Management

Information
System (MIS)
KMBN208
CONTENTS
Unit 1 .............................................................................................................................. 5
Management Information System (MIS) ...................................................................... 5
Contemporary Approaches to MIS .............................................................................. 9
Technical Approach .................................................................................................... 11
Information as a Strategic Resource ......................................................................... 14
The Use of Information for Competitive Advantage ................................................. 14
MIS as an Instrument for Organizational Change..................................................... 16
Information Technology Characteristics ................................................................... 18
IT Capabilities and their organizational impact ........................................................ 20
Recent Developments in the Field of IT .................................................................... 22
IT-enabled services (ITES) .......................................................................................... 24
Transaction Processing System Characteristics and its importance .................... 26
Unit 2 ............................................................................................................................ 28
Information, Management, and Decision Making ..................................................... 28
MIS: Sources and Types of Information .................................................................... 30
Relevance of Information in Decision Making .......................................................... 32
Data Information and Types ....................................................................................... 34
Models of Decision Making ........................................................................................ 36
Classical, Administrative, Herbert Simon’s Models ................................................. 38
Management Support Systems (MSS) ....................................................................... 40
Decision Support Systems (DSS) .............................................................................. 42
Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) ................................................................ 44
Groupware Technologies ........................................................................................ 44
Executive Information Systems (EIS) ........................................................................ 46
Unit 3 ............................................................................................................................ 48
The Need for Data Management ................................................................................. 48
Challenges of Data Management ............................................................................... 48
Managing Data Resources ...................................................................................... 49
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 49
Data Independence ..................................................................................................... 50
Benefits of Data Independence ............................................................................... 50
 Challenges of Data Independence .......................................................................... 50
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 51
Data Redundancy ........................................................................................................ 52
Types of Data Redundancy ..................................................................................... 52
Causes of Data Redundancy................................................................................... 52
Remedies for Data Redundancy ............................................................................. 53
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 53
Data Consistency ........................................................................................................ 54
Data Consistency Problems .................................................................................... 54
Maintaining Data Consistency ................................................................................ 54
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 55
Basic Database Administration.................................................................................. 56
Tasks of a DBA......................................................................................................... 56
Skills and Qualities of a DBA .................................................................................. 56
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 57
Database Management Systems (DBMS) .................................................................. 58
Database Concepts .................................................................................................. 58
Benefits of DBMSs ................................................................................................... 58
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 59
Fields, Records, Table, View, Reports and Queries ................................................. 60
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 61
Data Warehousing ....................................................................................................... 62
Components of a Data Warehouse ......................................................................... 62
Benefits of Data Warehousing ................................................................................ 62
Challenges of Data Warehousing ........................................................................... 63
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 63
Data Mining .................................................................................................................. 64
Types of Data Mining ............................................................................................... 64
Data Mining Techniques .......................................................................................... 64
Benefits of Data Mining ........................................................................................... 65
Challenges of Data Mining ...................................................................................... 65
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 65
Data Mining Techniques ............................................................................................. 66
Association rule mining ....................................................................................... 66
Classification ........................................................................................................ 66
Clustering .............................................................................................................. 66
Regression ............................................................................................................ 66
Other data mining techniques ............................................................................. 66
Choosing the right data mining technique ............................................................ 67
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 67
Business Intelligence Database Management System (Lab) .................................. 68
Practical Work in the Computer lab ....................................................................... 68
Creating Tables ........................................................................................................ 68
Creating Views ......................................................................................................... 68
Creating Reports ...................................................................................................... 69
Basics of SQL........................................................................................................... 70
Running Queries ...................................................................................................... 70
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 70
 Unit 1

Management Information System (MIS)

A management information system (MIS) is a system that provides information to
managers to help them make decisions. MIS systems collect data from within and
outside of an organization, and they process that data into information that is useful to
managers.
MIS systems can be used to track sales, inventory, customer data, and other important
information. They can also be used to generate reports, create dashboards, and provide
real-time data to managers.
MIS systems are becoming increasingly important as businesses become more
complex. With the right MIS system, managers can make better decisions, improve
efficiency, and increase profits.
Components of an MIS
An MIS typically consists of the following components:
 Hardware: The physical components of an MIS, such as computers, servers, and
networking equipment.
 Software: The programs that run on the hardware and process the data into information.
 Data: The raw facts and figures that are collected by the MIS.
 People: The users of the MIS, such as managers, employees, and customers.
 Processes: The procedures that are used to collect, process, and distribute the data.
Types of MIS
There are many different types of MIS, but some of the most common include:
 Transaction processing systems (TPS): TPS systems are used to track routine
transactions, such as sales, inventory, and customer orders.
 Decision support systems (DSS): DSS systems are used to help managers make
decisions. They typically provide access to data and analytical tools that can be used to
analyze scenarios and make predictions.
 Executive information systems (EIS): EIS systems are designed for senior executives.
They typically provide access to summarized data and reports that can be used to track
performance and make strategic decisions.
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems: ERP systems are integrated suites of
software that are used to manage all aspects of a business, such as accounting,
manufacturing, and supply chain management.
Benefits of MIS
MIS systems can offer a number of benefits to businesses, including:
 Improved decision-making: MIS systems can provide managers with access to the
information they need to make better decisions.
 Increased efficiency: MIS systems can help businesses to automate tasks and improve
efficiency.
 Reduced costs: MIS systems can help businesses to reduce costs by eliminating
manual processes and improving efficiency.
 Increased customer satisfaction: MIS systems can help businesses to improve
customer service by providing better insights into customer behavior and needs.
 Competitive advantage: MIS systems can help businesses to gain a competitive
advantage by providing them with access to information and insights that their
competitors do not have.
Management Information Systems (MIS) are computer-based systems that collect,
process, store, and distribute information to support decision-making and management
activities within an organization. They are designed to help managers at different levels
of an organization make informed decisions by providing timely, accurate, and relevant
information.

The need for MIS arises from the growing complexity and volume of information that
organizations deal with on a daily basis. In today's business environment, organizations
have to process a vast amount of data from various sources, such as sales figures,
customer information, inventory levels, financial data, and market trends. Without an
effective MIS, it would be challenging for managers to make sense of this information
and use it to make informed decisions.

The purpose of MIS is to facilitate the flow of information within an organization and
ensure that managers have the information they need when they need it. It helps
managers gather, analyze, and interpret data to identify trends, patterns, and
relationships that can inform their decision-making process. By providing timely and
accurate information, MIS enables managers to monitor the performance of different
departments, evaluate the effectiveness of strategies, identify problems, and take
appropriate actions.

The objectives of MIS can vary depending on the specific needs and goals of an
organization, but some common objectives include:

Data collection and storage: MIS collects and stores data from various sources, both
internal and external to the organization. This includes transactional data, customer
information, market research data, and more. The objective is to have a centralized
repository of data that can be easily accessed and used for decision-making.

Data processing and analysis: MIS processes the collected data to transform it into
meaningful information. This involves tasks such as data cleaning, data integration, data
transformation, and data analysis. The objective is to convert raw data into valuable
insights that managers can use to make informed decisions.

Information dissemination: MIS distributes information to the relevant stakeholders

within the organization. This can be done through reports, dashboards, alerts, or other
means of communication. The objective is to ensure that managers receive the right
information at the right time to support their decision-making process.

Decision support: MIS provides tools and techniques to support decision-making. This
can include generating forecasts, conducting what-if analyses, creating simulations, and
providing access to historical data. The objective is to assist managers in evaluating
alternative courses of action and making sound decisions based on reliable information.

Performance monitoring: MIS helps monitor the performance of different departments

and processes within the organization. This involves setting performance metrics,
collecting data on actual performance, and comparing it against the desired targets. The
objective is to identify areas of improvement, track progress, and take corrective actions
if necessary.

Overall, the need for MIS arises from the increasing complexity of business operations
and the abundance of data available. Its purpose is to provide managers with timely and
accurate information to support decision-making, while its objectives include data
collection and storage, data processing and analysis, information dissemination,
decision support, and performance monitoring. By fulfilling these objectives, MIS helps
organizations improve their efficiency, effectiveness, and competitiveness in the
marketplace.
Conclusion
MIS systems are becoming increasingly important as businesses become more
complex. With the right MIS system, managers can make better decisions, improve
efficiency, and increase profits.
Contemporary Approaches to MIS
Contemporary Approaches to Management Information Systems (MIS) refer to the
modern strategies and methodologies used in designing and implementing MIS within
organizations. These approaches leverage technological advancements and emerging
trends to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of information systems. Here are a
few Examples of contemporary approaches to MIS:

1. Cloud Computing: Cloud computing is a popular contemporary approach to MIS that

involves the use of remote servers to store, process, and manage data over the
internet. It offers several benefits, including scalability, cost-effectiveness, and
accessibility. Organizations can leverage cloud-based MIS to store and access their
data securely from anywhere, enabling real-time collaboration and reducing
infrastructure costs. For Example, a company may use cloud-based customer
relationship management (CRM) software to store customer data, track sales activities,
and improve customer service.

2. Big Data Analytics: With the proliferation of data from various sources, big data
analytics has emerged as an essential approach in MIS. It involves processing and
analyzing large volumes of structured and unstructured data to extract valuable insights
and patterns. Organizations can leverage big data analytics to make data-driven
decisions, gain a competitive advantage, and identify market trends. For instance, a
retail company may analyze customer purchase patterns to identify cross-selling
opportunities or optimize inventory management.

