GEN CHEM (notes)

ALKENES
are a class of organic compounds characterized by the presence of carbon - carbon double bond (C=C) in
their chemical structure. They are unsaturated by hydrocarbons, which means they contain carbon and
hydrogen atoms and fewer hydrogen atoms than the corresponding alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons
Alkenes are an essential group of compounds in organic chemistry and have numerons applications and
importance in various industries. Here's more information about alkenes:
1 DESCRIPTION- alkenes have the general chemical formula CNH2n, where “n” represent the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule.
- The carbon- carbon double bond consist of one sigma (0) bond and one pi (T) bond. The pi bond results
from the overlap of unhybridized p orbitals on the carbon atoms.
2. SOURCES- alkenes are commonly found in petroleum and natural gas, which are fossil fuel sources.
-They can also be synthesized through various chemicab reaction, such as the elimination of hydrogen from
alkenes or the reduction of alkynes.
3. PRODUCTION - Alkenes can be produced by severatumethods including:
1. Steamcracking - This is common industrial process in which high-temperature steam is used to break
down hydrocarbons from petroleum into smaller molecules, including alkenes.
2) Catalyc dehydrogenation- hydrocarbons can be dehydrogented to form alkenes using a catalyst, such as
alumina or platinum.
3) Reduction of alkynes -Alkynes, which have
a triple bond, can be reduced to form alkenes by using hydrogen gas in the presence of a suitable catalyst.
4 IMPORTANCE - Alkenes are essential building blocks in the petrochemical industry and are used as raw
materials for the production of various chemicals and polymers.

