Wuolah Free GLOSSARY Completo

GLOSSARY-completo.
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Anónimo
Principios del Aprendizaje del Inglés
3º Grado en Estudios Ingleses
Facultad de Filología
Universidad de Sevilla
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PAI GLOSSARY
ACCENT vs. DIALECT
• ACCENT: a particular way of pronouncing a language, the phonological characteristics of a variety of a language.
For any language with more than a minority of speakers, there are prominent regional, social, and individual
differences in the way the language is pronounced by different people. Each distinguishable type of pronunciation
is called an accent. Some accents of English are: Cockney English, Received Pronunciation, a Scottish accent, a
working-class London accent…
• DIALECT: a regionally or socially distinctive variety of language, identified by a particular set of words and
grammatical structures. It includes the lexicosemantic characteristics, the vocabulary, and meaning of the words
and expressions of a language, also morphosyntactic attributes. Spoken dialects are usually also associated with a
distinctive pronunciation or accent. For example: ‘dialects’ of Chinese are Mandarin or Cantonese. Another example
is the word “bus” in Santander, which is “bondi” in Argentina and “guagua” in Lanzarote.
APPLIED LINGUISTICS vs. GENERAL / THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS (competence/performance)
LINGUISTICS: (general / theoretical) linguistics is concerned with linguistic competence or mental knowledge of a
language as opposed to applied linguistics which is concerned with linguistic performance and communicative uses of
a language in specific situations. Examples of branches or fields may be syntax and morphology; and branches
associated with applied linguistics may be SLA, L2 teaching, and translation. However, both linguistics and applied
linguistics are maga-fields (i.e., each is an umbrella term that includes several individual, but interrelated fields). In
general, two lesser-known fields of linguistics may be pragmatics and semantic; while two lesser-known fields of applied
linguistics may be lexicography, and speech pathology.
• APPLIED LINGUISTICS: a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories,
methods, and findings to the clarification of language problems that have arisen in other areas of experience. The
most well-developed branch of applied linguistics is the teaching and learning of foreign languages. However,
several other fields of application have emerged, including the linguistic analysis of language disorders (clinical
linguistics), the use of language in mother-tongue education (educational linguistics), and developments in
lexicography, translation, and stylistics.
• GENERAL LINGUISTICS: field of study that deals with linguistic competence (abstract knowledge in our
mind/brain). It is concerned with the knowledge of a language in the human mind/ brain (the prefrontal area of the
brain allows learning languages, speaking, etc.), and how this knowledge is deposited. Examples: Lexicon,
Morphology, Phonetics, and Phonology, etc. It emphasizes the universal applicability of linguistic theory and method
in the study of languages. General linguistics thus includes the theoretical, descriptive, and comparative biases of
the subject.
ADDRESS TERMS / TERMS OF ADDRESS: forms of address (or terms of address) have been analysed between
different types of a participant in different social situations, and rules are proposed to explain the speaker’s choice of
terms, e.g., governing the use of first names, titles, intimate pronouns, etc. Social psychological concepts, such as power
and solidarity, have been suggested as particularly significant factors in understanding address systems, i.e., the system
of rules used by a speaker or group, governing their use of such forms as tu and vous (T forms and V forms).
AFFECT / AFFECTIVE FACTORS: a term referring to a number of emotional factors that may influence language
learning and use. These include basic personality traits such as shyness, long-term but changeable factors such as
positive and negative language attitudes and constantly fluctuating states such as enthusiasm, anxiety, boredom, apathy,
or elation. One theory suggests that affective states are largely determined by the balance between the subjectively
assessed level of challenge in an activity and the subjectively assessed level of skill that one brings to that activity. For
example, when faced with classroom tasks that are higher than their level of skill, language learners feel anxious and
frustrated; when given tasks that are well below their ability level, they feel bored.
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AGE; AGEING; THIRD AGE L2 LEARNERS; AGE FACTOR VS CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS
• AFE FACTOR: the precise relationship between age and second language learning remains unresolved and
controversial. It is still not clear what the best age to begin learning a second language is, or even whether there is
the best age. Clearly, there are cognitive, conceptual, and maturity differences between children and adults that do
make a difference in the learning process. However, with regard to grammar, research suggests that the acquisition
process is largely unaffected by age. That is to say, both children and adults go through the same process.
• CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESES: in child language acquisition, the hypothesis is that there is a particular time
span during which a first language can be most easily acquired. The notion of a critical period is well supported in
several areas of child development and was felt to be also relevant to the emergence of language. It was argued
that the critical period for language ends at puberty, because by this time the brain has become specialized in its
functions, and no longer has the adaptability found at earlier stages of biological development. However, studies of
adult language learning indicate that adults have certain cognitive abilities which facilitate language acquisition, such
as increased motivation and greater metalinguistic awareness.
AGGRAVATION vs. MITIGATION: they are both discursive processes. However, the former is used to make more
violent a statement, while the latter is used to minimize the effect of a statement.
• AGGRAVATION: use of terms or expressions that make requests or statements more violent. For example, curse
words.
• MITIGATION: use of terms or expressions that soften requests or statements, or another kind of imposition, to make
them seem less violent. For example, “please” in “please close the door” or “would you” in “would you close the
door”.
ATTITUDE vs. APTITUDE
• APTITUDE: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc. Language
aptitude is thought to be a combination of various abilities, such as oral mimicry ability, phonemic coding ability, or
grammatical sensitivity. A person with high language aptitude can learn more quickly and easily than a person with
low language aptitude for whom learning will take more time and effort.
• ATTITUDE: a term used in sociolinguistics for the feelings people have about their own language or the language(s)
of others. These may be positive or negative: someone may particularly value a foreign language (e.g., because of
its literary history) or think that a language is especially difficult to learn (e.g., because the script is off-putting). Rural
accents generally receive a positive evaluation, whereas urban accents do not. Knowing about attitudes is an
important aspect of evaluating the likely success of a language teaching program or a piece of language planning.
BACKSLIDING: (in second language acquisition) the regular reappearance of features of a learner’s interlanguage that
were thought to have disappeared. Sometimes a learner who appears to have control of an area of grammar or
phonology will have difficulty with particular linguistic features in situations that are stressful, or which present the learner
with some kind of communicative difficulty. Errors may then temporarily reappear. Research into backsliding suggests
that such errors are not random but reflect the linguistic system the learner had learned at an earlier stage of his or her
language development. For example, during an important exam, someone makes an error by saying “She has” when
she has been years without saying it.
BACK-CHANNEL SIGNALS: (backchannelling) a term used in pragmatics and sociolinguistics, as part of the study of
listener behaviour in an interaction, referring to the reactions given to a speaker by way of feedback. They include
monosyllabic responses (mhm), short phrases (I guess so), utterance repetitions, and sentence completions, as well as
non-verbal cues (e.g., nodding, gaze variation).
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Principios del Aprendizaje d...
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BASIC INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS vs. COGNITIVE ACADEMIC LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
• BASIC INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS (BICS): this refers to the language proficiency needed to
perform other kinds of tasks which are not directly related to learning academic content, such as interpersonal
communication. Interpersonal and social communication is relatively undemanding cognitively and relies on context
to clarify meaning.
• COGNITIVE ACADEMIC LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY (CALP): a hypothesis proposed by Cummins which describes
the special kind of second language proficiency that students need in order to perform school learning tasks.
Cummins suggests that many classroom tasks are cognitively demanding and often have to be solved independently
by the learner without support from the context. The ability to carry out such tasks in a second language is known
as CALP.
• CALP vs. BICS: Cummins contrasts this kind of language proficiency (CALP) with BICS. Moreover, he adds that
different kinds of tests are needed to measure CALP and BICS, and a learner’s skill in BICS does not predict
performance on CALP.
BEHAVIORISM: a psychological theory of learning dominant in the 1950s and 1960s, most closely associated with B. F.
Skinner. According to behaviourism, language was viewed as a process of habit formation. This process consists of
three steps: (i) stimulus, (ii) response and (iii) reinforcement. Behaviourism attempted to explain learning without
reference to thinking or mental processes. Essentially, it claimed that as an organism interacts with its environment, its
behaviour is conditioned. Therefore, an important tenet of behaviourist theory is that all learned behaviour is based upon
specific stimulus relationships in the environment.
BILINGUAL EDUCATION: the use of a second or foreign language in school for the teaching of content subjects.
Bilingual education programs may be of different types and include (i) the use of a single school language that is not the
child’s home language, sometimes called an immersion program. (ii) the use of the child’s home language when the
child enters school but later a gradual change to the use of the school language for teaching some subjects and the
home language for teaching others, sometimes called maintenance bilingual education, and (iii) the partial or total use
of the child’s home language when the child enters school, and a later change to the use of the school language only,
sometimes called transitional bilingual education.
BILINGUALISM vs. BILITERACY
• BILINGUALISM: a term that is used to describe the speaking and understanding of more than one language but
can also include knowing many languages. Therefore, a person who is bilingual is someone who speaks at least two
languages. Bilingualism is an over-arching construct that has given rise to research in diverse areas including child
language development, educational policy, and cognitive neuroscience. From a developmental perspective,
researchers are interested in how children, growing up in bilingual communities, learn more than one language at
the same time.
• BILITERACY: the ability to read and write in more than one language. The term ‘literacy’ is also now often used in
a broader sense, referring to the ability to understand a technical or cultural domain, as in computer literacy and
graphic literacy.
BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL vs. BICULTURAL INDIVIDUAL
• BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL: a person who uses at least two languages with some degree of proficiency. In everyday
use bilingual usually means a person who speaks, reads, or understands two languages equally well), but a bilingual
person usually has a better knowledge of one language than another.
• BICULTURAL INDIVIDUAL: a person who knows the social habits, beliefs, customs, etc. of two different social
groups can be described as bicultural.
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• BILINGUAL VS BICULTURAL: a distinction is made. For example, a person may be able to speak two languages,
but may not know how to act according to the social patterns of the second or foreign language community. This
person can be described as bilingual, but not as bicultural.
BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL vs. MONOLINGUAL vs. MULTILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL
• MONOLINGUAL: (i) a person who knows and uses only one language. (ii) A person who has an active knowledge
of only one language, though perhaps a passive knowledge of others.
• MULTILINGUAL: a person who knows and uses three or more languages. Usually, a multilingual does not know all
the languages equally well. For example, he or she may: (a) speak and understand one language best, (b) be able
to write in only one (c) use each language in different types of situations (domains), e.g. one language at home, one
at work, and one for shopping and (d) use each language for different communicative purposes, e.g. one language
for talking about science, one for religious purposes, and one for talking about personal feelings.
BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL vs. ‘DOUBLE MONOLINGUAL’
• DOUBLE MONOLINGUAL: a person who is equally good in the two languages and uses the second language the
same way as their first. Thus, the view on languages is that they are separate entities, and they should also be used
separately.
BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL (RECEPTIVE VS PRODUCTIVE)
• BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL: a person who uses at least two languages with some degree of proficiency. However, in
everyday use bilingual usually means a person who speaks, reads, or understands two languages equally well), but
a bilingual person usually has a better knowledge of one language than another. Therefore, dealing with
communicative skills, an individual would normally have a higher performance in receptive skills (i.e., reading
comprehension and listening comprehension) as they normally require less time and effort in terms of practice,
verbal communication, and less experience. So, it would me more complex to encounter bilingual individuals with
higher performance in productive communicative skills (i.e., Speaking/interacting, writing, translating, or
interpreting.)
• RECEPTIVE BILINGUAL: someone who understands a second language, in either its spoken or written form, or
both, but does not necessarily speak or write it.
• PRODUCTIVE BILINGUAL: someone who not only understands but also speaks and possibly writes in two or more
languages.
BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL TYPES (INCIPIENT vs. EMERGING vs. DOMINANT vs. BALANCED BILINGUALS)
• BILINGUAL INCIPIENT: someone at the early stages of bilingualism or second language acquisition where one
language is not yet strongly developed.
• BILINGUAL EMERGING: someone who is continuing to develop his home language while also learning an additional
language.
• BILINGUAL DOMINANT: someone with greater proficiency in one of his languages and uses it significantly more
than the other language(s).
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• BALANCED BILINGUAL: someone whose mastery of two languages is roughly equivalent.
BILINGUALISM (ADDITIVE vs. SUBTRACTIVE)
• ADDITIVE BILINGUALISM: the result of SLA in social contexts where members of a dominant group learn the
language of a minority without threat to their L1 competence or to their ethnic identity.
• SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALISM: in contrast, this bilingualism is the result of SLA in social contexts where members
of a minority group learn the dominant language as L2 and are more likely to experience some loss of ethnic identity
and attrition of L1 skills, especially if they are children. There are many other social variables contributing to ‘additive’
versus ‘subtractive’ outcomes, including (for immigrant groups) the degree of opportunity for continued contact with
their country of origin, the composition of families (e.g., whether they include grandparents or other elderly relatives),
and whether the L1 continues to fulfil an institutional function such as the practice of religion.
BILINGUALISM (INDIVIDUAL vs. SOCIAL)
• INDIVIDUAL BILINGUALISM (multilingualism): multilingualism usually refers to a speaker’s knowledge and