3. Mobile Applications: The widespread use of smartphones and tablets has led to the
development of mobile applications as a contemporary approach to MIS. Mobile apps
enable organizations to provide real-time access to information and services to their
employees and customers on mobile devices. For Example, a logistics company might
have a mobile app that allows its drivers to receive delivery orders, track routes, and
update shipment status in real time, improving operational efficiency.
4. Business Intelligence (BI): Business Intelligence refers to the use of technologies,
applications, and practices for gathering, integrating, analyzing, and presenting
business information. BI tools and systems provide interactive dashboards, reports, and
visualizations that help managers understand and interpret data quickly. For instance, a
marketing team can use BI software to track and analyze marketing campaign
performance, monitor key performance indicators (KPIs), and make data-driven
decisions to optimize marketing strategies.

5. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): AI and ML technologies are
revolutionizing MIS by enabling automated data analysis, predictive modeling, and
intelligent decision-making. AI-powered chatbots, for Example, can assist customers by
providing instant responses to their queries. ML algorithms can analyze historical sales
data to predict future demand and optimize inventory levels. AI and ML can also be
used for fraud detection, risk assessment, and process automation, among other
applications.

6. Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT refers to the network of physical devices
embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity, allowing them to collect and
exchange data. IoT devices can be integrated with MIS to capture and transmit real-
time data, enabling organizations to monitor and control various aspects of their
operations. For Example, a manufacturing plant may use IoT sensors to monitor
equipment performance, detect anomalies, and trigger maintenance alerts, improving
operational efficiency and reducing downtime.

These are just a few Examples of contemporary approaches to MIS. Each approach
leverages technology and emerging trends to enhance the efficiency, accessibility, and
effectiveness of information systems within organizations, enabling them to make data-
driven decisions and gain a competitive advantage in the digital age.
 Technical Approach
The technical approach to MIS emphasizes the use of technology to solve business
problems. This approach is based on the assumption that the right technology can be
used to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and decision-making in organizations.
The technical approach draws on the disciplines of computer science, management
science, and operations research. These disciplines provide the theoretical foundation
for the technical approach, and they offer a variety of tools and techniques for
designing, developing, and implementing MIS.
Key concepts and principles
The following are some of the key concepts and principles of the technical approach to
MIS:
 Systems thinking: The idea that an MIS is a system that consists of interrelated parts.
 Data modeling: The process of representing data in a way that is understandable by
computers.
 Information architecture: The process of designing the structure of an MIS.
 User-centered design: The process of designing MIS systems with the needs of users in
mind.
 Systems development life cycle: The process of developing and implementing MIS
systems.
Examples of the technical approach
The technical approach has been used to develop a wide variety of MIS systems,
including:
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems: ERP systems are integrated suites of
software that are used to manage all aspects of a business, such as accounting,
manufacturing, and supply chain management.
 Customer relationship management (CRM) systems: CRM systems are used to manage
customer interactions and track customer data.
 Data warehouses: Data warehouses are repositories of historical data that can be used
for analysis and decision-making.
 Business intelligence (BI) systems: BI systems use data mining and other techniques to
extract insights from data.
 Strengths and weaknesses
The technical approach has a number of strengths, including:
 It can be used to solve a wide variety of business problems.
 It can be used to improve efficiency and effectiveness.
 It can be used to make better decisions.
However, the technical approach also has some weaknesses, including:
 It can be expensive to implement.
 It can be difficult to manage.
 It can be difficult to change.
Conclusion
The technical approach is a powerful tool that can be used to improve the performance
of organizations. However, it is important to remember that the technical approach is
only one part of MIS. The behavioral and sociotechnical approaches are also important,
and they should be considered when designing and implementing MIS systems.
Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach to MIS emphasizes the human side of MIS. This approach is
based on the assumption that the success of an MIS depends on how it is used by
people in organizations.
The behavioral approach draws on the disciplines of psychology, sociology, and
organizational behavior. These disciplines provide the theoretical foundation for the
behavioral approach, and they offer a variety of insights into how people use and
interact with MIS.
Key concepts and principles
The following are some of the key concepts and principles of the behavioral approach to
MIS:
 User acceptance: The degree to which users are willing to use an MIS.
 User satisfaction: The degree to which users are satisfied with an MIS.
 Organizational culture: The shared values, beliefs, and norms of an organization.
 Change management: The process of helping people accept and adopt change.
Examples of the behavioral approach
 The behavioral approach has been used to study a wide variety of issues related to
MIS, including:
 The impact of MIS on user behavior.
 The factors that influence user acceptance of MIS.
 The ways in which MIS can be used to change organizational culture.
 The process of implementing change management programs.
Strengths and weaknesses
The behavioral approach has a number of strengths, including:
 It can help to ensure that MIS systems are used effectively.
 It can help to improve user satisfaction.
 It can help to change organizational culture.
However, the behavioral approach also has some weaknesses, including:
 It can be difficult to implement.
 It can be time-consuming.
 It can be expensive.
Conclusion
The behavioral approach is an important complement to the technical approach. By
understanding the human side of MIS, organizations can increase the chances of
success in implementing and using MIS systems.
Sociotechnical Approach
The sociotechnical approach to MIS is a synthesis of the technical and behavioral
approaches. This approach recognizes that MIS is a sociotechnical system, which
means that it is composed of both technical and social components.
 Information as a Strategic Resource
In today's digital age, information is more important than ever before. It is a valuable
resource that can be used to gain a competitive advantage.
Information can be used to:
 Make better decisions.
 Identify new opportunities.
 Understand the competition.
 Improve customer service.
 Reduce costs.
The Use of Information for Competitive Advantage
There are a number of ways that information can be used to gain a competitive
advantage. Here are a few Examples:
 Differentiation: Information can be used to differentiate a company's products or
services from those of its competitors. For Example, a company might use information
to develop a new product that meets a specific customer need.
 Cost leadership: Information can be used to reduce costs. For Example, a company
might use information to identify areas where it can streamline its operations or
eliminate waste.
 Focus: Information can be used to focus a company's resources on its core
competencies. For Example, a company might use information to identify the
customers that are most profitable and then focus its marketing efforts on those
customers.
Conclusion
Information is a valuable strategic resource that can be used to gain a competitive
advantage. By understanding the value of information and how it can be used,
organizations can improve their performance and achieve their goals.
Here are some additional thoughts on the use of information for competitive advantage:
 Information can be used to create a competitive advantage in a number of ways, but it is
important to note that information is not a silver bullet. In order to be successful,
organizations need to have a clear understanding of their goals and how information
can help them achieve those goals.
 Information is also a dynamic resource. The value of information can change over time,
so it is important for organizations to constantly be evaluating their information assets
and making sure that they are using them in the most effective way possible.
 Finally, it is important to remember that information is not just about data. It is also
about the context in which that data is used. By understanding the context,
organizations can make better use of the information they have and gain a competitive
advantage.
Examples of organizations that have used information to gain a competitive advantage:
 Amazon: Amazon uses information to understand its customers' needs and
preferences. This information helps Amazon to recommend products to customers,
personalize their shopping experience, and target its marketing campaigns.
 Netflix: Netflix uses information to track what its customers watch. This information
helps Netflix to recommend new shows and movies to customers, and to optimize its
content library.
 Walmart: Walmart uses information to track its inventory levels and sales trends. This
information helps Walmart to optimize its supply chain and to make sure that it has the
right products in the right stores at the right time.
These are just a few Examples of how organizations can use information to gain a
competitive advantage. By understanding the value of information and how it can be
used, organizations can improve their performance and achieve their goals.
 MIS as an Instrument for Organizational Change
Management information systems (MIS) can be used as an instrument for
organizational change. MIS can help organizations to change their business processes,
their organizational structure, and their culture.
How MIS Can Help Organizations Change
MIS can help organizations change in a number of ways. Here are a few Examples:
 Reengineering: MIS can be used to reengineer business processes. This involves
redesigning the way that work is done in order to improve efficiency and effectiveness.
 Organizational restructuring: MIS can be used to restructure organizations. This
involves changing the way that organizations are structured in order to improve
efficiency and effectiveness.
 Cultural change: MIS can be used to change organizational culture. This involves
changing the values, beliefs, and norms of an organization in order to improve its
performance.
Examples of How MIS Has Been Used to Change Organizations
There are many Examples of how MIS has been used to change organizations. Here
are a few Examples:
 Walmart: Walmart used MIS to reengineer its supply chain. This involved using
information technology to track inventory levels and sales trends. The result was a more
efficient supply chain that allowed Walmart to reduce costs and improve customer
service.
 GE: GE used MIS to restructure its organization. This involved creating a flatter
organization with fewer layers of management. The result was a more efficient
organization that was able to make decisions more quickly.
 Toyota: Toyota used MIS to change its culture. This involved creating a culture that
emphasizes continuous improvement and problem-solving. The result was a more
innovative organization that was able to stay ahead of its competitors.
Conclusion
MIS can be a powerful instrument for organizational change. By understanding how MIS
can be used to change organizations, managers can improve their chances of success
in implementing and managing change.
 Here are some additional thoughts on the use of MIS for organizational change:
 MIS is not a silver bullet. It cannot change an organization by itself. However, MIS can
be a powerful tool that can be used to facilitate change.
 The success of MIS-led change depends on a number of factors, including the
following:
o The alignment of MIS with the organization's goals and objectives
o The involvement of key stakeholders in the change process
o The careful planning and implementation of the change
 MIS-led change can be a challenging process, but it can be very rewarding. By
understanding the potential benefits of MIS for organizational change, managers can
make informed decisions about whether or not to use MIS to facilitate change.
 Information Technology Characteristics
Information technology (IT) is a broad term that encompasses the use of computers,
software, and telecommunications to create, store, manage, and exchange information.
IT has had a profound impact on the way we live and work, and it is continuing to evolve
at a rapid pace.
Some of the key characteristics of IT include:
 Digitalization: IT allows us to represent information in digital form, which makes it easier
to store, manage, and exchange.
 Connectivity: IT allows us to connect with people and information from anywhere in the
world.
 Automation: IT can automate tasks, which can save time and improve efficiency.
 Intelligence: IT can be used to make decisions and solve problems.
Emerging Trends in IT
There are a number of emerging trends in IT that are having a significant impact on
businesses and organizations. Some of the most important trends include:
 The rise of big data: Big data is the term used to describe the massive amounts of data
that is being generated by businesses and organizations. This data can be used to gain
insights into customer behavior, identify trends, and make better decisions.
 The growth of cloud computing: Cloud computing is a model for delivering IT services
over the internet. This model is becoming increasingly popular because it is more
efficient and cost-effective than traditional IT models.
 The development of artificial intelligence (AI): AI is a branch of computer science that
deals with the creation of intelligent agents. These agents can learn and make
decisions, which can automate tasks and improve efficiency.
 The increasing use of mobile devices: Mobile devices are becoming increasingly
popular, and they are changing the way we interact with IT. Mobile devices allow us to
access information and services from anywhere, which is making it easier for
businesses to reach their customers.
Conclusion
IT is a rapidly evolving field that is having a profound impact on the way we live and
work. By understanding the key characteristics of IT and the emerging trends,
 businesses and organizations can stay ahead of the curve and make informed
decisions about how to use IT to their advantage.
Here are some additional thoughts on the emerging trends in IT:
 These trends are changing the way we live and work, and they are creating new
opportunities for businesses and organizations.
 Businesses and organizations that are able to embrace these trends will be well-
positioned for success in the future.
 However, it is important to note that these trends are also creating new challenges.
Businesses and organizations need to be aware of these challenges and develop
strategies to address them.
 IT Capabilities and their organizational impact

