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Thermofluids TF306
2005
Melinda Hodkiewicz
mhodki@mech.uwa.edu.au
Extension: 7911, Room G55
1.2. References
Books
• Centrifugal pumps 2nd ed., Karassik and McGuire
• Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics, Gerhart and Gross
• Centrifugal Pumps - Design and Application 2nd ed, Lobanoff & Ross
• Introduction to Fluid Mechanics - Fox and McDonald MPSL 620.106 1998 INT/1992 INT
• Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences – Cengal and Turner MPSL 621.402 2001 FUN
• Predictive Maintenance of Pumps using condition monitoring – R.S.Beebe.
• Slurry Systems Handbook - Abulnaga
Vendor references
• Crane Technical Paper 410(metric)
• Flow of Fluids through valves, fittings and pipes
• Goulds Pump manual GPM6
• Basic Principles for the Design of Centrifugal pump installations (SIHI)
• Sulzer Centrifugal pump handbook
• Warman Slurry Pumping Handbook
• Cameron Hydraulic data
There are many different styles of centrifugal pumps, but they can essentially be divided into three broad
groups
a. horizontal or vertical
b. single impeller (end suction/split case, single volute, double volute, double suction) or multi-stage
impeller designs
c. Impeller design: Radial, mixed flow, axial. Open and closed, semi open designs.
The governing principles of all centrifugal pumps are the same but the design details vary.
http://www.fpdlit.com/cms/results detail.asp?ModelID=102
1
http://www.giwindustries.com/lsa.html
2
http://www.fpdlit.com/cms/results_detail.asp?ModelID=23
3
Ref: C.Dean UWA Honours thesis 2001 – from Goulds Pumps
4
Ref: Goulds Pumps – this is the pump on the PUMP TEST RIG (Engine lab)
Centrifugal pumps are part of a “SYSTEM”. The system contains tanks, pipes, valves and fittings. The
performance of a centrifugal pump is determined by the system it works in. Key factors are the “HEAD” HP on
the pump and the “FLOWRATE” Q.
W& S ( p e − pi ) (Ve2 − Vi 2 )
HP = = + ( ze − zi ) + + hL
m& g ρg 2g
The head on the pump is determined by the rate of work W& S in J/s of the shaft/impeller divided by the mass flow
m& and the gravitational constant g. The W& S is a function of
1. The pressure p divided by ρg, this results in units of metres of head. The pressure is a function of the
pressure p acting on the FREE surface of the liquid in the system on the inlet (i) or suction side and the
exit (e)or discharge side. When the suction and discharge tanks are open to atmosphere, the values are pi
= pe = 0. When the tanks are closed and contain elevated pressure or vacuum this must be taken into
account.
2. The height of the liquid in the tanks at the suction and discharge zi and ze
3. The velocity at the free surface of the liquid Vi and Ve, this can usually be ignored.
4. The friction loss in the entire system hL (both suction and discharge). This is affected by the line
diameter, line lengths, fittings and valves and is discussed in detail later.
Any change in the value of these system terms will affect the Head on the pump, as a result the flowrate through
the pump will change. This can be demonstrated using a LabView PUMP SIMULATION program.
In order to correctly size a pump for a particular application it is necessary to understand the system in which it
is installed. One selects a pump based on its ability to supply the required flowrate for the system. The operating
point of a pump is set by the intersection of the PUMP curve (specific to the pump) with the SYSTEM curve
(defined by the piping system, tank elevation, over-pressures etc)
1. Determine flowrate
2. Obtain fluid property information
3. Design piping system
4. Determine the System Head Curve
5. Decide on duty point
6. Calculate Power required and Specific speed values
7. Calculate Net Positive Suction Head available
8. Develop pump specification sheet
9. Select a pump
10. Evaluate pump selection
L V
2
hL = f ( L, d , V ,υ ) = f (Re)
d 2g
Calculation of this will be discussed in Section 1.5.5
This is often done by considering the suction and discharge sides separately as
z(s) = static suction head, hL(s) = total friction loss in suction line, h(i) = entrance loss, p(s) = pressure other than
atmospheric in suction tank in m, h(s) = total suction head
z(d) = static discharge head, hL(d) = friction loss in discharge line, h(e) = exit loss, hP(d) = overpressure in
discharge tank in m, h(d) = total discharge head
Note: the friction loss is SUBTRACTED on the suction side but ADDED on the discharge side
There are TWO separate friction calculations, one for the pipes and one for the fittings.