efficient use of three or more languages.
• SOCIAL BILINGUALISM: societal bilingualism denotes the characteristic linguistic situation in a particular speech
community, i.e., in a particular society or nation in which more than one language is used. For example, Switzerland
is officially a multilingual nation and official documents for the entire country are written in French, German, and
Italian.
BILINGUALISM (SEQUENTIAL vs. SIMULTANEOUS)
• SEQUENTIAL BILINGUALISM: sequential bilingualism can occur in contexts where the child speaks one language
in the home environment, but upon starting pre-school or kindergarten is exposed to a second language.
• SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUALISM: the acquisition of two languages from birth both as first languages, for ex-ample,
before a child is three years old. If the child first acquires one language, then the other, the child is said to have
acquired sequential bilingualism.
BILINGUAL FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (= simultaneous bilingualism): the acquisition of two languages from
birth both as first languages, for example, before a child is three years old. If the child first acquires one language, then
the other, the child is said to have acquired sequential bilingualism (also called consecutive bilingualism, successive
bilingualism). Some researchers differentiate between childhood bilingualism and adolescent or adult bilingualism. The
first process follows a path similar to the one a child follows in learning one first language while the second follows a
different path. One reasonably common pattern observed in simultaneous bilingualism is the case where one parent
speaks one language to a child, while the other parent speaks a different language (known as one parent, one language).
Sequential bilingualism can occur in contexts where the child speaks one language in the home environment, but upon
starting pre-school or kindergarten is exposed to a second language.
BRAIN vs. MIND
• MIND: using and understanding language is a heavily mental activity. Further, this activity seems to be what the real
existence of meaningful language consists of. In short, mind invests meaning in language.
• BRAIN: certain parts of the brain are responsible for understanding words and sentences. These brain areas are
mainly located in two regions, in the left side of the brain, and are connected by nerves. Together, these brain
regions and their connections form a network that provides the hardware for language in the brain. Without this
brain network, we would not be able to talk or to understand what’s being said.
CHILD-DIRECTED SPEECH vs. FOREIGNER TALK vs. TEACHER TALK
• CHILD DIRECTED SPEECH: the simple speech used by mothers, fathers, babysitters, etc., when they talk to young
children who are learning to talk. It usually has: (a) shorter utterances than speech to other adults, (b) grammatically
simple utterances, (c) few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition (d) clearer pronunciation, sometimes
with exaggerated intonation patterns Caretaker speech is easier for children to understand, and many people believe
that it helps children to learn language.
• FOREIGNER TALK: the type of speech often used by native speakers of a language when speaking to foreigners
who are not proficient in the language. Some of the characteristics of foreigner talk are: (a) It is slower and louder
than normal speech, often with exaggerated pronunciation, (b) It uses simpler vocabulary and grammar. For
example, articles, function words, and inflections may be omitted, and complex verb forms are replaced by simpler
ones and (c) Topics are sometimes repeated or moved to the front of sentences, for example: Your bag? Where
you leave your bag? Native speakers often feel that this type of speech is easier for foreigners to understand.
• TEACHER TALK: that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching. In
trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech, giving it many of the characteristics of
foreigner talk and other simplified styles of speech addressed to language learners.
CHUNKS: a unit of language that forms a syntactic or semantic unit but also has internal structure, for example (1) a
unit of text that is longer than a sentence and shorter than a paragraph, (2) a unit of language longer than a word but
shorter than a sentence and which plays a role in comprehension and production.
CLASSROOM DISCOURSE: the type of language used in classroom situations. Classroom discourse is often different
in form and function from the language used in other situations because of the particular social roles students and
teachers have in classrooms and the kinds of activities they usually carry out there. For example, teachers tend to rely
on a discourse structure with the following pattern: initiation – response – evaluation. In this typical three-part structure,
the teacher initiates a question in order to check a student’s knowledge, a student responds, and the student’s response
is evaluated with feedback from the teacher. The restricted kind of discourse students encounter in classrooms is
thought to influence their rate of language development.
CODE-SWITCHING vs. CODE-MIXING
• CODE-SWITCHING: a change by a speaker (or writer) from one language or language variety to another one. It can
take place in a conversation when one speaker uses one language and the other speaker answers in a different
language. A person may start speaking one language and then change to another one in the middle of their speech,
or sometimes even in the middle of a sentence. For example, from the speech of a Spanish immigrant in Australia.
• CODE-MIXING: a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic. This is quite common in
bilingual or multilingual communities and is often a mark of solidarity, e.g., between bilingual friends or colleagues
in an informal situation. Code mixing can involve various levels of language, e.g., phonology, morphology,
grammatical structures, or lexical items. B: Bié tí party bù party le! Don’t mention party no party no longer Don’t talk
to me about the party!
CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING: a method that integrates language instruction with subject
matter instruction in the target language, for example, studying science, social studies, or mathematics through the
medium of English in a content-based ESL program. Examples of content-based instruction include immersion, language
across the curriculum, and sheltered English.
COGNATES (TRUE vs. PARTIALLY TRUE vs. FALSE)
• COGNATE: a word in one language that is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both
languages are historically related. For example, English brother and German bruder.
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• TRUE COGNATE: a word in one language that is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because
both languages are historically related. For example: Hospital - Hospital.
• PARTIALLY TRUE COGNATE: a broad term, which can be complete or only partial, and whose semantic field
depends on the language can be reduced. In the United States, the professor refers exclusively to the university
professor, not as in Spain, but in Great Britain, it means ‘catedrático’. Therefore, they are terms that do not have the
same semantic amplitude, partially cognate, such as meeting, meeting, and alumnus.
• FALSE COGNATES: a word which has the same or very similar form in two languages, but which has a different
meaning in each. The similarity may cause a second language learner to use the word wrongly. For example, the
English word carpet means “alfombra”, and not “carpeta”; or idiom.
COGNITION: the use or handling of knowledge; hence, (a) the faculty which permits us to think and reason and (b) the
process involved in thought and reasoning. It is sometimes contrasted with metacognition, which can be defined as
‘thinking about thinking’ and involves preplanning a cognitive process, exercising control over the process, or taking
steps to ensure that its results are stored long term. Metacognition involves some degree of awareness, whereas
cognitive processes may not be available to report. For example: mental processed used in thinking or remembering.
COGNITIVE vs. AFFECTIVE FACTORS
• COGNITIVE FACTORS: they refer to characteristics of the person that affect performance and learning. They
include knowledge and the development of mental or intellectual skills. For example, Intelligence, language aptitude,
and learning style.
• AFFECTIVE FACTORS: they are a set of emotions and attitudes people have about themselves or the surrounding
environment. They include feelings, emotions, attitudes, motivations, appreciation, etc. For example. Motivation,
attitudes, levels of anxiety, self-esteem.
COGNITIVE MATURITY: the process of increasing intellectual reasoning and ability whereby knowledge is acquired
typically associated with increasing chronological age prior to adulthood.
COLLOCATIONS: a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrence of individual lexical
items. For example, auspicious collocates with occasion, event, sign… Collocations are, then, a type of syntagmatic
lexical relation. They are linguistically predictable to a greater or lesser extent, and this differentiates them from sense
associations, which tend to include idiosyncratic connections. They are formal statements of co-occurrence; e.g., green
collocates with jealousy (as opposed to, say, blue or red), even though there is no referential basis for the link.
COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES: LEARNING, TEACHING, ASSESSMENT:

(CEFR) a guideline for describing levels of achievement in language learning for foreign languages across Europe,
including English, developed by the European organization the Council of Europe. It describes six levels of achievement
divided into three broad divisions, which describe what a learner should be able to do in reading, listening, speaking and
writing at each level: A Basic User (A1 Breakthrough - A2 Waystage), B Independent User (B1 Threshold - B2 Vantage),
C Proficient User (C1 Effective Operational Proficiency - C2 Mastery) The Common European Framework is intended
to provide a common basis for describing communicative performance and to serve as a basis for developing language
syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, and textbooks, regardless of the target language.
COMPONENTS OF AN L2: (phonology-orthography, lexis, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics-

discourse):
• PHONOLOGY: the study of word-to-word relations in sentences; that is, how sound patterns are affected by the
combination of words. For example, /giv/ give and /him/ him may combine to /givim/ give him.

• ORTHOGRAPHY: the term is used: (1) for spelling in general. (2) for correct or standard spelling. For some
languages, the orthography is based on generally accepted usage and is not prescribed by an official body. For
other languages, e.g., Swedish, it is laid down by official or semi-official organizations.
• LEXIS: the vocabulary of a language in contrast to its grammar (syntax).
• MORPHOLOGY: the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word
formation. For example, the English word unfriendly is formed from friend, the adjective-forming suffix -ly and the
negative prefix un-.
• SYNTAX: a major component of the grammar of a language (together with lexicon, phonology, and semantics),
syntax concerns the ways in which words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of
sentences, making some sentences possible and others not possible within a particular language. One of the major
goals of linguistics is to identify the syntactic rules of a language and to provide descriptions that group together
those words in a sentence which hang closely together both formally and semantically.
• SEMANTICS: the study of meaning. There are many different approaches to the way in which meaning in language
is studied. Linguists have investigated, for example, the way in which meaning in a language is structured and have
distinguished between different types of meanings. There have also been studies of the semantic structure of
sentences. In recent years, linguists have generally agreed that meaning plays an important part in grammatical
analysis but there has been disagreement on how it should be incorporated in a grammar.
• PRAGMATICS: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between
sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of: (a) how the
interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world (b) how speakers use and understand
speech acts (c) how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.
Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and
communicative functions of sentences.
• DISCOURSE: general term for examples of language use, i.e., language which has been produced as the result of
an act of communication. Whereas grammar refers to the rules a language uses to form grammatical units such as
clause, phrase, and sentence, discourse normally refers to larger units of language such as paragraphs,
conversations, and interviews. Sometimes the study of both written and spoken discourse is known as discourse
analysis; some researchers however use discourse analysis to refer to the study of spoken discourse and text
linguistics to refer to the study of written discourse.
(COMPREHENSIBLE) INPUT HYPOTHESIS vs. (COMPREHENSIBLE) OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS
• COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT: the spoken language that can be understood by the listener even though some
structures and vocabulary may not be known. According to Krashen’s theory of language acquisition,
comprehensible input is a necessary condition for second language acquisition.
• INPUT HYPOTHESIS: the idea that exposure to comprehensible input which contains structures that are slightly in
advance of a learner’s current level of competence is the necessary and sufficient cause of second language
acquisition.
• (COMPREHENSIBLE) OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS: the hypothesis that successful second language acquisition
requires not only comprehensible input, but also comprehensible output, the language produced by the learner that
can be understood by other speakers of the language. It has been argued that when learners have to make efforts
to ensure that their messages are communicated (pushed output) this puts them in a better position to notice the
gap between their productions and those of proficient speakers, fostering acquisition.
CONNECTIONISM: a theory in cognitive science that assumes that the individual components of human cognition are
highly interactive, and that knowledge of events, concepts, and language is represented diffusely in the cognitive system.
The theory has been applied to models of speech processing, lexical organization, and first and second language
learning. Connectionism provides mathematical models and computer simulations that try to capture both the essence
of information processing and thought processes. The basic assumptions of the theory are: (1) Information processing
takes place through the interactions of a large number of simple units, organized into networks and operating in parallel.
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(2) Learning takes place through the strengthening and weakening of the interconnections in a particular network in
response to examples encountered in the input. (3) The result of learning is often a network of simple units that acts as
though it “knows” abstract rules, although the rules themselves exist only in the form of association strengths distributed
across the entire network.
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS (CAH): the CAH predicted that where there are similarities between the first
and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the
learner will have difficulty.
CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK TYPES
• EXPLICIT CORRECTION: (e.g., No, we don’t say ‘goed’ in English; we say ‘went’), where the feedback clearly
indicates that what the learner has said as incorrect and supplies the correct form, thus providing both negative and
POSITIVE EVIDENCE.
• RECAST / REFORMULATION: reformulation of learners’ utterances that occur naturally in interactions. Recasts
usually occur when the learner has produced some kind of non-native like utterance, and the other interlocutor (e.g.,
a teacher, parent, or other native speaker) repeats the learner’s utterance and changing only those elements needed
to make it correct without changing any of the meaning and allowing for the conversation or questioning sequence
to immediately resume. For example, in the following interchange, the recast functions like a confirmation check, as
in the following interchange between Bob, a native speaker, and Tom, a non-native speaker:
- Bob: So where’s Dave?
- Tom: He vacation.
- Bob: He’s on vacation? [confirmation check]
- Tom: Yes, on vacation.
- Bob: Lucky guy
The native speaker’s recast in this example is a natural reaction that shows he understood what the learner
meant. Bob neither says You said it wrong nor tells Tom explicitly that he did something wrong. Bob’s sole intent
was to confirm what he heard. It was even said with a bit of rising intonation to indicate Is this what you said?
Thus, it was a communicative event within the interaction. Unlike what teachers may do in classrooms, it was
not intended as a correction.
• CLARIFICATION REQUEST: asking the person to clarify.

- NNS: I can find no [ruddish].
- NS: I’m sorry. You couldn’t find what?
• METALINGUISTIC FEEDBACK: such questions exclude the use of yes/no questions: A question such as Do we say
that in French? is metalinguistic feedback.
• ELICITATION: a term used in linguistics and phonetics to refer to the method of obtaining reliable linguistic data
from speakers (informants) – either actual utterances, or judgements about utterances (e.g. their acceptability).
• REPETITION: (i.e., the student repeats the teacher’s feedback).
• MULTIPLE FEEDBACK TYPES: feedback can take one of two forms: ‘implicit’ or ‘explicit’. In the case of implicit
feedback there is no overt indicator that an error has been committed, whereas in explicit feedback there is.
• AVOIDANCE: a term most often used in the context of learner strategies and particularly as a communication
strategy in that it is a conscious mental act with a language use goal. avoidance behaviour occurs when l2 learners
attempt to avoid using structures in their production that are difficult as a result of (perceived) differences or
similarities between their l1 and the target l2.
CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS (CPH) vs. SENSITIVE PERIOD (IN L2 ACQUISITION): critical period hypothesis is
the view that there is a critical period favouring language acquisition, after which native-speaker-like ability cannot be
attained. The term sensitive period has often been used in lieu of critical period to accommodate the idea that unlike
other animal learning paradigms, human language development (either L1 or L2) does not seem to be subject to such
a tightly defined time frame but rather suggests a time frame where the effects of a particular stimulus (i.e., linguistic
environment) on behaviour (i.e., learning) are particularly strong. In the sensitive period formulation, the sensitivity does
not disappear at a fixed point; instead, it is thought to fade away over a longer period of time, perhaps covering later
childhood, puberty, and adolescence. In other words, the critical period represents a well-defined window of opportunity,
whereas the sensitive period represents a progressive inefficiency of the organism. Such a suggestion acknowledges
that certain language skills are acquired more easily at particular times in development than at other times, and some
language skills can be learned even after the critical period, although less easily. It seems reasonable to deduce from
research that age does have an influence on L2 development, but the nature of influence will depend on which intake
factors, when, and in what combination, are brought to bear on the learning experience of an individual learner.
CULTURAL AWARENESS vs. INTERCULTURAL AWARENESS: cultural awareness is sensitivity to the similarities and
differences that exist between two different cultures and the use of this sensitivity in effective communication with
members of another cultural group. intercultural awareness is an interdisciplinary field of research that studies how
people communicate and understand each other across group boundaries or discourse systems of various sorts
including national, geographical, linguistic, ethnic, occupation, class, or gender-related boundaries and how such
boundaries affect language use. This could include the study of a corporate culture, a professional group, a gender
discourse system, or a generational discourse system.
DECLARATIVE vs. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE: declarative knowledge is the knowledge that something is the case,
as in knowing a grammatical rule. Procedural knowledge is the knowledge of how to do something; it underlies automatic
performance.
DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCES / DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES / STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT / ORDERS: fixed