Information technology (IT) has had a profound impact on organizations in recent years.
IT has changed the way organizations operate, the way they interact with their
customers, and the way they compete in the marketplace.
Here are some of the key impacts of IT on organizations:
 Increased efficiency: IT can help organizations to automate tasks, which can save time
and improve efficiency.
 Improved decision-making: IT can help organizations to access and analyze data, which
can lead to better decision-making.
 Enhanced customer service: IT can help organizations to provide better customer
service by providing customers with access to information and services 24/7.
 New business opportunities: IT can help organizations to create new business
opportunities by enabling them to reach new customers and markets.
 Increased competition: IT has made it easier for new businesses to enter the
marketplace, which has increased competition for existing businesses.
Examples of how IT has impacted organizations:
 Amazon: Amazon uses IT to automate its warehouse operations, which has helped it to
reduce costs and improve efficiency.
 Netflix: Netflix uses IT to track what its customers watch, which helps it to recommend
new shows and movies to customers.
 Walmart: Walmart uses IT to track its inventory levels and sales trends, which helps it to
optimize its supply chain and to make sure that it has the right products in the right
stores at the right time.
Conclusion
IT has had a profound impact on organizations in recent years. IT has changed the way
organizations operate, the way they interact with their customers, and the way they
compete in the marketplace. Organizations that are able to embrace IT and use it to
their advantage will be well-positioned for success in the future.
Here are some additional thoughts on the impact of IT on organizations:
 The impact of IT on organizations is still evolving. As IT continues to develop, we can
expect to see even more changes in the way organizations operate.
 The impact of IT on organizations is not always positive. IT can also lead to job losses,
as tasks that were once done by humans can now be done by machines.
 It is important for organizations to manage the impact of IT carefully. Organizations
need to make sure that they are using IT to their advantage, and they need to be aware
of the potential negative consequences of IT.
 Recent Developments in the Field of IT
The field of information technology (IT) is constantly evolving, and there are a number of
recent developments that are having a significant impact on businesses and
organizations. Some of the most important recent developments include:
1. The rise of big data: Big data is the term used to describe the massive amounts of
data that is being generated by businesses and organizations. This data can be used to
gain insights into customer behavior, identify trends, and make better decisions.
2. The growth of cloud computing: Cloud computing is a model for delivering IT services
over the internet. This model is becoming increasingly popular because it is more
efficient and cost-effective than traditional IT models.
3. The development of artificial intelligence (AI): AI is a branch of computer science that
deals with the creation of intelligent agents. These agents can learn and make
decisions, which can automate tasks and improve efficiency.
4. The increasing use of mobile devices: Mobile devices are becoming increasingly
popular, and they are changing the way we interact with IT. Mobile devices allow us to
access information and services from anywhere, which is making it easier for
businesses to reach their customers.
5. The emergence of 5G: 5G is the fifth generation of cellular network technology. It
offers significantly faster speeds and lower latency than previous generations, which is
making it possible to support new applications such as augmented reality and virtual
reality.
6. The development of quantum computing: Quantum computing is a new type of
computing that is based on the principles of quantum mechanics. Quantum computers
have the potential to solve problems that are intractable for traditional computers, which
could have a major impact on a wide range of industries.
These are just a few of the recent developments in the field of IT. These developments
are having a significant impact on businesses and organizations, and they are creating
new opportunities and challenges.
Here are some additional thoughts on the recent developments in IT:
 These developments are changing the way we live and work, and they are creating new
opportunities for businesses and organizations.
 Businesses and organizations that are able to embrace these developments will be
well-positioned for success in the future.
 However, it is important to note that these developments are also creating new
challenges. Businesses and organizations need to be aware of these challenges and
develop strategies to address them.
IT-enabled services (ITES)
IT-enabled services (ITES) are a broad range of services that use information
technology (IT) to deliver value to customers. ITES can include a variety of services,
such as:

Business process outsourcing (BPO): BPO is the outsourcing of business processes to

a third-party provider. This can include tasks such as customer service, data entry, and
accounting.
Knowledge process outsourcing (KPO): KPO is the outsourcing of knowledge-intensive
tasks to a third-party provider. This can include tasks such as research, analysis, and
consulting.
IT-enabled services (ITES): ITES is the provision of IT-related services to customers.
This can include tasks such as software development, system integration, and IT
support.
ITES can be delivered in a variety of ways, including:
Onshore: ITES that is delivered within the same country as the customer.
Nearshore: ITES that is delivered in a nearby country.
Offshore: ITES that is delivered in a country that is far away from the customer.
The benefits of ITES include:
Cost savings: ITES can help organizations to save money by outsourcing tasks to
lower-cost countries.
Increased efficiency: ITES can help organizations to improve their efficiency by
automating tasks and freeing up employees to focus on more strategic work.
Improved customer service: ITES can help organizations to improve their customer
service by providing 24/7 support and by leveraging the expertise of third-party
providers.
The challenges of ITES include:
Security: ITES can raise security concerns, as sensitive data may be transferred to
third-party providers.
Culture: ITES can raise cultural concerns, as organizations may need to adapt to the
culture of the country where the services are being delivered.
Communication: ITES can raise communication challenges, as organizations may need
to communicate effectively with third-party providers in different time zones and
cultures.
Overall, ITES can be a valuable tool for organizations that are looking to improve their
efficiency, customer service, and cost savings. However, it is important to carefully
consider the benefits and challenges of ITES before making a decision.

Here are some Examples of ITES:

 A company might outsource its customer service to a call center in India.

 A bank might outsource its data entry to a company in the Philippines.
 A software company might outsource its development to a company in China.
 ITES is a growing industry, and it is expected to continue to grow in the future.
This is because IT is becoming increasingly pervasive in all aspects of business,
and organizations are looking for ways to leverage IT to improve their
performance.
 Transaction Processing System Characteristics and its importance

Transaction Processing System (TPS)

A transaction processing system (TPS) is a type of information system that is designed
to capture and process data related to business transactions. TPSs are used to track
day-to-day business activities, such as sales, inventory, and customer orders.
Key Characteristics of TPSs
TPSs have a number of key characteristics, including:
 Real-time processing: TPSs are designed to process data in real time, which means
that the data is processed as soon as it is entered.
 Iterative processing: TPSs are designed to process data in an iterative manner, which
means that the data is processed repeatedly until it is complete.
 Batch processing: TPSs can also be used to process data in batches, which means that
the data is processed in groups.
 Transactional data: TPSs are designed to process transactional data, which is data that
is related to business transactions.
Examples of TPSs
Some Examples of TPSs include:
 Point-of-sale (POS) systems: POS systems are used to track sales transactions in retail
stores.
 Banking systems: Banking systems are used to track financial transactions, such as
deposits and withdrawals.
 Inventory management systems: Inventory management systems are used to track
inventory levels and orders.
 Customer relationship management (CRM) systems: CRM systems are used to track
customer interactions and data.
 Benefits of TPSs
TPSs offer a number of benefits, including:
 Improved efficiency: TPSs can help to improve efficiency by automating business
processes.
 Reduced errors: TPSs can help to reduce errors by ensuring that data is processed
accurately.
 Improved decision-making: TPSs can help to improve decision-making by providing
access to real-time data.
 Increased customer satisfaction: TPSs can help to increase customer satisfaction by
providing faster and more accurate service.
Drawbacks of TPSs
TPSs also have some drawbacks, including:
 High cost: TPSs can be expensive to implement and maintain.
 Complexity: TPSs can be complex to design and implement.
 Security risks: TPSs can be vulnerable to security risks, such as data breaches.
Conclusion
TPSs are an essential part of many businesses. They help to improve efficiency, reduce
errors, and improve decision-making. However, TPSs can also be expensive and
complex to implement. It is important to carefully consider the needs of the business
before implementing a TPS.
Here are some additional thoughts on TPSs:
 TPSs are often used in conjunction with other types of information systems, such as
decision support systems (DSS) and executive information systems (EIS).
 TPSs are becoming increasingly important as businesses become more data-driven.
 The future of TPSs is likely to be characterized by the increasing use of cloud
computing and mobile devices.
 Unit 2