-They are crucial in the synthesis of pharamaceuticals, plastics and a wide range of organic compounds.
Alkenes
Are used as intermediates in the production of solvents, detergents, and synthetic materials.
5 USES
1) POLYMER PRODUCTION-Alkenes are used in the production of polyethylene
and polypropylene, two of the most common types of plastics.
2) FUEL-alkenes are used as a source of fuel, either directly or as precursors of various fuels and lubricants.
3) CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS-They serve as starting materials for the synthesis of a wide range of chemicals,
including alcohols, acids, and a variety of a functionalized organic compounds.
4) PHARMACEUTICALS - alkenes are used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and drugs.
5) SOLVENTS - Some alkenes are used as solvents in various chemical process.
Hydrocarbons can exist in cyclic structures, where carbon atoms form a closed ring. These cyclic structures
can be classified into two main types:
A) Aliphatic cycles
Cycloalkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with carbon atoms forming a closed ring. An example is
cyclohexane.
B) Aromatic Cycles
ALKYNS are a class of organic compounds that contain carbon-carbon triple bonds (C=c). They are part of
the larger family of hydrocarbons which are organic compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Alkynes are characterized by their distinct triple bond, which gives them unique chemical properties
compared to alkenes (saturated hydrocarbons) and alkenes (hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double
bonds).
Here are some key aspects of alkynes:
DESCRIPTION: Alkynes have the general molecular formula CnH2n-2, where nis the number of carbon
atoms. The triple bond between carbon atoms consists of one sigma bond and two pi bonds. The triple band
imparts rigidity and linearity to the molecule.
SOURCES: Alkynes can be found in various natural sources, particularly in some plants and algae. Fossil
fuels, such as petroleum and natural gas, also contain hydrocarbons, including alkynes.
PRODUCTION: Alkynes can be produced by various methods, including:
9) DEHYDROHALOGENATION - Alkynes can be obtained by. Removing two equivalents of hydrogen halide
(H-x) from a dihaloalkane. For example, the reaction of 1,2- dichloroethane with a strong base can produce
ethyne (acetylene).
b.) ALKYLATION of ACETYLENE - Alkynes can also be synthesized by the alkylation of acetylene using alkyl
halides or other appropriate reagents.
C.) DEHYDRATION of ALCOHOLS - In some cases, alkynes can be prepared from alcohols via dehydration
reactions using strong acids.
IMPORTANCE: Alkunes are important in the field of organic chemistry due to their unique properties and
reactivity. They serve as key intermediates in the synthesis of various organic compound and can undergo a
wide range of chemical transformation.
USES:
a) CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS - Alkynes are crucial in the synthesis of many organic compound. They are used to
form various functional group, such as alcohol. ketons and carboxylic acids. through chemical reaction like
hydration, helogination and oxidation.
b) WELDING and CUTTING - Acetylene (ethyne), the simplest alkyne, is used in oxyacetylene welding and
cutting processes. The high temperature achieved when acetylene is burned with oxygen is suitable for
metal cutting and welding.
c) CHEMICAL INDUSTRY - Alkynes and their deratives are used in the production of various industrial
chemicals, including vinyl chloride, which is precursor to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics.
d) PHARMACEUTICALS - Alkynes are utilized in the synthesis of certain pharmaceuticals compounds and can
be essential in designing specific drug molecules.
e.) RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT – Alkynes are valuable in organic chemistry research, as they provide
versatile starting materials for the development of new chemical reactions and methodologies.
f.) FUEL - While not a primary source of fuel, acetylene can be used as a fuel gas certain applications,
particularly in specialized torches and heating equipment.
Cations and8 Anions
Cations are positively charged ions formed when an atoms losses one or more electrons. The electron loss
occurs to achieve stable, lower energy state. Metals due to their tendency to lose electrons easily,
commonly form cations. The process of forming a cation involved ionization, where the electron is removed
from the outer shell.
The charge of a cation is denoted by a superscript next to the element symbol, indicating the number of
electrons lost. For example, a sodium (Na+) cation has lost one electron resulting in a †1 charge.
Cations are integral to chemical reactions, particularly in the formation of a ionic compounds. When a metal
reacts with a non-metal, the metal donates electron to the non-metal, forming positively charged cations
and negatively charged anions. The oppositely charged ions attract each other, leading to the creation of
ionic bonds and the formation of ionic compounds.
Anions are negatively charged ions formed when the atoms gain electron. This occurs in non-metals that
have a tendency to fill their outer electron shells. Anions are larger than their parent atoms due to the
added electrons and they exhibit characteristics like increased electron repulsion. Common anions include
chloride ( CI) and oxide (0 ). They participate in ionic bonding, forming compounds with cation (positively
charge ions). Anions participa
play a crucial role in chemical reactions and contribute to the overall charge balance in compounds

table 3-3 (some alkyl groups)

structure name structure name

methyl isobutyl

methylene sec-butyl

ethyl Tertiary butyl

ethylidene neopentyl

n-propyl
isopropyl

n-butyl
Table 3-4 (some simple alkenes)

structure Common name iupac name

Ethylene ethene
propylene propene
ethylethylene 1-butene
Sym-dimethyl ethylene 2-butene
n- propylethylene 1-pentene
Sym- ethylmethylethylene 2-pentene
Sym-isopropylmethylethylene 4-methyl-2-pentene

Table 3-5(some alkenyl groups)

structure name
Vinyl
allyl
propenyl
crotyl

Table 3-6 (some alkadienes)

structure Common name iupac name

Allene propadiene
divinyl 1,3-butadiene
diallyl 1,5-hexadiene
methylallene 1,2-butadiene

elements Atomic cot.

Ca 40.08 g/mol
H 1.00 g/mol
C 12.00 g/mol
P 30.97 g/mol
S 32.07 g/mol
O 16.00 g/mol
Na 22.99 g/mol
B 10.81 g/mol

(solving) Example:
 1. CO2
C= 12.00

2 O=16.00 = 32.00
Total:44.00 g/mol

%C = C/CO2 x 100 12.00/44.00 x 100 = 27.27%

%O = O/CO2 x 100 32.00/44.00 x 100 = 72.73%
Total: 100%