series of stages in language development (as phonological, syntactic, semantic), such as the sequence for developing
negation.
DIALECT / LANGUAGE VARIETY: a more or less identifiable regional or social variety of a language. Every language
that is spoken over any significant area is spoken in somewhat different forms in different places; these are its regional
dialects. Moreover, even in a single community, the language may be spoken differently by members of different social
groups; these different forms are social dialects or sociolects. For example, the English of London is noticeably different
from the English of Birmingham, Liverpool, Glasgow, New York, New Orleans, or Sydney, and even within London
stockbrokers do not speak like motor mechanics. It is important to realize that everybody speaks some dialect or other;
it is not possible to speak a language without using some dialect.
DIFFERENTIAL SUCCESS / DIFFERENTIAL ULTIMATE ATTAINMENT (an internal dimension within l2 acquisition):
individual learner factors that have been frequently identified as possible causes for differential success include age,
aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, the use of learning strategies, and personality. Differential ultimate attainment: the
outcome of L1 or L2 learning. The final state of L1 development is native linguistic competence. While vocabulary
learning and cultivation of specialized registers (such as formal academic written style) may continue into adulthood, the
basic phonological and grammatical systems of whatever language(s) children hear around them are essentially
established by the age of about five or six years, along with vocabulary knowledge and interaction skills that are adequate
for fulfilling communicative functions. This is a universal human achievement, requiring no extraordinary aptitude or
effort. On the other hand, the final state of L2 development can never be totally native linguistic competence, and the
level of proficiency which learners reach is highly variable. Some learners reach ‘near-native’ or ‘native-like’ competence
in L2 along with native competence in L1, but many cease at some point to make further progress toward the learning
target in response to L2 INPUT, resulting in a final state which still includes instances of L1 interference or creative
structures different from any that would be produced by a native speaker of the L2 (a ‘frozen’ state of progress known
as FOSSILIZATION in SLA). The complex of factors which contribute to differential levels of ultimate multilingual
development is of major interest for both SLA theory and second language teaching methods.
DISCOURSE; DISCOURSE LEVEL vs. SENTENCE LEVEL ; DISCOURSE COMPLETION TASK (DCT) (see: “speech
act”): discourse is any connected piece of speech or writing. A discourse may be produced by a single speaker or

writer, or by two or more people engaging in a conversation or (rarely) in a written exchange. Discourse completion task
is a type of questionnaire that presents a sociolinguistic description of a situation followed by part of a discourse designed
to elicit a specific speech act. The responses elicited can then be analysed as speech act realizations of the desired
type. For example, a discourse completion test designed to elicit some kind of apology, might produce responses such
as: I’m sorry. I won’t do that again. What can I do to fix the situation?
DISCOURSE MARKERS (see: pragmatics): a class of expressions consisting of words (however, still), phrases (as a
matter of fact) or clauses (to make myself clear) that serve to monitor and organize ongoing discourse. Discourse
markers serve a variety of functions in spoken discourse, including indicating topic boundaries (so, right), openings (well
then), closure or pre-closure (so) as well as reflecting the ongoing interaction between speaker and hearer (you know,
you see, I mean).
DISPLAY / TEST QUESTION vs. REFERENTIAL / GENUINE QUESTIONS (in teacher-student classroom discourse):
display is a question which is not a real question (i.e. which does not seek information unknown to the teacher) but which
serves to elicit language practice. For example:
- Is this a book?
- Yes, it’s a book.
It has been suggested that one way to make classes more communicative (see communicative approach) is for teachers
to use fewer display questions and more referential questions.
Referential question is a question which asks for information which is not known to the teacher, such as What do you
think about animal rights?
DOMINANT / STRONGER LANGUAGE (“language dominance” in bilinguals) vs. NON-DOMINANT / WEAKER

LANGUAGE: dominant language is the language that one uses most often and is most competent in. In translation and
interpretation, this is often considered more appropriate as an indication of a translator’s or interpreter’s ability than
terms such as first language or mother tongue. The dominant language may be his or her native language or may have
been acquired later in life at school or a place of employment. Weak language is any word (or sound) that doesn't add
value to your message. But not only does weak language not add value – it dilutes and undermines your message.
EDUCATED NATIVE SPEAKERS vs. NON-EDUCATED NATIVE SPEAKER (see: “standard variety” / “dialect”): the
variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech
and writing of educated native speakers of the language. A standard variety is generally: a) used in the news media and
in literature; b) described in dictionaries and grammars; c) taught in schools and taught to non-native speakers when
they learn the language as a foreign language. Sometimes it is the educated variety spoken in the political or cultural
centre of a country, e.g., the standard variety of French is based on educated Parisian French. The standard variety of
American English is known as Standard American English and the standard variety of British English is Standard British
English. A standard variety may show some variation in pronunciation according to the part of the country where it is
spoken, e.g. Standard British English in Scotland, Wales, Southern England. Standard English is sometimes used as a
cover term for all the national standard varieties of English. These national standard varieties have differences in spelling,
vocabulary, grammar and, particularly, pronunciation, but there is a common core of the language. This makes it possible
for educated native speakers of the various national standard varieties of English to communicate with one another.
ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE vs. ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE; EFL vs. ESL; IN GENERAL, FL vs.
SL: English as second language is a basic term with several somewhat different definitions. In a loose sense, English is
the second language of anyone who learns it after learning their first language in infancy in the home. Using the term
this way, no distinction is made between second language, third language, etc. However, English as a second language
is often contrasted with English as a foreign language (also called EFL). Someone who learns English in a formal
classroom setting, with limited or no opportunities for use outside the classroom, in a country in which English does not
play an important role in internal communication (China, Japan, and Korea, for example), is said to be learning English
as a foreign language. Someone who learns English in a setting in which the language is necessary for everyday life (for
example, an immigrant learning English in the US) or in a country in which English plays an important role in education,

business, and government (for example in Singapore, the Philippines, India, and Nigeria) is learning English as a second
language.
ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL) vs. ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE (EIL) / ENGLISH AS
A LINGUA FRANCA (ELF) (English as learned and / or used in non-English-speaking countries, e.g., at an
international conference in Seville): someone who learns English in a formal classroom setting, with limited or no
opportunities for use outside the classroom, in a country in which English does not play an important role in internal
communication (China, Japan, and Korea, for example), is said to be learning English as a foreign language. Someone
who learns English in a setting in which the language is necessary for everyday life (for example, an immigrant learning
English in the US) or in a country in which English plays an important role in education, business, and government (for
example in Singapore, the Philippines, India, and Nigeria) is learning English as a second language. English as an
international language is a term used to characterize the status of English as the world’s major second language and the
commonest language used for international business, trade, travel, communication, etc. Like the term World Englishes,
the notion of International Language recognizes that different norms exist for the use of English around the world. British,
American, Australian, or other mother-tongue varieties of English are not necessarily considered appropriate targets
either for learning or for communication in countries where English is used for cross-cultural or cross-linguistic
communication, for example, when a Brazilian and a Japanese businessperson use English to negotiate a business
contract. The type of English used on such occasions need not necessarily be based on native speaker varieties of
English but will vary according to the mother tongue of the people speaking it and the purposes for which it is being
used.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE vs. SPANISH LANGUAGE; *ENGLISH-SPEAKING WORLD vs. SPANISH-SPEAKING WORLD:
English language is an Indo-European language belonging to the West Germanic branch; the official language of Britain
and the United States and most of the commonwealth countries. Spanish language is the Romance language of the
largest part of Spain and of the countries colonized by Spaniards.
*ENGLISH (Spanish, etc.) PEOPLE vs. ENGLISH-SPEAKING (Spanish-speaking) PEOPLE; ENGLISH vs. BRITISH
(adj) PEOPLE ERRORS vs. MISTAKES IN L2 OUTPUT (based on competence vs. performance)
*ERROR DETECTION vs. ERROR CORRECTION
ERROR TYPES IN L2 OUTPUT: the study and analysis of the errors made by second language learners. Error analysis
may be carried out in order to: a identify strategies which learners use in language learning b try to identify the causes
of learner errors c obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the
preparation of teaching materials. Error analysis developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s and set out to
demonstrate that many learner errors were not due to the learner’s mother tongue but reflected universal learning
strategies. Error analysis was therefore offered as an alternative to contrastive analysis. Attempts were made to develop
classifications for different types of errors on the basis of the different processes that were assumed to account for them.
• AMBIGUOUS vs. AVOIDANCE vs. DEVELOPMENTAL vs. OVERGENERALIZATION vs. SIMPLIFICATION vs.
TRANSFER (L1 interference):
− AMBIGUOUS: the general sense of this term, referring to a word or sentence which expresses more than one
meaning (is ambiguous).
− AVOIDANCE: resulting from failure to use certain target language structures because they were thought to be
too difficult.
− DEVELOPMENTAL: those reflecting natural stages of development.
− OVERGENERALIZATION: errors caused by extension of target language rules to inappropriate contexts.
− SIMPLIFICATION: errors resulting from learners producing simpler linguistic rules than those found in the target
language.