Information, Management, and Decision Making

Information is the foundation of decision making. Without information, it is impossible to
make informed decisions. However, information is not enough. It is also important to
know how to manage information and how to use it to make decisions.
Information Management
Information management is the process of collecting, organizing, and storing
information. It is important to manage information effectively in order to make informed
decisions. There are a number of different ways to manage information, including:
 Data modeling: Data modeling is the process of creating a model of data. This model
can be used to understand the data and to make it easier to manage.
 Data warehousing: Data warehousing is the process of collecting and storing data from
different sources. This data can be used to make informed decisions.
 Data mining: Data mining is the process of extracting patterns from data. These
patterns can be used to make informed decisions.
Decision Making
Decision making is the process of choosing between different options. There are a
number of different decision-making models, including:
 Rational decision making: Rational decision making is the process of making decisions
based on logic and reason.
 Intuitive decision making: Intuitive decision making is the process of making decisions
based on gut instinct.
 Group decision making: Group decision making is the process of making decisions with
a group of people.
The Role of Information in Decision Making
Information plays a critical role in decision making. Without information, it is impossible
to make informed decisions. However, information is not enough. It is also important to
know how to manage information and how to use it to make decisions.
The Benefits of Effective Information Management
There are a number of benefits to effective information management, including:
 Improved decision making: Effective information management can lead to improved
decision making by providing decision-makers with the information they need to make
informed decisions.
 Increased efficiency: Effective information management can lead to increased efficiency
by streamlining business processes and reducing the amount of time spent searching
for information.
 Reduced costs: Effective information management can lead to reduced costs by
eliminating duplicate data and by making it easier to find and share information.
The Challenges of Effective Information Management
There are a number of challenges to effective information management, including:
 Data overload: The amount of data available is constantly growing, which can make it
difficult to manage.
 Data quality: The quality of data can vary, which can make it difficult to make informed
decisions.
 Security: Information needs to be protected from unauthorized access.
Conclusion
Information, management, and decision making are all essential components of
business success. By understanding how to manage information effectively and how to
use it to make decisions, businesses can improve their performance and achieve their
goals.
Here are some additional thoughts on information, management, and decision making:
 The role of information in decision making is becoming increasingly important as
businesses become more data-driven.
 The challenges of effective information management are also becoming increasingly
complex.
 The future of information management is likely to be characterized by the increasing
use of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
 MIS: Sources and Types of Information
Management Information Systems (MIS)
Management information systems (MIS) are systems that collect, store, and process
data to provide information for decision-making. MIS can be used in a variety of
settings, including businesses, government agencies, and educational institutions.
Sources of Information
There are a variety of sources of information that can be used by MIS. Some of the
most common sources of information include:
 Internal sources: Internal sources of information are data that is generated within an
organization. This data can include sales figures, customer data, and inventory levels.
 External sources: External sources of information are data that is generated outside of
an organization. This data can include market research data, economic data, and
weather data.
 People: People can also be a source of information. This information can be obtained
through interviews, surveys, and focus groups.
Types of Information
The types of information that can be used by MIS can vary depending on the needs of
the organization. Some of the most common types of information include:
 Transactional data: Transactional data is data that is generated from business
transactions. This data can include sales orders, customer payments, and inventory
shipments.
 Analytical data: Analytical data is data that is used to analyze trends and patterns. This
data can include sales figures, customer data, and inventory levels.
 Decisional data: Decisional data is data that is used to make decisions. This data can
include market research data, economic data, and weather data.
Benefits of MIS
MIS can provide a number of benefits for organizations, including:
 Improved decision-making: MIS can help organizations to make better decisions by
providing them with access to relevant information.
 Increased efficiency: MIS can help organizations to become more efficient by
automating tasks and streamlining processes.
 Reduced costs: MIS can help organizations to reduce costs by eliminating duplicate
data and by making it easier to find and share information.
Challenges of MIS
MIS can also present a number of challenges for organizations, including:
 Data overload: The amount of data that is available can be overwhelming, which can
make it difficult to manage and analyze.
 Data quality: The quality of data can vary, which can make it difficult to make informed
decisions.
 Security: Information needs to be protected from unauthorized access.
Conclusion
MIS can be a valuable tool for organizations that are looking to improve their decision-
making, efficiency, and costs. However, it is important to be aware of the challenges of
MIS and to take steps to mitigate these challenges.
Here are some additional thoughts on MIS:
 The role of MIS in organizations is becoming increasingly important as businesses
become more data-driven.
 The challenges of MIS are also becoming increasingly complex.
 The future of MIS is likely to be characterized by the increasing use of artificial
intelligence and machine learning.
 Relevance of Information in Decision Making
Information is essential for decision making. Without information, it is impossible to
make informed decisions. However, not all information is created equal. Some
information is more relevant to decision making than other information.
What is Relevant Information?
Relevant information is information that is helpful in making a decision. It is information
that is accurate, timely, and complete. It is also information that is specific to the
decision that is being made.
Why is Relevant Information Important?
Relevant information is important because it can help decision-makers to make better
decisions. By having access to relevant information, decision-makers can avoid making
decisions based on incomplete or inaccurate information. They can also make decisions
that are more likely to be successful.
How to Identify Relevant Information
There are a few things that decision-makers can do to identify relevant information.
First, they need to understand the decision that they are making. What are the goals of
the decision? What are the options that are available? Once they understand the
decision, they can start to identify information that is relevant to the decision.
Second, decision-makers need to consider the sources of information. Where can they
find the information that they need? Is the information accurate? Is it timely? Is it
complete?
Third, decision-makers need to evaluate the information. How reliable is the
information? How credible is the source of the information? Is the information relevant to
the decision that is being made?
Conclusion
Relevant information is essential for decision making. By identifying and evaluating
relevant information, decision-makers can make better decisions that are more likely to
be successful.
Here are some additional thoughts on the relevance of information in decision making:
 The amount of information available to decision-makers is constantly growing. This can
make it difficult to identify and evaluate relevant information.
 The quality of information can vary. It is important to be critical of the information that is
being used to make decisions.
 The relevance of information can change over time. It is important to keep up-to-date
with the latest information so that decisions can be made based on the most accurate
information available.
 Data Information and Types
Data and Information
Data and information are often used interchangeably, but they are not the same thing.
Data is raw facts and figures. Information is data that has been processed and
organized so that it has meaning.
Types of Data
There are two main types of data: quantitative and qualitative.
 Quantitative data is data that can be measured and counted. Examples of quantitative
data include sales figures, customer numbers, and inventory levels.
 Qualitative data is data that cannot be easily measured or counted. Examples of
qualitative data include customer feedback, employee opinions, and market research
data.
Types of Information
There are many different types of information, but some of the most common include:
 Transactional information: Transactional information is information about business
transactions. This information can include sales orders, customer payments, and
inventory shipments.
 Analytical information: Analytical information is information that is used to analyze
trends and patterns. This information can include sales figures, customer data, and
inventory levels.
 Decisional information: Decisional information is information that is used to make
decisions. This information can include market research data, economic data, and
weather data.
The Importance of Data and Information
Data and information are essential for decision making. Without data and information, it
is impossible to make informed decisions. Data and information can help decision-
makers to understand the situation, identify problems, and develop solutions.
How to Use Data and Information
There are a few things that decision-makers can do to use data and information
effectively. First, they need to understand the data and information that they have. What
does the data mean? What does the information tell them?
 Second, decision-makers need to evaluate the data and information. Is the data
accurate? Is the information reliable? Is the information relevant to the decision that is
being made?
Third, decision-makers need to use the data and information to make decisions. What
are the options that are available? What are the risks and benefits of each option?
Conclusion
Data and information are essential for decision making. By understanding and using
data and information effectively, decision-makers can make better decisions that are
more likely to be successful.
Here are some additional thoughts on data and information:
 The amount of data and information available is constantly growing. This can make it
difficult to keep up with the latest information.
 The quality of data and information can vary. It is important to be critical of the data and
information that is being used to make decisions.
 The relevance of data and information can change over time. It is important to keep up-
to-date with the latest information so that decisions can be made based on the most
accurate information available.
Models of Decision Making
Decision making is the process of choosing between different options. There are a
number of different models of decision making, each with its own strengths and
weaknesses.
Rational Decision Making
The rational decision-making model is the most common model of decision making. In
this model, decision-makers are assumed to be completely rational and to have perfect
information. They are also assumed to be able to identify all of the possible options and
to calculate the costs and benefits of each option.
The rational decision-making model is often unrealistic, as it assumes that decision-
makers have perfect information and are able to calculate the costs and benefits of all of
the possible options. However, the rational decision-making model can be a useful tool
for understanding how decisions are made in ideal circumstances.
Bounded Rationality
The bounded rationality model of decision making is a more realistic model of decision
making. In this model, decision-makers are assumed to be limited by their knowledge,
time, and cognitive abilities. They are also assumed to be satisficers, meaning that they
are looking for a solution that is good enough, rather than the best possible solution.
The bounded rationality model is more realistic than the rational decision-making model,
as it takes into account the limitations of human decision-making. However, the
bounded rationality model can also be seen as a pessimistic view of decision making,
as it suggests that decision-makers are not always able to make the best possible
decisions.
Intuitive Decision Making
The intuitive decision-making model is based on the idea that decision-makers often
make decisions based on their gut instinct, rather than on rational analysis. This model
is often used to explain how people make decisions in fast-paced or uncertain
situations.
The intuitive decision-making model is a useful tool for understanding how people make
decisions in difficult situations. However, it is important to note that intuitive decision
 making can also lead to errors, as it is based on gut instinct rather than on rational
analysis.
Group Decision Making
Group decision making is the process of making decisions as a group. This model is
often used in organizations, as it can help to bring different perspectives to bear on a
decision.
Group decision making can be effective, as it can help to improve the quality of
decisions. However, group decision making can also be time-consuming and difficult, as
it can be difficult to reach consensus.
Conclusion
There are a number of different models of decision making, each with its own strengths
and weaknesses. The best model of decision making for a particular situation will
depend on the specific factors involved in the decision.
Here are some additional thoughts on models of decision making:
 The choice of a decision-making model will depend on the specific factors involved in
the decision.
 No single decision-making model is perfect, and each model has its own strengths and
weaknesses.
 The best way to make a decision is to use a combination of different decision-making
models.
Classical, Administrative, Herbert Simon’s Models