V 2 L
hL = ∑ f
2 g D
hL = pressure drop or friction loss in m, f=friction factor, L=length of pipe (m), V=line velocity (m/s), D= pipe
ID (m),
Darcy’s formula is valid for turbulent and laminar flow only if line pressure >> vapour pressure of the liquid ie
NO cavitation
64 L V
2
hL =
Re D 2 g
Friction Factor f
The friction factor is determined experimentally. For laminar flow f=64/Re.
For turbulent flow f depends on Re also the relative roughness ε/d. ε = roughness of pipe wall, d = pipe diameter
V 2
hL = ∑ K
2g
See suitable tables for values, some common values are provided on the pump formula sheet.
V 2 L V 2
hL = ∑ f + ∑ K
2 g D 2g
This can also include the entrance and exit losses if they are significant
The methods above are used for new projects where you have drawings with line sizes, tank elevations etc.
However if you have an existing pump installation the pump head can be determined with a pair of pressure
gauges and a flow meter. Place the pressure gauges in ports as close to the suction and discharge of the pump,
simultaneously read the pressure gauges and the flow rate.
The pressure P on a gauge located close to the flange of the suction of the pump will measure
PS = p S + ρg ⋅ z S − ρg .hL ( S )
The conversion to ‘head’ and addition of the suction velocity head will give a value for the total suction head
A pressure gauge placed on the discharge of the pump will read the following terms.
PD = p D + ρg ⋅ z D + ρg .hL ( D )
HP =
W& S ( p e − pi )
=
(V 2 − Vi 2 )
+ ( ze − zi ) + e + hL = D +
(
(P − PS ) VD2 − VS2 )
m& g ρg 2g ρg 2g
The values VD and VS are the velocity in the pipe at the pump suction and discharge. This is a function of the
flow rate Q and the line diameter D. V = Q/A = 4Q/(πD2), V = line velocity m/s, Q = flow rate m3/s, A =
Duty Point is expressed as the calculated Head for the desired Flowrate
For example 120 l/s at 58m head
Determine high and low operating flow points
5
Reference: Southern Cross Pumps
Pump Efficiency:
ηP = Hydraulic Power ( W& S ) / Power input to the pump shaft from the motor ( W& M )
What is the flow rate at maximum efficiency for a 438 mm impeller using the pump curve in ???
Motor Efficiency: ηM
W& M is the power from the motor to the shaft = Power supplied to the motor x motor efficiency.
An acceptable margin of NPSHA - NPSHR must be maintained over the entire operating range to prevent
CAVITATION. Cavitation is caused by the local vaporisation of a fluid when the static pressure drops below the
vapour pressure. The small bubbles filled with vapour that form in the low pressure region (suction eye of the
pump) will collapse on moving into high pressure regions (inside the impeller). This "implosion" causes pitting
on the metal surface, vibration and a drop in efficiency.
For NPSH calculation must understand difference between absolute and gauge pressure
• Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure at elevation
• Standard barometric pressure is 1.01325 bar or 760 mm Hg and changes with elevation above sea level.
• Gauge pressure is pressure above barometric pressure
• Convert gauge pressure readings to m by (x 0.102/SG)
• Absolute pressure always refers to perfect vacuum as base
NPSH available
• Net positive suction head is the absolute suction head at suction nozzle corrected to datum less the vapour
pressure of the liquid at operating temperature. Determines at what point liquid will vaporize at the lowest
pressure point of the pump (cavitation) and is characteristic of the system. NPSHA varies with capacity and
is always positive.
p + patm (P + p atm )
• NPSH A = zsuction + suction − hL ( suction ) − hVP ( abs ) OR S − hVP (abs )
ρg ρg
NPSH required
The NPSHR is characteristic of pump design and represents the minimum margin required between suction head
and vapour pressure. NPSHR varies with capacity. It is determined by manufacturer and verified by NPSH pump
test. NPSHR depends on impeller design, flow rate, rpm, liquid and other factors. As a rule of thumb there
should be a margin of at least 1m, though depends on application between NPSHA and NPSHR)
What is the NPSHR for a flowrate of 120 l/s on the pump curve in Figure ?.