− TRANSFER: an error which has been caused by the way in which a language item has been presented or
practised. For example, in teaching at the teacher may hold up a box and say I’m looking at the box. However,
the learner may infer that at means under. If later the learner uses at for under (thus producing *The cat is at
the table instead of The cat is under the table) this would be an induced error.
FACE, FACE-THREATENING SPEECH ACTS, FACE-WORK STRATEGIES (see: “pragmatics): a face-threatening act
is any piece of behaviour which can easily make another person lose face. Face-work, that is, efforts by the participants
to communicate a positive face and to prevent loss of face.
*FACE-TO-FACE, ONE-TO-ONE INTERACTION WITH MORE ADVANCED INTERLOCUTOR (see: interaction;

sociocultural theory)
FEEDBACK: CORRECTIVE / NEGATIVE FEEDBACK vs. POSITIVE FEEDBACK vs. BACK-CHANNEL FEEDBACK /
CUES FERAL CHILDREN (those who grow up in the wild) (see: “critical period hypothesis”):
• FEEDBACK: corrective / negative feedback: a general term used in both SLA research and L2 pedagogy for the
information that a teacher provides in response to a learner production (spoken or written) and is most commonly
associated with inaccuracy rather than with praising interesting or accurate productions.
• POSITIVE FEEDBACK: that one is succeeding at a task, a lack of self-consciousness, and the perception of time
passing quickly.
• BACK-CHANNEL FEEDBACK: is a term identified by Duncan to describe feedback that is given by a hearer in order
to indicate that they are attending to someone else’s speech. They can be (1) nonverbal, for example, consisting of
nods, gestures, or facial expressions, or (2) verbal, for example, words like yeah, right, okay or vocalizations like mm
and uh-huh. They can also include cases where a hearer completes part of a speaker’s turn.
FIELD DEPENDENT (FD) vs. FIELD INDEPENDENT (FI) (see “learning styles”): field dependent is the tendency to be
‘dependent’ on the total field so that the parts embedded in the field are not easily perceived, although that total field is
perceived more clearly as a unified whole. Field dependence often contrasts with field independence style (FI style),
which refers to ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a ‘field’ of distracting items. In general,
psychological terms, that field may be perceptual, or it may be more abstract and refer to a set of thoughts, ideas, or
feelings from which your task is to perceive specific relevant subsets. Field dependence is synonymous with field
sensitivity, a term that may carry a more positive connotation. A field independent (FI) style enables you to distinguish
parts from a whole, to concentrate on something (like reading a book in a noisy train station), or to analyse separate
variables without the contamination of neighbouring variables.
FIRST LANGUAGE / NATIVE LANGUAGE / SOURCE LANGUAGE / MOTHER TONGUE / L1 vs. DOMINANT
LANGUAGE: first language is a person’s mother tongue or the language acquired first. In multilingual communities,
however, where a child may gradually shift from the main use of one language to the main use of another (e.g., because
of the influence of a school language), first language may refer to the language the child feels most comfortable using.
Often this term is used synonymously with native language. First language is also known as L1. The dominant language
is the language that one uses most often and is most competent in. In translation and interpretation, this is often
considered more appropriate as an indication of a translator’s or interpreter’s ability than terms such as first language
or mother tongue.
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (FLA) / CHILD LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT (a field of study based on L1
acquisition): the process of learning a native language. First language acquisition has been studied primarily by linguists,
developmental psychologists, and psycholinguists. Most explanations of how children learn to speak and understand
language involve the influence of both the linguistic input to which children are exposed in social interaction with their
parents and other caregivers and a natural aptitude for grammar that is unique to humans. However, proponents of
universal grammar and the innatist position, proponents of cognitive psychology and emergentism, and those who view
language acquisition in terms of language socialization disagree strongly on the relative importance of these factors.
FOCUS ON FORM / FORM-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION vs. FOCUS ON MEANING / INTERACTION: focus on form is in
general terms, any focusing of attention on the formal linguistic characteristics of language, as opposed to a pure focus
on meaning in communication. In a more technical sense, focus on form has been defined as a brief allocation of attention
to linguistic form as the need for this arises incidentally, in the context of communication. This may be contrasted with a
focus on forms(plural), referring to the kind of focus on one form (or rule at a time that one finds in a language course
where there is a “structure of the day”, usually pre-specified by the teacher or the textbook. Focus on meaning or
interaction is the way in which a language is used by interlocutors.
FORMAL / INSTRUCTED vs. *INFORMAL / UNINSTRUCTED L2 LEARNING CONTEXT / SETTING: formal or instructed
is learning a second or foreign language partly or completely in a classroom setting. This can be contrasted with
naturalistic second language learning, which takes place through interaction with native speakers without the benefit of
instruction.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE (FL) CONTEXT / SETTING vs. SECOND LANGUAGE (SL) CONTEXT / SETTING: foreign
language is a language which is not the native language of large numbers of people in a particular country or region, is
not used as a medium of instruction in schools, and is not widely used as a medium of communication in government,
media, etc. Foreign languages are typically taught as school subjects for the purpose of communicating with foreigners
or for reading printed materials in the language. English as a second language is in a broad sense, any language learned
after one has learnt one’s native language. However, when contrasted with foreign language, the term refers more
narrowly to a language that plays a major role in a particular country or region though it may not be the first language of
many people who use it. For example, the learning of English by immigrants in the US or the learning of Catalan by
speakers of Spanish in Catalonia (an autonomous region of Spain) are cases of second (not foreign) language learning,
because those languages are necessary for survival in those societies. English is also a second language for many
people in countries like Nigeria, India, Singapore and the Philippines, because English fulfils many important functions
in those countries (including the business of education and government) and learning English is necessary to be
successful within that context. (Some people in these countries however may acquire English as a first language, if it is
the main language used at home.
FORMULAIC LANGUAGE / FORMULAIC SEQUENCES / CHUNKS: a term used in some theoretical and descriptive
studies of grammar to refer to utterances which lack normal syntactic or morphological characteristics. (It may also be
used, literally, to mean ‘language containing formulae’, or special symbols, as in scientific writing.) Sentences such as
God save the Queen, The more the merrier, How do you do? and Many happy returns do not contrast in the usual way
with other sentences in the language, e.g. Few happy returns, How will you do? Such fossilized structures, often used
in limited social situations, have also been called ‘bound’, ‘fixed’, ‘frozen’, ‘set’, ‘prefabricated’, ‘routine’ or ‘stereotyped
expressions’. The notion can be broadened from individual utterances to larger spoken or written events.
FOSSILIZATION vs. STABILIZATION (in L2 acquisition) (adj., fossilized and stabilized L2 features): fossilization is
a term introduced by Selinker referring to a permanent cessation in learning before the learner has attained target
language norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of the learner’s positive ability,
abundant linguistic INPUT, opportunity, and MOTIVATION to learn and acculturate into target society. Irrespective of
their age (but especially if they start in adolescence or later), many learners do not achieve full native speaker
competence—they stop short, continuing to manifest grammatical and lexical errors in their L2 production and, even if
overcoming these, failing to achieve a native-like pronunciation or to behave in accordance with the pragmatic norms of
the target language (TL). Stabilization refers to a state of L2 development where fluctuation has temporarily ceased.
Many L2 learners are familiar with a situation where they appear to plateau, failing to develop despite their continuing
efforts to do so, but then make a breakthrough some time later.
GRAMMAR (related to morphology and syntax: language knowledge as represented in the speakers’ mind): a
description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined
to produce sentences in the language. It usually takes into account the meanings and functions these sentences have
in the overall system of the language. It may or may not include the description of the sounds of a language. Morphology
is the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation. Syntax
is a major component of the grammar of a language (together with lexicon, phonology, and semantics), syntax concerns
the ways in which words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences, making
some sentences possible and others not possible within a particular language. The interface between syntax and
morphology (for example, the rules for modifying words to reflect their grammatical roles in sentences) is called
morphosyntax.
GRAMMATICAL MORPHEME (early-acquired vs. late-acquired morphemes): Morphemes can have grammatical
functions. For example, in English the -s in she talks is a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is the third-
person singular present-tense form. Grammatical morphemes which are separate words are called (inter alia) function
words.
• EARLY ACQUIRED: the early morpheme order studies, because the learners with Chinese, Korean, and Japanese
L1s were not as accurate in their usage of articles and plural. This shows that morphemes that are found challenging
are used differently in the target language, and they could also be absent in the L1.
• LATE ACQUIRED: Late system morphemes are activated later in the production process as required by the
grammatical frame of the target language. This paper claims that there is variation within individual lexical categories
and that the distinction between particular types of morphemes is not a lexical category-defining feature.
GRAMMATICALITY JUDGEMENT TASK (a research instrument often used in an innatist theory of SLA): are
sometimes considered a more direct measure of competence.
HERITAGE LANGUAGE; HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNER / SPEAKER (see: MAJORITY vs. MINORITY LANGUAGE
SPEAKERS): is a term which is used to refer to a language spoken in a child’s home or home community which is
different from the language spoken in the majority of the community (MAJORITY LANGUAGE). Heritage language and
MINORITY LANGUAGE are therefore largely synonymous. Minority language is a long-established language spoken as
a mother tongue by people in some part of a country in which the national or official language is something else. We
commonly tend to assume that everybody in, say, France speaks French. In fact, virtually all adults in France do speak
French—but not always as their first language. In various regions of the country, the first language of all or most local
people is Alsatian German, Dutch, Breton, Basque, Catalan, Occitan, or Corsican. Each of these is the mother tongue in
its region, and people who learn one of these as their first language in early childhood may not even begin learning
French until later in life, especially after beginning formal education. Such languages are called minority languages, and
minority languages are not confined to France. Alongside Spanish, Spain has Galician, Basque and Catalan; alongside
German, Germany has Frisian and Wendish (the second is a Slavic language); alongside English, Britain has Welsh and
Scots Gaelic; alongside English, the USA has Navaho, Hopi, Lakota, and dozens of other indigenous languages. Russia
and China each have over a hundred minority languages, and countries with no minority languages are in fact a rarity—
though Iceland and Portugal may be two cases. In contrast to the minority language, the majority language is the
language spoken by the wider community, society and/or country and is the language most often used for educational,
business and governance. Examples of majority languages are English in the USA and French in France.
HYPOTHESES (about aspects of L2 acquisition used in SLA): It has been suggested that during SLA, the learners
form hypotheses about the nature of the target-language rules and then tests them out. A hypothesis in this sense is an
internalized rule which is used in the speech community. Once a learner has formed a hypothesis about a language rule,
he can consciously or subconsciously test it out in a variety of ways in order to confirm or reject it: 1) receptively (i.e.,
the learner attends to L2 INPUT and compares his hypotheses with the data provided—by means of INTAKE analysis;
2) productively (i.e., the learner produces L2 utterances containing rules representing the hypotheses he has formed
and assesses their correctness in terms of the FEEDBACK received); 3) metalingally (i.e., the learner consults a native
speaker, teacher, grammar, or dictionary to establish the validity of a hypothesis; 4) interactionally (i.e., the learner elicits
a repair from his interlocutor.
IDENTITY / SOCIAL IDENTITIES / SOCIOLINGUISTIC IDENTITIES (see “individual differences”): individual