Classical Model
The classical model of decision making is a rational, step-by-step approach to making
decisions. It assumes that decision-makers have all the information they need to make
the best possible decision, and that they are able to make decisions that are in the best
interests of the organization.

The classical model of decision making is often used in business settings, where
decisions need to be made quickly and efficiently. However, the model is not always
realistic, as it does not take into account the fact that decision-makers often have limited
information and time, and that they may be influenced by personal biases.

Administrative Model
The administrative model of decision making is a more realistic approach to decision
making. It recognizes that decision-makers often have limited information and time, and
that they may be influenced by personal biases. The administrative model of decision
making is more flexible than the classical model, and it allows for the possibility of
making suboptimal decisions.

Herbert Simon's Models

Herbert Simon developed two models of decision making: the bounded rationality model
and the satisficing model. The bounded rationality model assumes that decision-makers
are limited by their knowledge, time, and cognitive abilities. This means that they cannot
make perfectly rational decisions, and they must often satisfice, or find a solution that is
good enough, rather than the best possible solution.

The satisficing model is a specific type of bounded rationality model. It assumes that
decision-makers will continue to search for better solutions until they find one that meets
their minimum standards.
Examples

Here are some Examples of how and Herbert Simon's models of decision making can
be used in different situations:

A company that is considering whether to launch a new product might use the classical
model of decision making. The company would gather all the relevant information, such
as market research data, and then make a decision based on the best available
evidence.
A government agency that is trying to decide how to allocate limited resources might
use the administrative model of decision making. The agency would consider the
different factors involved in the decision, such as the needs of the different
stakeholders, and then make a decision that is feasible given the available resources.
A person who is trying to decide what to eat for lunch might use Herbert Simon's
satisfying model. The person might consider their options and then choose the first
option that meets their minimum standards, such as something that is healthy and quick
to prepare.
 Management Support Systems (MSS)
A Management Support System (MSS) is a computer-based information system that
supports managerial decision-making. MSSs provide managers with access to data and
tools that can help them to make better decisions.
Features of MSS
MSSs typically have the following features:
 Data storage: MSSs store large amounts of data, such as sales figures, customer
information, and inventory levels.
 Data analysis: MSSs provide tools for analyzing data, such as statistical analysis and
forecasting tools.
 Decision support: MSSs provide tools that help managers to make decisions, such as
what-if analysis and optimization tools.
 User-friendly interface: MSSs have user-friendly interfaces that make it easy for
managers to use the system.
Benefits of MSS
MSSs can provide a number of benefits for organizations, including:
 Improved decision-making: MSSs can help managers to make better decisions by
providing them with access to data and tools that can help them to analyze the situation
and identify the best course of action.
 Increased efficiency: MSSs can help organizations to be more efficient by automating
tasks and providing managers with access to information that they need to make
decisions quickly.
 Reduced costs: MSSs can help organizations to reduce costs by automating tasks and
by providing managers with the information they need to make better decisions.
Types of MSS
There are many different types of MSSs, but some of the most common include:
 Decision support systems (DSS): DSSs are designed to help managers make
decisions. They typically provide tools for data analysis, what-if analysis, and
optimization.
 Executive information systems (EIS): EISs are designed to provide senior executives
with a concise overview of the organization's performance. They typically provide
access to key performance indicators (KPIs) and other important information.
 Knowledge management systems (KMS): KMSs are designed to capture and share
knowledge within an organization. They typically store knowledge in a repository that
can be accessed by employees.
Conclusion
MSSs can be a valuable tool for organizations. They can help managers to make better
decisions, improve efficiency, and reduce costs. However, it is important to choose the
right type of MSS for the organization's needs.
Here are some additional thoughts on MSS:
 The type of MSS that is right for an organization will depend on the organization's
specific needs.
 MSSs can be expensive to implement and maintain.
 MSSs can be difficult to use, especially for non-technical users.
 Decision Support Systems (DSS)
A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports
decision-making activities. It is a type of management information system (MIS) that
helps managers make better decisions by providing them with access to data, analysis
tools, and modeling capabilities.
Features of DSS
DSSs typically have the following features:
 Data storage: DSSs store large amounts of data, such as sales figures, customer
information, and inventory levels.
 Data analysis: DSSs provide tools for analyzing data, such as statistical analysis and
forecasting tools.
 Decision support: DSSs provide tools that help managers to make decisions, such as
what-if analysis and optimization tools.
 User-friendly interface: DSSs have user-friendly interfaces that make it easy for
managers to use the system.
Benefits of DSS
DSSs can provide a number of benefits for organizations, including:
 Improved decision-making: DSSs can help managers to make better decisions by
providing them with access to data and tools that can help them to analyze the situation
and identify the best course of action.
 Increased efficiency: DSSs can help organizations to be more efficient by automating
tasks and providing managers with access to information that they need to make
decisions quickly.
 Reduced costs: DSSs can help organizations to reduce costs by automating tasks and
by providing managers with the information they need to make better decisions.
Types of DSS
There are many different types of DSSs, but some of the most common include:
 Model-based DSS: Model-based DSSs use mathematical models to help managers
make decisions.
 Data-driven DSS: Data-driven DSSs use data mining and other techniques to help
managers make decisions.
 Group DSS: Group DSSs are designed to help groups of people make decisions
together.
Conclusion
DSSs can be a valuable tool for organizations. They can help managers to make better
decisions, improve efficiency, and reduce costs. However, it is important to choose the
right type of DSS for the organization's needs.
Here are some additional thoughts on DSS:
 The type of DSS that is right for an organization will depend on the organization's
specific needs.
 DSSs can be expensive to implement and maintain.
 DSSs can be difficult to use, especially for non-technical users.
Example of a DSS
A company is considering whether to launch a new product. The company could use a
DSS to help make this decision. The DSS would provide the company with access to
data about the product, such as the cost of development, the expected sales, and the
potential risks. The DSS would also provide the company with tools for analyzing this
data, such as what-if analysis and optimization tools. The company could use the DSS
to determine the best course of action for launching the new product.
Conclusion
DSSs can be a valuable tool for organizations. They can help managers to make better
decisions, improve efficiency, and reduce costs. However, it is important to choose the
right type of DSS for the organization's needs.
 Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)
 Definition: A group decision support system (GDSS) is a computer-based system that
supports group decision-making. It is a type of decision support system (DSS) that is
designed to help groups of people make decisions together.
 Features: GDSSs typically have the following features:
o Data sharing: GDSSs allow group members to share data and information.
o Communication: GDSSs provide tools for communication between group members,
such as chat, email, and video conferencing.
o Decision-making tools: GDSSs provide tools for decision-making, such as voting,
ranking, and brainstorming.
o Meeting support: GDSSs can be used to support meetings, such as by providing an
agenda, minutes, and notes.
 Benefits: GDSSs can provide a number of benefits for organizations, including:
o Improved decision-making: GDSSs can help groups to make better decisions by
providing them with access to data and tools that can help them to analyze the situation
and identify the best course of action.
o Increased efficiency: GDSSs can help organizations to be more efficient by reducing the
time and cost of decision-making.
o Improved communication: GDSSs can help to improve communication between group
members, which can lead to better decision-making.
 Types of GDSS:
o Shared screen systems: Shared screen systems allow group members to view the
same information on a screen.
o Electronic meeting systems: Electronic meeting systems provide tools for
communication and decision-making, such as chat, email, and voting.
o Decision rooms: Decision rooms are dedicated rooms that are equipped with GDSS
software and hardware.
 Conclusion: GDSSs can be a valuable tool for organizations. They can help groups to
make better decisions, improve efficiency, and improve communication. However, it is
important to choose the right type of GDSS for the organization's needs.
Groupware Technologies
 Definition: Groupware technologies are a set of software tools that support group work.
They are designed to help groups of people collaborate and communicate more
effectively.
 Features: Groupware technologies typically have the following features:
o Communication: Groupware technologies provide tools for communication between
group members, such as chat, email, and video conferencing.
o Collaboration: Groupware technologies provide tools for collaboration, such as shared
documents, calendars, and project management tools.
o Decision-making: Groupware technologies can provide tools for decision-making, such
as voting, ranking, and brainstorming.
 Benefits: Groupware technologies can provide a number of benefits for organizations,
including:
o Improved communication: Groupware technologies can help to improve communication
between group members, which can lead to better decision-making.
o Increased collaboration: Groupware technologies can help groups to collaborate more
effectively, which can lead to better results.
o Reduced costs: Groupware technologies can help to reduce the costs of communication
and collaboration.
 Types of Groupware Technologies:
o Collaborative workspaces: Collaborative workspaces are online environments where
group members can share documents, calendars, and other information.
o Project management software: Project management software helps groups to track the
progress of projects and to manage tasks and deadlines.
o Voting and ranking software: Voting and ranking software helps groups to make
decisions by collecting and analyzing votes from group members.
 Conclusion: Groupware technologies can be a valuable tool for organizations. They
can help groups to communicate more effectively, collaborate more effectively, and
make better decisions. However, it is important to choose the right type of groupware
technology for the organization's needs.
 Executive Information Systems (EIS)
 Definition: An executive information system (EIS) is a computer-based system that
provides senior executives with a concise overview of the organization's performance. It
is designed to help executives make better decisions by providing them with timely and
relevant information.
 Features: EISs typically have the following features:
o Summarized data: EISs summarize data from a variety of sources, such as operational
databases, financial reports, and customer surveys.
o Graphical displays: EISs use graphical displays to present data in a way that is easy to
understand.
o Customized reports: EISs allow executives to customize reports to their specific needs.
o Alerts: EISs can generate alerts to notify executives of important events.
 Benefits: EISs can provide a number of benefits for organizations, including:
o Improved decision-making: EISs can help executives make better decisions by
providing them with timely and relevant information.
o Increased efficiency: EISs can help organizations to be more efficient by reducing the
time and effort required to gather and analyze information.
o Improved communication: EISs can help to improve communication between executives
and other members of the organization.
 Types of EIS:
o Desktop EIS: Desktop EISs are software applications that are installed on a personal
computer.
o Web-based EIS: Web-based EISs are software applications that are accessed through
a web browser.
o Intelligent EIS: Intelligent EISs use artificial intelligence techniques to help executives
make better decisions.
 Conclusion: EISs can be a valuable tool for organizations. They can help executives
make better decisions, improve efficiency, and improve communication. However, it is
important to choose the right type of EIS for the organization's needs.
Example:
A company is using an EIS to track the performance of its sales team. The EIS
summarizes data from the company's sales database and presents it in graphical
displays. The EIS also generates alerts to notify executives when sales goals are not
being met. The company's executives use the EIS to make better decisions about how
to allocate resources and to identify areas where the sales team needs to improve.
Conclusion:
EISs can be a valuable tool for organizations. They can help executives make better
decisions, improve efficiency, and improve communication. However, it is important to
choose the right type of EIS for the organization's needs.
 Unit 3