Use of the affinity laws to select the optimum impeller diameter and/or pump rotating speed (if a variable
frequency drive or sheave drive system is appropriate)
Cavitation
Occurs when NPSHR>NPSHA
Causes impeller damage on visible side of vanes due to implosions (collapsing of the bubble). Identified by loud
continuous noise “pumping rocks" and high vibration
Avoid cavitation by increase NPSHA or decreasing NPSHR
Increase NPSHA by raising suction level, lower pump, reduce friction losses in suction, Subcool liquid
(injection)
Decrease NPSHr by using slower speed (or variable freq drive), installing a double suction impeller, increasing
impeller eye area, using an oversize pump or installing an inducer ahead of impeller
An understanding of these concepts is important for an understanding of pump systems, which are a major
component of industrial plants.
Rate at which the mass = Rate at which mass enters - Rate at which mass leaves
accumulates in the control the control volume the control volume
volume
dmsys
= ∑ m& in − ∑ m& out CONSERVATION OF MASS EQUATION
dt in out
Where z = height of the fluid and P = pressure measured at the base of the fluid. For example, a column of cold
water (15 deg C) 10.2m high produces 1 bar pressure at its base.
According to laminar flow theory, the velocity of fluid in a pipe has a parabolic profile as shown below:
In piping systems the flow is usually turbulent. Turbulent flow also has a rounded velocity profile, but rather
than a parabolic shape, the curve is flatter as shown below:
• Laminar Flow occurs at very low velocity or with high viscosity fluids. This is often visualised as
streaks of colored fluid flow in straight lines.
• Turbulent Flow flow occurs above critical velocity and involves the irregular, random motion of the
fluid particles
• Reynolds Number (Re) determines laminar or turbulent flow and depends on pipe diameter, flow
velocity, density and viscosity of the fluid.
Re = Vdρ/µ d=pipe ID (mm), v=flow velocity (m/s), ρ=density kg/m3, µ=viscosity (cP).
Flow is considered if laminar if Re < 2000, turbulent if Re > 4000, critical zone 2000<Re<4000. Reynolds
number is used in the calculation of friction factor for friction loss of fluids flowing in pipes
dPsys
= ∑ Fext , j + ∑ mV
& i i − ∑ m& eVe
dt j in out
External forces are those applied without mass flow across the control boundary. Surface forces due to pressure
and body forces f ( ρ , g , V ) . For steady state conditions
This has applications in piping systems for calculations such as the force exerted on the pipe flange by fluid
moving through an elbow. It can also be used to derive Bernoulli’s equation from 1st. principles (see any Fluids
text).
In pipe flow, as with any situation, energy is conserved from one point in fluid flow to another. The energy can
be in the form of kinetic energy (KE), potential energy (PE) or internal energy (IE).
[Rate of heat transfer in]+[Rate of work done on sys]=[Rate of increase of IE +KE + PE]
Mathematically this is written as for steady, uniform, incompressible flow as (where u is specific internal
energy)
2
V
Q& − W& = ∑ m& (u + + z)
net 2g
This is the steady state general energy equation as presented earlier in Thermodynamics lectures.
W& is the rate of work done by (+) or on (-) the control volume W& = W& shaft + W& normal .stress + W& shear .stress
Shaft work rate is transmitted by the rotating shaft W& shaft = Tω (shaft torque x rotational speed)
Shear work rate is the product of shear stress, area and fluid velocity component parallel to the control surface.
With pumps the control surfaces lie adjacent to solid boundaries where the fluid velocity is zero. In this case
there is no shear work although there may be shear stress.