differences is a term which refers to the differences in how learners learn an L2, how fast they learn, and how successful
they are. These differences include LANGUAGE APTITUDE, LEARNING STYLES, LEARNING STRATEGIES,
PERSONALITY, MOTIVATION, ANXIETY, WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE, and LEARNER BELIEFS. These
differences can be cognitive, effective, or social in nature. Identity is a family of faithfulness constraints in optimality
theory which penalize differences in features between two forms which stand in a correspondence relation. Social

identities are the way a person categorizes themself in relation to an identifiable social group, such as the nation state,
or one’s gender, ethnicity, class, or profession. Social identities are multiple, changing, and often in conflict with one
another. They are constructed to a large extent through the way people use language in discourse.
IMMERSION EDUCATION (total vs. partial immersion, see “bilingual education”) vs. SUBMERSION EDUCATION:
immersion education is a form of bilingual education in which students are taught through the medium of a second
language, along with some instruction through their L1. In much of the literature, this term is used to describe schooling
in a second language of students whose L1 is the language spoken in the wider community. Bilingual education is In
general terms, schooling a child in two languages. In a more specific sense, in the US it refers to school programs
primarily geared for minority language children in which both the child’s L1 and the majority language are used for
classroom instruction in various proportions. Submersion education: a term which refers to educational settings where
L2 learners are required to learn in classrooms where most of the students are native speakers so that few adjustments
take place.
“INCOMPLETE” L1 ACQUISITION vs. L1 ATTRITION (see : heritage language speakers; minority language
speakers): incomplete acquisition implies that some grammatical aspect of the language did not reach age-appropriate
levels, while first language attrition (L1 attrition) in situations where the community speaks a different language, as in
language loss among immigrants. In these cases, the language that is lost or being lost is called the attriting language,
while the individuals who experience attrition are called attriters.
INDIRECTNESS / INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS (as performed in interactions; see pragmatics, “speech acts”): indirect
refers to an utterance whose linguistic form does not directly reflect its communicative purpose, as when I’m feeling
cold functions as a request for someone to close a door. A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known
as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more
polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES (IDS) / L2 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS (may determine rate of learning and level of
attainment): individual differences is a term which refers to the differences in how learners learn an L2, how fast they
learn, and how successful they are. These differences include language aptitude, learning styles, learning strategies,
personality, motivation, anxiety, willingness to communicate, and learner beliefs. These differences can be cognitive,
effective, or social in nature. L2 learner characteristics are those specific to an individual learner and which influence his
or her learning, such as their age, past learning experience, learning style, motivation.
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION / INTERINDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY (in language acquisition): in second-Language

variation/variability (e.g., regional, social, stylistic, individual variation): differences in pronunciation, grammar, or word
choice within a language. Variation in a language may be related to region (dialect: regional variation), to social class
and/or educational background (sociolect) or to the degree of formality of a situation in which language is used (style).
INNATISM (N. Chomsky's perspective; focus on the 'final state' competence of adult native speakers of a L): it is
a theoretical perspective very powerful in the 1970s whose major proponent, Noam Chomsky, argues that children are
biologically programmed for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological
functions develop. The environment makes only a basic contribution. The child, or rather, the child’s biological
endowment, which is a sort of template, containing the principles that are universal to all human languages, will do the
rest.
I+1 (see: S. Krashen's 'comprehensible input' hypothesis): comprehensible input is spoken language that can be
understood by the listener even though some structures and vocabulary may not be known. According to Krashen’s
theory of language acquisition, comprehensible input is a necessary condition for second language acquisition.
INPUT / LANGUAGE PERCEPTION / L. RECEPTION INPUT ENHANCEMENT / ENHANCED INPUT: input (in language
learning) is language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn. The language a learner
produces is by analogy sometimes called output. Enhanced input is a type of spoken or written input provided to
language learners in which some target language features are made more salient, such as by increasing their frequency
or in speech by using stress or intonation to highlight them.
INPUT (LANGUAGE L1 / L2 THAT IS AVAILABLE TO THE LEARNER) vs. INTAKE (LANGUAGE THAT HAS BEEN
INTERNALIZED BY THE LEARNER): a term referring to that part of the language to which learners are exposed that
actually “goes in” and plays a role in language learning. Some theorists believe that intake is that part of the input that
has been attended to and noticed by second language learners while processing the input.
INTENSIVE L2 LEARNING; INTENSIVE L2 INSTRUCTION vs. EXTENSIVE L2 LEARNING, EXTENSIVE L2

INSTRUCTION: intensive language program is a language program designed to prepare international students or other
students needing language instruction to take regular academic courses at a university, and an intensive course consist
of a language course that takes place over a short period of time but which consists of a high number of hours of
instruction.
(+) INTENSIVE: a lot of time for short period/ or not may be long. Our mind works better in an intensive situation.
EXTENSIVE: a long period with very limited exposure to something. Most school programs are like that. Many years and
the time devoted to that ranges from limited to extremely limited.
INTERACTION / INTERACTIVE TALK / CONVERSATION / TALK vs. INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (M. LONG):
interaction is the way in which a language is used by interlocutors, and the interaction hypothesis says that language
acquisition requires or greatly benefits from interaction, communication, and especially negotiation of meaning, which
happens when interlocutors attempt to overcome problems in conveying their meaning, resulting in both additional input
and useful feedback on the learner’s own production.
INTERACTION TYPES (e.g, phatic communion / small talk vs. Transactional vs. Interpersonal interaction):
• PATHIC COMMUNION: is communication between people that is not intended to seek or convey information but
has the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact. Ex: How are you? and Nice day, isn’t it?
INTERACTIONAL COMMUNICATION: is primarily person-orientated, whereas transactional communication is primarily

message-focused. Interactional and transactional language may differ in terms of such things as conventions for turn-
taking, topics, and discourse management.
INTERACTIONAL MODIFICATIONS / MODIFIED INTERACTION (e.g., comprehension checks, requests for

clarification, etc.): a useful distinction can be made between those interactional modifications that involve discourse
management and those that involve discourse repair. The former are motivated by the attempt to simplify the discourse
so as to avoid communication problems, while the latter occur when some form of communication breakdown has taken
place or in response to a learner utterance that contains an error of some kind (factual, linguistic, or discourse). The
need for discourse repair arises when some kind of problem occurs.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION vs. INTRACULTURAL COMMUNICATION
• INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION is an interdisciplinary field of research that studies how people communicate
and understand each other across group boundaries or discourse systems of various sorts including national,
geographical, linguistic, ethnic, occupation, class, or gender-related boundaries and how such boundaries affect
language use.
• INTRACULTURAL COMMUNICATION is the type of communication that takes place between members of the
same dominant culture, but with slightly different values, as opposed to “intercultural communication” which is the
communication between two or more distinct cultures.
INTERACTION INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (ICC): the knowledge, understanding and skills
needed to communicate successfully with members of a different social group. It requires the setting up of encounters
between one’s own culture and that of the ‘other’. Negative transfer is the use of a native-language pattern or rule which
leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language.
INTERFERENCE / NEGATIVE TRANSFER vs. CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE
• NEGATIVE TRANSFER can be referred to as interference, in that previously learned material interferes with
subsequent material—a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned.
For example, a French learner of English may produce the incorrect sentence I am here since Monday instead of I
have been here since Monday, because of the transfer of the French pattern Je suis ici depuis lundi (‘I am here
since Monday’).
• CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE a cover-term used to refer to phenomena such as borrowing, interference, and
language transfer in which one language shows the influence of another. It is sometimes preferred to the more
widely used term “transfer” and especially “interference”, because “cross-linguistic influence” Whereas the term
transfer is closely associated with behaviorist learning theory, cross-linguistic influence is theory-neutral.
INTERLANGUAGE (IL) vs. TL; INTERLANGUAGE vs. IL TALK (e.g, student-to-student talk):
• INTERLANGUAGE is the type of language produced by second- and foreign-language learners who are in the
process of learning a language, which is influenced processes such as: (a) borrowing patterns from the mother
tongue (b) extending patterns from the target language (c) expressing meanings using the words and grammar
which are already known. This IL is said to result from the learner’s interlanguage system or approximative system.
• THE TARGET LANGUAGE is the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or mother
tongue. It is the learning of a third, fourth, or nth language, the learning of a non-native language after the learning
of the native language. The additional language is called a second language (L2), even though it may actually be the
third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also commonly called a target language (TL), which refers to any language
that is the aim or goal of learning.
• INTERLANGUAGE TALK is the language that learners receive as INPUT when addressed by other learners.
Interlanguage talk (ILT) constitutes the primary source of input for many learners. In classroom contexts, ILT has
been referred to as ‘tutor talk’. ILT, not surprisingly, tends to be less grammatical then FOREIGNER TALK, but it is
characterized by more INTERACTIONAL MODIFICATIONs associated with the negotiation of meaning.
INTERLOCUTOR / CONVERSATION PARTICIPANT / CONVERSATION PARTNER vs. SPEAKER
• INTERLOCUTOR: a neutral term referring to any person with whom someone is speaking. A conversation requires
at least two interlocutors. In language testing, the term is sometimes used to refer to a teacher or other trained
person who acts during a test as the person with whom the student or candidate interacts in order to complete a
speaking task
• SPEAKER: a speaker is one who speaks: the producer of an utterance
L1 vs. L2 (vs. L3)
• L1: The abbreviation L1 stands for native language or mother tongue. The terms first I source / primary / dominant
language are also used. The number '1' in'LI' does not necessarily mean that only one language is involved. Two or
three native languages may also be acquired simultaneously from a child's first weeks or months of life. Due to
various reasons(e.g., immigration, career opportunities overseas, political turmoil), people may stop using a first
language as a child, adolescent or young adult and start using another language consistently from then on; after a
decade or two in the 'new' environment, these people may well regard that 'second' language as their
primary/dominant language at present (i.e., a less frequent--but real-- version of L1).