The Need for Data Management

In today's digital world, data is more important than ever before. Organizations of all
sizes collect and store vast amounts of data, and this data can be used to make better
decisions, improve efficiency, and gain a competitive advantage. However, data is only
valuable if it is managed effectively.
Data management is the process of organizing, storing, and protecting data. It includes
activities such as data collection, data cleaning, data analysis, and data security. Data
management is essential for ensuring that data is accurate, accessible, and secure.
There are many reasons why data management is important. Some of the key reasons
include:
 To improve decision-making: Data can be used to make better decisions by providing
insights into the past, present, and future. For Example, data can be used to identify
trends, forecast demand, and optimize pricing.
 To improve efficiency: Data can be used to improve efficiency by automating tasks and
streamlining processes. For Example, data can be used to track inventory levels,
manage customer relationships, and optimize supply chains.
 To gain a competitive advantage: Data can be used to gain a competitive advantage by
providing insights into the competition and identifying new opportunities. For Example,
data can be used to identify new markets, develop new products, and improve customer
service.

Challenges of Data Management

Despite the importance of data management, there are a number of challenges that
organizations face. Some of the key challenges include:
 Data volume: The amount of data that organizations collect and store is growing
exponentially. This can make it difficult to manage data effectively.
 Data complexity: Data can be complex and heterogeneous. This means that it can be
difficult to integrate different types of data and to make sense of it.
 Data security: Data is a valuable asset, and it is important to protect it from
unauthorized access, use, or disclosure.
 Data governance: Data governance is the process of ensuring that data is managed in a
consistent and compliant manner. This can be a challenge, as it requires the
coordination of different departments and stakeholders.
Managing Data Resources
There are a number of steps that organizations can take to manage data resources
effectively. Some of the key steps include:
 Establishing a data management plan: A data management plan should outline the
organization's goals for data management, as well as the strategies and tactics that will
be used to achieve those goals.
 Implementing data governance: Data governance should be implemented to ensure that
data is managed in a consistent and compliant manner.
 Using data analytics: Data analytics can be used to gain insights into data and to make
better decisions.
 Investing in data security: Data security should be a top priority for organizations, as it is
essential to protect data from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure.
Conclusion
Data management is essential for organizations of all sizes. By managing data
effectively, organizations can improve decision-making, improve efficiency, and gain a
competitive advantage.
Here are some additional thoughts on data management:
 Data management is an ongoing process. It is not something that can be done once
and then forgotten about.
 Data management requires the involvement of different departments and stakeholders.
It is important to get everyone on board with the data management plan.
 Data management can be a complex and challenging task. However, the benefits of
effective data management far outweigh the challenges.
 Data Independence
Data independence is the separation of data from the way it is accessed and
processed. It is a key concept in database management systems (DBMS).
There are two types of data independence:
 Physical data independence: Physical data independence is the ability to change the
physical storage structure of the data without affecting the logical view of the data. For
Example, you could change the way the data is stored on disk without affecting the way
the users access it.
 Logical data independence: Logical data independence is the ability to change the
logical structure of the data without affecting the way the users access it. For Example,
you could change the way the data is organized without affecting the way the users
query it.
Data independence is important for a number of reasons. First, it makes it easier to
maintain the database. If the physical storage structure of the data changes, the users
of the database do not need to be aware of the change. This can save time and effort.
Second, data independence makes it easier to evolve the database. As the needs of the
users change, the logical structure of the data can be changed without affecting the
users. This can help to ensure that the database remains useful over time.
Benefits of Data Independence
There are a number of benefits to data independence, including:
 Increased flexibility: Data independence makes it easier to change the way data is
stored and accessed. This can be helpful if the needs of the business change or if new
technologies become available.
 Reduced maintenance costs: Data independence can help to reduce the cost of
maintaining a database. This is because changes to the physical storage structure of
the data do not require changes to the logical view of the data.
 Improved performance: Data independence can help to improve the performance of a
database. This is because changes to the logical view of the data do not require
changes to the physical storage structure of the data.
Challenges of Data Independence
There are a number of challenges associated with data independence, including:
 Complexity: Data independence can make databases more complex to design and
implement. This is because the logical view of the data must be separated from the
physical storage structure of the data.
 Cost: Data independence can increase the cost of developing and maintaining a
database. This is because the database must be designed and implemented in a way
that ensures that the logical view of the data is independent of the physical storage
structure of the data.
 Performance: Data independence can sometimes have a negative impact on the
performance of a database. This is because changes to the logical view of the data can
require changes to the physical storage structure of the data.
Conclusion
Data independence is an important concept in database management systems. It can
help to make databases more flexible, maintainable, and performant. However, there
are also some challenges associated with data independence.
Here are some additional thoughts on data independence:
 Data independence is not an absolute concept. There is always some degree of
coupling between the logical view of the data and the physical storage structure of the
data.
 The level of data independence that is required will depend on the specific needs of the
business.
 There are a number of different techniques that can be used to achieve data
independence. The best technique will depend on the specific database and the specific
needs of the business.
 Data Redundancy
Data redundancy is the duplication of data within a database or across multiple
databases. It can occur when data is entered into a database multiple times, or when
data is copied from one database to another without removing the original copy.
Data redundancy can have a number of negative consequences, including:
 Increased storage requirements: Redundancy can increase the amount of storage
space required for a database. This can lead to higher costs for storage and can also
make it more difficult to manage the database.
 Reduced data integrity: Redundancy can lead to errors in data if the copies of the data
are not kept up-to-date. This can make it difficult to trust the data and can lead to
incorrect decisions being made.
 Increased complexity: Redundancy can make it more complex to manage a database.
This is because there are multiple copies of the data to keep track of, and it can be
difficult to ensure that all of the copies are up-to-date.
Types of Data Redundancy
There are two main types of data redundancy:
 Horizontal redundancy: Horizontal redundancy occurs when the same data is stored in
multiple rows of a table. For Example, a customer table might have a column for the
customer's name. If the same customer appears multiple times in the table, then the
customer's name will be stored multiple times.
 Vertical redundancy: Vertical redundancy occurs when the same data is stored in
multiple columns of a table. For Example, a product table might have columns for the
product name, product description, and product price. If the product name is stored in
both the product name column and the product description column, then there is vertical
redundancy.
Causes of Data Redundancy
There are a number of reasons why data redundancy can occur, including:
 Human error: Human error is one of the most common causes of data redundancy. This
can happen when data is entered into a database incorrectly, or when data is copied
from one database to another without removing the original copy.
 System design: In some cases, data redundancy can be caused by poor system design.
For Example, if a database is not properly normalized, then it can lead to horizontal
redundancy.
 Business requirements: In some cases, data redundancy may be necessary to meet the
business requirements. For Example, a company may need to store the same
customer data in multiple systems in order to ensure that the data is always available.
