or ceramics, and the size and distribution of the pores can be tailored
to achieve specific flow control objectives.

When a fluid flows over a porous surface, it interacts with the pores, causing pressure
differences and altering the flow behaviour. This can lead to various effects such as reduced drag,
enhanced heat transfer, and even flow separation control. Porous surfaces find applications in a wide
range of fields. For example, in aerodynamics, they can be used to reduce the drag on aircraft wings
or improve the efficiency of wind turbines. In heat exchangers, porous surfaces can enhance heat
transfer by increasing the surface area available for heat exchange.
 Researchers are continuously exploring different pore structures, materials, and surface
geometries to optimize the performance of porous passive surfaces. It is an exciting area of study with
the potential to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of various fluid systems.

Applications of porous passive surfaces:

1. Wingtip Vortex Control: Porous surfaces can be used on the wingtips of aircraft to control the
formation of vortices, which are swirling air masses that can increase drag and reduce efficiency. By
strategically placing porous materials, the vortices can be weakened or disrupted, leading to improved
aerodynamic performance.

2. Boundary Layer Control: The boundary layer is the thin layer of air that flows along the surface of
an aircraft. By incorporating porous surfaces, the boundary layer can be controlled to minimize
turbulence and reduce drag. This helps in improving fuel efficiency and overall flight performance.

3. Ice Formation Prevention: In freezing weather conditions, ice formation on aircraft surfaces can be
a safety concern. Porous surfaces can be used to circulate a de-icing fluid through the pores, preventing
ice buildup and ensuring safe operation.

4. Noise Reduction: Aircraft noise is a significant environmental concern. Porous surfaces can be
employed to reduce noise generated by airflow over the aircraft's surfaces. The porous materials
absorb and dissipate the sound energy, resulting in quieter aircraft operations.