Normal stress work can be written in most situations as a function of the pressure acting on the control surface
m&
W& pressure = ∑ p
net ρ
In pump/piping problems it is conventional to assume to that hL = −Q& m
& g where hL is the heat dissipated as
friction by fluid contacting the pipe wall in units of metres.
p V2
W& S = ∑ m& (u + + + zg ) + m& ghL GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION
net ρ 2
This is commonly written as in terms of Power required at the shaft to drive a centrifugal pump. For pumps it is
assumed that u e −u i = 0
( p − pi ) (Ve2 − Vi 2 )
W& S = m& g e + + ( z 2 − z1 ) + hL PUMP SYSTEM SIZING EQUATION
ρg 2g
This is the foundation equation for sizing pumps used in unit and we will spend time discussing how to
determine the values in this equation.
If one is dealing with a compressor substitute for the internal energy with u e −u i = cv (Te − Ti ) and use the ideal
gas law p ρ = RT
For systems with no friction we have the MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION
( p − pi ) (Ve2 − Vi 2 )
W& S = m& g e + + ( z 2 − z1 ) where Mechanical Energy is that which can be converted to
ρg 2g
mechanical work completely by a mechanical device such as a turbine or pump.
It is derived from the previous equation for the special case when W& S = 0 and hL = 0.
p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
The terms in this equation are referred to as, pressure head, velocity head and static head respectively.
Dimensional analysis will show that all three terms are in meters.
Due to layers of fluid shearing across each other, the velocity of a liquid is maximum in the centre of the flow,
and zero at the pipe wall. This means that the pressure due to velocity at the pipe wall is zero. Thus, head due to
velocity can be measured as the difference between the head at the centre of the pipe and the edge (See Figure).
Physically this can be done using a pitot tube for the centre reading and a piezometer for the pipe wall reading.
This can be seen in the test facility in the CWR Fluids laboratory.
The term ‘head’ relates fluid pressure in a pipe to the meters of water that would push up an open topped tube.
Head depends on the density of the fluid and the density of air and is the sum of the static head, velocity head
and pressure head.
The velocity can be estimated from the pressure difference between the fluid at the side wall and the stagnation
pressure at the centre of the pipe. From Bernoulli’s equation
p1 V12 p
+ = 2 ; where p2 is pressure at the stagnation point and p1 and V1 are the pressure upsteam.
ρg 2 g ρg 2
V12 p 2 − p1
= =h
2 g ρg
Thus the velocity at a point in the pipe is equal to the square root of the height difference between the tubes
multiplied by 2g. v = 2 gh
The conservation of angular momentum principle when applied to the shaft of a pump can be used to show that
torque is transformed to a change in velocity of fluid through the impeller. This is done from first principles
using the equation below:
dL0 sys
= ∑ M 0, j + ∑ m& i ( ri × Vi ) − ∑ m& e ( r ×e Ve )
dt j in out
This equation can be written in scalar form to illustrate its application to pumps. The fixed coordinate system is
chosen with the z axis aligned with the axis of rotation of the machine. The fluid enters the rotor at a radial
location ri with uniform velocity Vθi and exits at re with absolute velocity Vθe. Thus the equation above becomes:
This is Euler’s turbomachinery equation, which is used to calculate the hydraulic power a pump is supplying,
which in turn can allow the calculation of pump efficiency
This figure shows the inlet and exit radii, and the tangential components of the fluid velocity Vθ at the inlet and
exit. It should be noted that the fluid velocity V is not the same as U = ωr the velocity of the impeller.
It is conventional is pump design to describe flow passing through the impeller in velocity terms relative to the
rotating coordinate system of the rotating impeller. This is best done using “velocity triangles”.
α1 β1
Each of the velocity vectors can be
resolved into r and θ components. Vθ1
For an impeller of entrance width b1 with volumetric flow rate Q then Q = 2π.r1.b1.Vr1
If Q and the impeller dimensions are known, Vr1 can be calculated and from this W1. If the speed in rps of the
impeller is known then U1 can be calculated and from this Vθ1.
The values of Vθ1 and Vθ2 are used to determine the torque Tshaft or power draw W& on the impeller using Euler’s
equation (from Section 1.12.9).
1.13.1.
Consider the system in the schematic diagram below
Centrifugal pump
On the suction side, the level of the fluid is 10 m above the centreline of the pump and the overpressure in the
closed tank is 100 kPa. There is a gate valve between the suction side tank and the pump. Line length is 5 m.