• L2: The abbreviation L2 stands for any non-native of additional language that is being learned or mastered at present.
L2 is typically used in opposition to a native language (L1); the terms additional / non-primary / non-dominant/target
language may also be used. The number2' in 'L2' does not necessarily mean that the language involved is
chronologically or sequentially the second; it may well be the third, the fourth, or even the fifth.
• L3,L4,L5: While the abbreviation L2 stands for non-native language (also, additional / another / non- primary/non-
dominant language(s)). The abbreviation L1 stands for native language (also, first/source/primary /dominant
language(s)). Note that the use of the number '1' and '2' here does not mean that only 'one language IS necessarily
involved. The number '2' ni L2' does not necessarily mean it is the second' sequentially, as it may well be the 3rd,
the 4t, etc. When a speaker is fluent in two, three (or more) different non-native languages (= [2s), it may be very
relevant (especially for research purposes) to distinguish them sequentially as L2, L3, LA, etc.
L2 / NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE / ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE): The abbreviation L2 stands for any non-native of additional
language that is being learned or mastered at present. LI is typically used IN opposition to a native language (L1); the
terms additional / non-primary / non-dominant/ target language may also be used. The number2' in 'L2' does not
necessarily mean that the language involved is chronologically or sequentially the second; it may well be the third, the
fourth, or even the fifth.
L2 ACQUISITION vs. SEQUENTIAL INDIVIDUAL BILINGUALISM (EXPECTED LONG-TERM GOAL):
• L2 ACQUISITION usually refers to the actual process and experience of learning a non-native language (i.e., a
personal and social dimension). Therefore, it is comparatively permanent changes in language knowledge and in
communicative behavior that result from language contact and experience. Sequential bilingualism occurs when a
person becomes bilingual by first learning one language and then another.
L2 ACQUISITION vs. L2 LEARNING (DISTINCTION MADE IN S. KRASHEN'S 'MONITOR MODEL', OTHERWISE

SYNONYMOUS): L2 acquisition is sometimes opposed to L2 learning: the former is viewed as an environmentally natural
process, the primary force behind foreign-language fluency; the latter is seen as an instructional process which takes
place in a teaching context, guiding the performance of the speaker.
L2 COMPONENTS vs. L2 SKILLS (see: 'components' and ‘skills*):
• L2 COMPONENTS are those who involve the overall language system. It is language-based information stored in
our mind-brain, that is divided into seven: pragmatic component (pragmatics and discourse), semantic component
(semantics), lexical component (lexis): , phonological and/or orthographic components (phonology and
orthography), morphological component (morphology), syntactic component (syntax), cultural/ intercultural
component (cultures).
• L2 SKILLS are those that deal with performance and communicative use. They need to be developed for verbal
communication, and they are divided into receptive skills: listening comprehension (listening), reading
comprehension (reading) and productive skills: oral expression (speaking-interacting), written expression (writing),
interpreting (spoken texts), translation (written texts).
L2 LEARNING CONTEXTS / SETTINGS (INSTRUCTION-ONLY vs. MIXED/STUDY ABROAD vs. NATURALISTIC-

ONLY): L2 learning may take place through daily exposure and use (e.g., in a naturalistic learning context) or through
explicit/formal classroom instruction (e.g., in a classroom or instructed learning context), or through self-study as a
practical application of 'learner autonomy’. It may also take place through a combination of these two contexts (e.g., in
a study-abroad or mixed- learning context) For example, Erasmus students are in a mixed-learning context.
L2 LEARNING CONTEXT (Broad; e.g., instruction-only) vs. L2 LEARNING SITUATION (specific; e.g., bilingual
schooling): context refers to something global and it is divided into different situations. For example, a learning context
would be “learning English in school” but there are different situations in that context: there could be children whose
parents are native (English speakers) and therefore, even though the context is the same to those students whose
parents are not native (English speakers), their situations are different. Another example of different situations would be:
a student learning English in a public school vs a student learning English in a bilingual private school. The context is
the same for both students but their situations are different so the results will be different.
L2 LEARNING OUTCOMES / RESULTS (see; 'success of acquisition’): a statement of what is expected that a student
will be able to do as a result of a learning activity. Learning outcomes help instructors and course designers to tell
students what they are expected to do and what they can hope to gain from following a particular course or program.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (EITHER LI OR L2) / LANGUAGE LEARNING / LANGUAGE ‘GROWTH’: the learning and
development of a person’s language. The learning of a native first language is called first language acquisition, and of a
second or foreign language, second language acquisition. Some theorists use “learning” and “acquisition”
synonymously. Others maintain a contrast between the two terms, using “learning” to mean a conscious process
involving the study of explicit rules of language and monitoring one’s performance, as is often typical of classroom
learning in a foreign language context, and using “acquisition” to refer to a non-conscious process of rule internalization
resulting from exposure to comprehensible input when the learner’s attention is on meaning rather than form, as is more
common in a second language context. Still others use “acquisition” only with reference to the learning of one’s first
language.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD) / UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG) (SEE: N. CHOMSKY'S 'INNATIST
THEORY”): another term for language faculty. The term is seldom used nowadays, having been replaced by the concept
of universal grammar. In generative theory, the view is widely held that humans are innately endowed with a specific
faculty or mental module which provides them with a set of procedures for developing the grammar of their native
language. Universal grammar is a theory proposed by Noam Chomsky which claims to account for the grammatical
competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. It claims that every speaker knows a set of
principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but
only within certain limits.
LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES vs. LANGUAGE ATTITUDES:
• LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES: any set of beliefs about languages as they are used in their social worlds. Language
ideologies are conceptualizations about languages, speakers, and discursive practices. Like other kinds of
ideologies, language ideologies are influenced by political and moral interests, and they are shaped in a cultural
setting.
• LANGUAGE ATTITUDES: A term used in sociolinguistics for the feelings people have about their own language or
the language(s) of others. These may be positive or negative: someone may particularly value a foreign language
(e.g. because of its literary history) or think that a language is especially diﬃcult to learn (e.g. because the script is
off-putting). Rural accents generally receive a positive evaluation, whereas urban accents do not. Knowing about
attitudes is an important aspect of evaluating the likely success of a language teaching program or a piece of
language planning.
LANGUAGE ATTRITION (L1 OR L2 ATTRITION) / LOSS vs. LANGUAGE DEATH / LANGUAGE SHIFT:
• LANGUAGE ATTRITION: language loss that is gradual rather than sudden. This may refer to the loss of a second
or foreign language after instruction (second language attrition or L2 attrition), such as often occurs in settings where
the language is not used in the community, or to first language attrition (L1 attrition) in situations where the
community speaks a different language, as in language loss among immigrants.
• LANGUAGE DEATH: the disappearance of a “living” language as its speakers switch to using other languages and
children cease to learn it.
LANGUAGE vs. DIALECT / DIALECTAL VARIETY; DIALECT/VARIETY vs. ACCENT:
• LANGUAGE: the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds (or
written representation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.
• DIALECTAL VARIETY: a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people
belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other
forms of the same language. A dialect is often associated with a particular accent. Sometimes a dialect gains status
and becomes the standard variety of a country.
LANGUAGE DISORDERS / DISABILITIES (e.g, children with specific language impairment (SLI): a language
disorder can cause issues with the comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, and other forms of language. Students
with a language disorder may struggle with the form, content, or function of language.
LANGUAGE DOMINANCE (in individual bilingualism / multilingualism): greater ability in, or greater importance of,
one language than another. (i) For an individual, this means that a person who speaks more than one language or dialect
considers that he or she knows one of the languages better than the other(s) and/or uses it more frequently and with
greater ease. The dominant language may be his or her native language or may have been acquired later in life at school
or a place of employment. (ii) For a country or region where more than one language or dialect is used, this means that
one of them is more important than the other(s). A language may become the dominant language because it has more
prestige in the country, is favoured by the government, and/or has the largest number of speakers.
LANGUAGE (L1 / L2) PROCESSING: language processing is an intricate cognitive function that appears to be sensitive
to different sorts of information, some linguistic, some not. It interacts with other cognitive functions, such as attention
and memory, and on some accounts, these cognitive functions are embedded into language processing itself.
LANGUAGE VARIATION / VARIABILITY (e.g, regional, social, stylistic, individual variation): differences in
pronunciation, grammar, or word choice within a language. Variation in a language may be related to region (see dialect,
regional variation), to social class and /or educational background (see sociolect) or to the degree of formality of a
situation in which language is used
LEARNER BELIEFS (see: 'individual differences’): ideas learners have concerning different aspects of language,
language learning and language teaching, that may influence their attitudes and motivations in learning and have an
effect on their learning strategies and learning outcomes. Learners’ belief systems are relatively stable sets of ideas and
attitudes about such things as how to learn language, effective teaching strategies, appropriate classroom behavior,
their own abilities, and their goals in language learning. Identification of learner beliefs (e.g. through interviews or
administration of questionnaires) sometimes constitutes part of a needs analysis.
LEARNER AUTONOMY / AUTONOMOUS LEARNING / SELF-DIRECTED L2 LEARNING: This is defined as an L2