Remedies for Data Redundancy
There are a number of ways to remedy data redundancy, including:
 Data normalization: Data normalization is a technique for organizing data in a database
in a way that minimizes redundancy.
 Data deduplication: Data deduplication is a process for identifying and removing
duplicate data from a database.
 Data migration: Data migration is the process of moving data from one database to
another. This can be used to eliminate redundancy by moving data from one database
to another where it is not duplicated.
Conclusion
Data redundancy is a common problem that can have a number of negative
consequences. There are a number of ways to remedy data redundancy, including data
normalization, data deduplication, and data migration.
Here are some additional thoughts on data redundancy:
 Data redundancy can be difficult to detect, especially in large databases.
 There is no one-size-fits-all solution to data redundancy. The best solution will depend
on the specific database and the specific needs of the business.
 Data redundancy can be a complex issue, and it is important to consult with a database
expert if you are considering taking steps to remedy it.
 Data Consistency
Data consistency is the degree to which data items in a database are consistent with
each other. It is a critical aspect of database management, as it ensures that the data is
reliable and can be trusted.
There are two main types of data consistency:
 Intra-relational consistency: Intra-relational consistency refers to the consistency of data
within a single table. For Example, all of the customer names in a customer table
should be unique.
 Inter-relational consistency: Inter-relational consistency refers to the consistency of data
between different tables. For Example, the customer name in the customer table should
be the same as the customer name in the order table.
Data Consistency Problems
There are a number of problems that can occur if data consistency is not maintained,
including:
 Inaccurate data: Inaccurate data can lead to incorrect decisions being made. For
Example, if the customer name in the customer table is incorrect, then the customer
may not receive the correct order.
 Data corruption: Data corruption can occur if data is not consistent. This can make it
difficult or impossible to access the data.
 Security risks: Data inconsistency can create security risks. For Example, if the
customer name in the customer table is not consistent, then it may be possible for
unauthorized users to access the data.
Maintaining Data Consistency
There are a number of ways to maintain data consistency, including:
 Data validation: Data validation is the process of checking data for errors before it is
stored in a database. This can help to prevent inaccurate data from being entered into
the database.
 Data constraints: Data constraints are rules that are enforced by the database. These
rules can help to ensure that data is consistent within a table and between tables.
 Transactional integrity: Transactional integrity is a set of rules that ensure that data is
consistent during a transaction. This means that if a transaction is successful, then all of
 the data changes are made. If the transaction is unsuccessful, then no data changes
are made.
Conclusion
Data consistency is a critical aspect of database management. By following the best
practices for maintaining data consistency, organizations can ensure that their data is
reliable and can be trusted.
Here are some additional thoughts on data consistency:
 Data consistency is not always easy to achieve. It requires careful planning and design,
as well as ongoing monitoring and maintenance.
 There is no one-size-fits-all solution to data consistency. The best approach will vary
depending on the specific database and the specific needs of the business.
 Data consistency is an important part of data quality. By ensuring that data is
consistent, organizations can improve the quality of their data and make better
decisions.
 Basic Database Administration
Database administration (DBA) is the process of managing and maintaining a database.
It includes tasks such as creating and maintaining databases, managing user access,
and monitoring performance.
DBAs play an important role in ensuring that databases are reliable and secure. They
must have a deep understanding of database technology and be able to troubleshoot
problems.
Tasks of a DBA
The tasks of a DBA can vary depending on the size and complexity of the database.
However, some common tasks include:
 Creating and maintaining databases: DBAs create and maintain databases by designing
the database schema, creating tables, and loading data. They also monitor the
database for errors and make changes as needed.
 Managing user access: DBAs manage user access to the database by creating and
managing user accounts, assigning permissions, and monitoring user activity.
 Monitoring performance: DBAs monitor the performance of the database by tracking
queries, analyzing logs, and identifying bottlenecks. They also take steps to improve
performance as needed.
 Backing up and restoring data: DBAs backup and restore data to protect it from loss.
They also create and manage backup plans.
 Troubleshooting problems: DBAs troubleshoot problems with the database by
identifying the source of the problem and taking steps to fix it.
Skills and Qualities of a DBA
DBAs need to have a deep understanding of database technology. They should be
familiar with different database platforms, such as MySQL, Oracle, and SQL Server.
They should also be able to write SQL queries.
In addition to technical skills, DBAs also need to have strong problem-solving and
analytical skills. They should be able to identify and troubleshoot problems quickly and
effectively.
DBAs also need to be able to work independently and as part of a team. They should be
able to communicate effectively with both technical and non-technical audiences.
 Conclusion
Database administration is a complex and challenging field. However, it is also a
rewarding field. DBAs play an important role in ensuring that databases are reliable and
secure. They also have the opportunity to work on cutting-edge technology and make a
real impact on the businesses they work for.
Here are some additional thoughts on database administration:
 The field of database administration is constantly evolving. DBAs need to be able to
keep up with the latest trends and technologies.
 Database administration is a demanding field. DBAs often work long hours and are on
call 24/7.
 However, database administration can also be a very rewarding field. DBAs have the
opportunity to work on cutting-edge technology and make a real impact on the
businesses they work for.
 Database Management Systems (DBMS)
A database management system (DBMS) is a software application that allows users to
create, maintain, and access databases. DBMSs provide a number of features that
make it easier to manage databases, including:
 Data definition: DBMSs allow users to define the structure of a database, including the
tables, columns, and relationships between tables.
 Data manipulation: DBMSs allow users to insert, update, delete, and query data in a
database.
 Data security: DBMSs can be used to control access to data, ensuring that only
authorized users can access it.
 Data backup and recovery: DBMSs can be used to back up data and restore it in case
of a disaster.
Database Concepts
There are a number of key concepts that are important to understand when working
with DBMSs, including:
 Data: Data is the information that is stored in a database. Data can be anything from
simple numbers and text to complex objects.
 Tables: Tables are the basic unit of organization in a database. A table consists of rows
and columns. The rows represent individual records, and the columns represent the
different attributes of each record.
 Columns: Columns are the vertical groupings of data in a table. Each column represents
a single attribute of a record.
 Rows: Rows are the horizontal groupings of data in a table. Each row represents a
single record.
 Relationships: Relationships are the connections between tables. Relationships can be
one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many.
 Queries: Queries are the statements that are used to access data in a database.
Queries can be used to select, insert, update, or delete data.
Benefits of DBMSs
DBMSs offer a number of benefits over manual data management, including:
 Accuracy: DBMSs can help to ensure that data is accurate by providing features such
as data validation and data constraints.
 Efficiency: DBMSs can help to improve the efficiency of data management by providing
features such as indexing and query optimization.
 Security: DBMSs can help to protect data by providing features such as user
authentication and data encryption.
 Scalability: DBMSs can be scaled to accommodate the needs of growing businesses.
Conclusion
DBMSs are an essential tool for managing data in today's businesses. They offer a
number of benefits over manual data management, including accuracy, efficiency,
security, and scalability.
Here are some additional thoughts on DBMSs:
 DBMSs are a complex topic, but they are essential for businesses that need to manage
large amounts of data.
 There are a number of different DBMSs available, each with its own strengths and
weaknesses.
 The choice of DBMS will depend on the specific needs of the business.
 DBMSs are constantly evolving, and new features are being added all the time.
 Fields, Records, Table, View, Reports and Queries