On the discharge side, the level of the fluid is 30 m above the centreline of the pump and the overpressure in the
closed tank is 200 kPa. There is a butterfly valve on the discharge line and three 90 degree elbows. Line length is
50 m.
All line sizes are diameter 150 mm.
The desired flow rate is 100 l/s, the fluid is water at 15 deg C.
Solution:
Start with the Pump sizing equation (see Section 1.3). Note that D (discharge) and S (Suction) have been
substituted for e (exit) and i (inlet).
Suction side
Discharge side
From tables, K value for a butterfly valve is 45f and for each elbow is 30f. Total K value = (45+90)f.
Discharge side Valve/fitting friction loss = 135 x 0.015 x (5.662/2x9.81) = 3.3 m
Summary
To determine the System curve the calculation must be repeated at different flow rates, for example Q=0, 70 and
130 l/s. A curve can be drawn based on the four points. You can see from the table above that the total head at 0
l/s = 50.4 – 20.2 = 30.2 m as the friction head is zero at the no-flow point. The remaining flow points have to be
worked through in the same method as above taking into account the change in Friction head contribution as the
flow rate (and hence line velocity V) changes.
If the inlet and outlet pressures are measured at 100 kPa and 400 kPa (absolute) respectively, determine,
a. The mechanical efficiency of the pump [74.5%]
b. The temperature rise of the water as it flows through the pump due to mechanical inefficiency. [0.024
deg C]
Solution:
Calculate mass flow rate through pump kg/s = ρ x m3/s = 1 kg/l x 350 l/s= 350 kg/s
Power to shaft = motor efficiency x motor power = 0.94 x 150 = 141 kW.
( p e − pi ) (Ve2 − Vi 2 ) P − Pi
Change in energy of fluid (or Hydraulic Power) = m
&g + + ( z 2 − z1 ) = m& e
ρg 2g ρ
Only 105 kW of power supplied to the pump is imparted to the fluid as mechanical energy. The remaining 36
kW is converted to thermal energy and lost.
Rate of Energy loss = 141 – 105 = 36 kW.
E& = m& (u 2 − u1 ) = m& cv (T2 − T1 ) Delta T = 36/ 350 x 4.18 (jk/kg. C) =0.024 deg C.
a) If the total head on the pump is 60m and you are using a full size impeller, what is the expected flowrate
in l/s and efficiency (%) ?
b) What standard size motor is required for the head-flow combination in (a)?
c) If you wanted to deliver 107 l/s at 50 m of total head, what is the optimum impeller diameter?
d) Calculate the hydraulic power and the motor power draw at 107 l/s and 50 m head for the impeller
diameter selected in c)?
e) If the pump was running as in c) and you slowly closed a discharge butterfly valve to achieve 60 l/s,
what would happen to the total head and the pump efficiency?
f) For c) what would be the calculated power draw on the pump?
Solution:
a) Full size impeller is 438 mm, flowrate at 60 m total head is 107 l/s, efficiency = 82.5%.
b) Motor size 90 kW.
c) 410 mm
d) Hydraulic power = 107 * 3.6 * 50 * 1/368 = 52 kW, efficiency from graph = 0.83, Power draw on motor
= 52/0.83 = 63 kW
e) The head value would increase to 57 m as the system curve would steppen due to greater friction head
component. The intersection of the pump and system curve would move to the left along the line of the
impeller diameter. The efficiency would decrease to 71%. Resulting power draw on motor = 60 * 3.6 *
57 / (368 *0.71) = 47 kW
Given the following details about the design of a closed centrifugal impeller, determine
W2
U2
β2
β1 W1
r1
U = impeller velocity relative to inertial
Reference U1
V = fluid velocity relative to inertial
Reference r2
W = fluid velocity relative to impeller
Wθ2 Vθ2
W2 Wr2 V2
β2
U2
Calculate Vθ2: From triangle Vθ22 = V22 – Wr22 = 94 – 4 = 90; Vθ2 = 9.5 m/s.
Repeat calculation for inlet values noting that Qinlet = Qdischarge = 16.5 x 10-3 m3/s.
Results: U1 = 5.55 m/s; Wr1 = 2.8 m/s; W1 = 6.6 m/s; V1 = 2.8 m/s.