Fields
A field is a single piece of data in a database. For Example, in a table of customer
information, a field might be the customer's name, address, or phone number.
Records
A record is a collection of fields that represent a single entity. For Example, in a table of
customer information, a record might represent a single customer.
Tables
A table is a collection of related records. For Example, a table of customer information
might contain records for all of the customers of a company.
Views
A view is a virtual table that is created from one or more tables. Views can be used to
present data in a different way or to hide sensitive data.
Reports
A report is a presentation of data that is typically used for analysis or decision-making.
Reports can be generated from tables, views, or queries.
Queries
A query is a question that is asked of a database. Queries are used to select, insert,
update, or delete data from a database.
Examples
Here are some Examples of fields, records, tables, views, reports, and queries:
 Field: The customer's name is a field in a table of customer information.
 Record: A record in a table of customer information might include the customer's name,
address, phone number, and email address.
 Table: A table of customer information might contain records for all of the customers of
a company.
 View: A view of customer information might only include the customer's name and
address.
 Report: A report of customer information might show the total number of customers, the
average customer age, and the most popular product.
 Query: A query that selects all of the customers who live in a certain state is an
Example of a query.
Conclusion
Fields, records, tables, views, reports, and queries are all important concepts in
database management. By understanding these concepts, you can better understand
how databases work and how to use them to manage data.
 Data Warehousing
Data warehousing is the process of collecting, storing, and managing data from multiple
sources so that it can be used for analysis and decision-making. Data warehouses are
typically used by businesses to track performance, identify trends, and make better
decisions.
Components of a Data Warehouse
A data warehouse typically consists of the following components:
 Data sources: The data sources are the systems that provide data to the data
warehouse. These sources can be operational databases, external data sources, or
even spreadsheets.
 Data extraction: The data extraction process is responsible for copying data from the
data sources into the data warehouse.
 Data loading: The data loading process is responsible for loading data into the data
warehouse.
 Data cleaning: The data cleaning process is responsible for removing errors and
inconsistencies from the data.
 Data transformation: The data transformation process is responsible for converting the
data into a format that can be used for analysis.
 Data marts: Data marts are smaller, specialized data warehouses that are typically
focused on a particular business area.
 Data mining: Data mining is the process of extracting knowledge from data.
Benefits of Data Warehousing
Data warehousing offers a number of benefits, including:
 Improved decision-making: Data warehouses can help businesses make better
decisions by providing them with access to historical data and trends.
 Increased efficiency: Data warehouses can help businesses improve efficiency by
providing them with a single source of data.
 Reduced costs: Data warehouses can help businesses reduce costs by eliminating the
need to store data in multiple systems.
 Improved compliance: Data warehouses can help businesses improve compliance by
providing them with a way to track and store data.
 Challenges of Data Warehousing
Data warehousing can be a complex and challenging process. Some of the challenges
of data warehousing include:
 Data integration: The data from different sources may not be compatible, which can
make it difficult to integrate the data into a single data warehouse.
 Data quality: The data in the data warehouse must be accurate and consistent, which
can be a challenge to ensure.
 Data security: The data in the data warehouse must be secure, which can be a
challenge to achieve.
 Data governance: Data governance is the process of ensuring that data is managed in a
consistent and compliant manner.
Conclusion
Data warehousing is a complex and challenging process, but it can offer a number of
benefits for businesses. By understanding the components of a data warehouse and the
challenges of data warehousing, businesses can make informed decisions about
whether or not to implement a data warehouse.
 Data Mining
Data mining is the process of extracting knowledge from data. It is a process of
discovering patterns and trends in data that would otherwise be unknown. Data mining
is used by businesses to make better decisions, improve customer service, and identify
new market opportunities.
Types of Data Mining
There are four main types of data mining:
 Descriptive: Descriptive data mining is used to describe the data. This type of data
mining can be used to identify trends, patterns, and outliers in the data.
 Predictive: Predictive data mining is used to predict future events. This type of data
mining can be used to predict customer behavior, product demand, and fraud.
 Prescriptive: Prescriptive data mining is used to recommend actions. This type of data
mining can be used to recommend products to customers, optimize marketing
campaigns, and allocate resources.
 Diagnostic: Diagnostic data mining is used to identify the causes of problems. This type
of data mining can be used to identify the root cause of customer churn, identify
fraudulent transactions, and improve product quality.
Data Mining Techniques
There are a number of data mining techniques that can be used to extract knowledge
from data. Some of the most common data mining techniques include:
 Association rule mining: Association rule mining is used to identify associations between
different items. For Example, a grocery store might use association rule mining to
identify associations between products that are often purchased together.
 Classification: Classification is used to classify data into different categories. For
Example, a bank might use classification to classify customers as good or bad credit
risks.
 Clustering: Clustering is used to group data into similar groups. For Example, a retailer
might use clustering to group customers into different segments based on their
purchase behavior.
 Regression: Regression is used to predict a continuous value based on a set of
independent variables. For Example, a company might use regression to predict the
demand for a product based on factors such as price, advertising, and competition.
Benefits of Data Mining
Data mining offers a number of benefits, including:
 Improved decision-making: Data mining can help businesses make better decisions by
providing them with insights into their data.
 Increased efficiency: Data mining can help businesses improve efficiency by identifying
areas where they can save money or improve productivity.
 Reduced costs: Data mining can help businesses reduce costs by identifying areas
where they can save money or improve productivity.
 Improved customer service: Data mining can help businesses improve customer service
by identifying customer needs and preferences.
 New market opportunities: Data mining can help businesses identify new market
opportunities by identifying trends and patterns in the data.
Challenges of Data Mining
Data mining can be a complex and challenging process. Some of the challenges of data
mining include:
 Data quality: The data must be accurate and consistent for data mining to be effective.
 Data volume: The amount of data that can be mined is constantly increasing, which can
make it difficult to manage and analyze the data.
 Data privacy: Data mining can raise privacy concerns, as it involves collecting and
analyzing personal data.
 Data security: Data mining can also raise security concerns, as it involves collecting and
analyzing sensitive data.
Conclusion
Data mining is a powerful tool that can be used to extract knowledge from data. By
understanding the benefits and challenges of data mining, businesses can make
informed decisions about whether or not to use data mining.
 Data Mining Techniques
Data mining techniques are the methods used to extract knowledge from data. There
are a number of different data mining techniques, each with its own strengths and
weaknesses. Some of the most common data mining techniques include:
Association rule mining
Association rule mining is a technique for finding associations between items in a
dataset. For Example, an association rule miner might find that people who buy milk
are also more likely to buy bread. Association rule mining is often used in marketing to
identify products that should be sold together.
Classification
Classification is a technique for assigning data points to different categories. For
Example, a classification algorithm might be used to classify customers as good or bad
credit risks. Classification algorithms are often used in fraud detection and risk
assessment.
Clustering
Clustering is a technique for grouping data points together based on their similarities.
For Example, a clustering algorithm might be used to group customers together based
on their purchase behavior. Clustering algorithms are often used in market
segmentation and customer profiling.
Regression
Regression is a technique for predicting a continuous value based on a set of
independent variables. For Example, a regression algorithm might be used to predict
the demand for a product based on factors such as price, advertising, and competition.
Regression algorithms are often used in demand forecasting and pricing.
Other data mining techniques
There are a number of other data mining techniques, including:
 Decision tree learning: Decision tree learning is a technique for building a decision tree
that can be used to classify data points.
 Natural language processing: Natural language processing is a technique for extracting
meaning from text data.
 Image mining: Image mining is a technique for extracting meaning from image data.
 Text mining: Text mining is a technique for extracting meaning from text data.
Choosing the right data mining technique
The choice of data mining technique depends on the specific problem that you are
trying to solve. For Example, if you are trying to find associations between items, then
you would use association rule mining. If you are trying to classify data points, then you
would use classification. And if you are trying to predict a continuous value, then you
would use regression.
Conclusion
Data mining techniques are a powerful tool for extracting knowledge from data. By
understanding the different data mining techniques, you can choose the right technique
for your specific problem.
Here are some additional thoughts on data mining techniques:
 Data mining techniques are a complex and evolving field. There are many different
techniques available, and new techniques are being developed all the time.
 The choice of data mining technique depends on the specific problem that you are
trying to solve. There is no one-size-fits-all solution.
 Data mining techniques can be used to solve a variety of problems, including fraud
detection, risk assessment, market segmentation, and customer profiling.
 Data mining techniques can be a powerful tool for businesses, but they can also be
used for malicious purposes. It is important to use data mining techniques responsibly.
 Business Intelligence Database Management System (Lab)
Practical Work in the Computer lab
In this lab, you will learn how to create tables, views, and reports in a database. You will
also learn the basics of SQL and how to run queries.
Creating Tables
A table is a collection of data organized into rows and columns. The rows represent
individual records, and the columns represent the different attributes of each record.
To create a table, you will need to specify the following:
 The name of the table
 The name of the columns
 The data type of each column
 The constraints on each column
For Example, the following code creates a table called customers:
SQL
CREATETABLE customers (
customer_idINTNOTNULL,
customer_nameVARCHAR(255) NOTNULL,
customer_emailVARCHAR(255) NOTNULL,
PRIMARY KEY (customer_id)
);
This code creates a table with three columns: customer_id, customer_name, and
customer_email. The customer_id column is the primary key, which means that it
uniquely identifies each record in the table.
Creating Views
A view is a virtual table that is created from one or more tables. Views can be used to
present data in a different way or to hide sensitive data.
To create a view, you will need to specify the following:
 The name of the view
 The query that defines the view
For Example, the following code creates a view called customers_with_orders:
SQL
 CREATEVIEWcustomers_with_ordersAS
SELECT
customer_id,
customer_name,
customer_email,
COUNT(order_id) ASnumber_of_orders
FROM customers
JOIN orders
ONcustomers.customer_id=orders.customer_id
GROUPBYcustomer_id;
This code creates a view that shows the customer ID, customer name, customer email,
and the number of orders for each customer.
Creating Reports
A report is a presentation of data that is typically used for analysis or decision-making.
Reports can be generated from tables, views, or queries.
To create a report, you will need to specify the following:
 The data that you want to include in the report
 The format of the report
For Example, the following code creates a report that shows the top 10 customers by
the number of orders:
SQL
SELECT
customer_id,
customer_name,
customer_email,
number_of_orders
FROMcustomers_with_orders
ORDERBYnumber_of_ordersDESC
LIMIT 10;
This code creates a report that shows the customer ID, customer name, customer
email, and the number of orders for the top 10 customers.
 Basics of SQL
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a language that is used to interact with databases.
SQL can be used to create tables, views, and reports. It can also be used to run
queries.
A query is a statement that is used to retrieve data from a database. Queries can be
used to select, insert, update, or delete data.
For Example, the following code is a query that selects all of the customers from the
customers table:
SQL
SELECT*FROM customers;
This code will return all of the rows in the customers table.
Running Queries
To run a query, you will need to use a database management system (DBMS). A DBMS
is a software application that is used to manage databases.
There are many different DBMSs available, such as MySQL, Oracle, and SQL Server.
Each DBMS has its own command-line interface that can be used to run queries.
For Example, to run the query SELECT * FROM customers; in MySQL, you would use
the following command:
Code snippet
mysql> SELECT * FROM customers;
This command will return all of the rows in the customers table.
Conclusion
In this lab, you learned how to create tables, views, and reports in a database. You also
learned the basics of SQL and how to run queries.
By understanding these concepts, you can use databases to store and manage data.
You can also use SQL to retrieve and analyze data.

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