learner's capacity to take responsibility for, and control of, their own L2 learning, either in an institutional context, or ni
away that is completely independent of an L2 teacher or educational institution. tI has been advocated as a way of
addressing the fact that many-particularly adult -learners have individual needs, preferences, learning styles, etc. that
are not always easily accommodated in classroom situations. Autonomous learning assumes that the L2 learner-user
has developed and applies relatively effective learning strategies
LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES / OPPORTUNITIES FOR USE vs. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:
• LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES refer to specific actions, practices, situations, resources, or strategies sometimes
related, but more often, unrelated to formal classroom instruction—that may or may not be available to L2 learners
in order for them to acquire or improve their L2. Such actions provide the learner-user with additional input and/or
additional output in the target language.
• INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES is a term which refers to the differences in how learners learn an L2, how fast they
learn, and how successful they are. These differences include language aptitude, learning styles, learning strategies,
personality, motivation, anxiety, willingness to communicate, and learner beliefs. For example: (EDUCATIONAL,
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, ETC.)
RESOURCES INVESTED IN LEARNING vs. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS (that influence the acquisition
process): resources in learning are those materials and other sources of learning that are used in a language program,
such as books, computers, DVDs and CDs, while personal characteristics are intangible aspects of personality,
experience, talents, capabilities and social status that can be used to describe a person. These can be used to introduce
oneself or to describe other people.
LEARNING STYLES / COGNITIVE STYLES: a particular way of learning preferred by a learner. Learners approach
learning in different ways, and an activity that works with a learner whose learning style favors a visual mode of learning,
may not be as successful with a learner who prefers auditory or kinesthetic modes of learning. Several different learning
styles are often referred to: (i) Analytic versus global refers to whether the learner focuses on the details or concentrates
on the main idea or big picture. (ii) Visual versus auditory versus hands-on or tactile refers to different sensory
preferences in learning. (iii) Intuitive/random versus concrete/ sequential learning refers to a difference between thinking
in an abstract or non-sequential way versus a focus on concrete facts or a preference to approach learning in step by
step.
LEXICAL ITEM / LEXEME (SINGLE vs. UNIT) vs. WORD vs. IDIOM:
• LEXEME: the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units.
A lexeme is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences and is
regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected.
• WORD: the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing.
• IDIOM: an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate
parts.
LINGUISTIC vs. PSYCHOLINGUISTIC vs. SOCIOLINGUISTIC vs. NEUROLINGUISTIC VIEWS IN SLA:
• LINGUISTICS: the study of language as a system of human communication. Linguistics is concerned with linguistic
competence or mental' knowledge of a language as opposed to applied linguistics, concerned with linguistic
performance or communicative uses of a language in specific situations.
• PSYCHOLINGUISTIC: the study of (a) the mental processes that a person uses in producing and understanding
language, and (b) how humans learn language. Psycholinguistics includes the study of speech perception, the role
of memory, concepts and other processes in language use, and how social and psychological factors affect the use
of language.
• SOCIOLINGUISTICS: the study of language in relation to social factors, that is social class, educational level and
type of education, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc. Linguists differ as to what they include under sociolinguistics
• NEUROLINGUISTICS: the study of the function the brain performs in language learning and language use.
Neurolinguistics includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in
which parts of the brain language is stored (see memory), and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use
language (see aphasia).
LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY (see: language vs. dialect; dialect vs. accent; standardization; endangered languages):
in reference to a group of learners or individuals in society, the quality of including people of many different ethnic,
cultural, and linguistic backgrounds or physical abilities. The move to recognize and promote cultural diversity is known
as multiculturalism. Many countries contain minority groups of many different cultural, religious, and linguistic back-
grounds, but promote only the culture of the dominant group in curriculum, teaching materials, the media, etc.
MODERN / LIVING vs. CLASSICAL / DEAD LANGUAGES (spanish vs latin, etc.): a living or modern-day language as
a subject of study, as contrasted with classical Latin and Greek. A classical language is any language with an independent
literary tradition and a large and ancient body of written literature. Classical languages are typically dead languages, as
the spoken varieties of the language diverge further away from the classical written language over time.
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MAJORITY vs. MINORITY LANGUAGE; MAJORITY vs. MINORITY LANGUAGE SPEAKERS; MAJORITY, MINORITY
vs. MAJORITIZED, MINORITIZED (adj; e.g., students from minoritized backgrounds): majority language is the
language spoken by the majority of the population in a country, such as English in the USA. A language spoken by a
group of people who form a minority within a country is known as a minority language, such as Italian and Spanish in
the USA.
METALANGUAGE (adj.: metalinguistic): linguistics, as other sciences, uses this term in the sense of a higher-level
language for describing an object of study (or ‘object language’) – in this case the object of study is itself language, viz.
the various language samples, intuitions, etc., which constitute our linguistic experience.
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS / METALINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE: (in language learning) knowledge of the forms,
structure and other aspects of a language, which a learner arrives at through reflecting on and analyzing the language.
In linguistic analysis, researchers sometimes make use of a native speaker’s metalinguistic knowledge as one source of
information about the language.
MONITOR MODEL (S. KRASHEN'S THEORY): a theory proposed by Krashen that distinguishes two distinct processes
in second and foreign language development and use. One, called “acquisition”, is said to be a subconscious process
that leads to the development of “competence” and is not dependent on the teaching of grammatical rules. The second
process, called “learning” refers to the conscious study and knowledge of grammatical rules. In producing utterances,
learners initially use their acquired system of rules. Learning and learned rules have only one function: to serve as a
monitor or editor of utterances initiated by the acquired system, and learning cannot lead to acquisition.
MONOLINGUAL BIAS / MONOLINGUAL MINDSET / MONOLINGUAL PRINCIPLE (e.g., monolingual, educated

native- speaker norms) vs. MULTILINGUAL TURN / MULTILINGUALISM (in the fields of sla, slt, and bilingual
education):
• MULTILINGUALISM: the use of three or more languages by an individual (see multilingual) or by a group of
speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some
countries of West Africa (e.g. Nigeria, Ghana), Singapore, and Israel.
• MONOLINGUAL: (i) a person who knows and uses only one language. (ii) a person who has an active knowledge
of only one language, though perhaps a passive knowledge of others.
MOTIVATION (see: 'individual differences in 12 acquisition): In general, the driving force in any situation that leads
to action. In SLA, motivation refers to the effort which learners put into learning an L2 as a result of their need or desire
to learn it. Motivation is something that can, like self-esteem, be global, situational, or task-oriented. Learning a foreign
language requires some of all three levels of motivation. For example, a learner may possess high global motivation but
low task motivation to perform well on, say, the written mode of the language.
MOTIVATION TYPES (assimilative vs. integrative vs. instrumental vs. task ; extrinsic vs. intrinsic): in general, the
driving force in any situation that leads to action. In SLA, motivation refers to the effort which learners put into learning
an L2 as a result of their need or desire to learn it. Motivation is something that can, like self-esteem, be global, situational,
or task oriented. Learning a foreign language requires some of all three levels of motivation. For example, a learner may
possess high global motivation but low task motivation to perform well on, say, the written mode of the language.
Motivation is also typically examined in terms of the intrinsic and extrinsic motives of the learner. Those who learn for
their own self perceived needs and goals are intrinsically motivated, and those who pursue a goal only to receive an
external reward from someone else are extrinsically motivated. Finally, studies of motivation in second language
acquisition often refer to the distinction between integrative and instrumental orientations of the learner. Instrumental
motivation occurs when a learner has a functional goal (such as to get a job or pass an examination), and integrative
motivation occurs when learner wishes to identify with the culture of the L2 group. It does not affect language learning
directly; rather its effect is mediated by the learning behavior that it instigates.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY / MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES ; INTELLIGENCE TYPES
A theory of intelligence that characterizes human intelligence as having multiple dimensions that must be acknowledged
and developed in education. Conceptions of intelligence that dominated earlier in the twentieth century, particularly
through the influence of the Stanford–Binet IQ test, were based on the idea that intelligence is a single, unchanged,
inborn capacity. Advocates of MI argue that there are other equally important intelligences, found in all people in different
strengths and combinations. MI thus belongs to the group of instructional philosophies that focus on the differences
between learners and the need to recognize learner differences in teaching. The theory of MI is based on the work of
the psychologist Gardner who posits 8 intelligences:
1 Linguistic: the ability to use language in special and creative ways, which is something lawyers, writers, editors and
interpreters are strong in.
2 Logical/mathematical: this involves rational thinking and is often found with doctors, engineers, programmers and
scientists.
3 Spatial: this is the ability to form mental models of the world and is something architects, decorators, sculptors and
painters are good at.
4 Musical: a good ear for music, as is strong in singers and composers.
5 Bodily/kinesthetic: having a well co-ordinated body is something found in athletes and craftspersons.
6 Interpersonal: this refers to the ability to be able to work well with people and is strong in salespeople, politicians and
teachers.
7 Intrapersonal: the ability to understand oneself and apply one’s talent successfully, which leads to happy and well
adjusted people in all areas of life.
8 Naturalist: refers to those who understand and organize the patterns of nature.
NATIVE-LIKE vs. NEAR-NATIVE (e.g., near-native fluency; native-like accuracy) vs. NATIVE: Some learners reach
‘near-native’ or ‘native-like’ competence in L2 along with native competence in L1, but many cease at some point to
make further progress toward the learning target in response to L2 INPUT, resulting in a final state which still includes
instances of L1 interference or creative structures different from any that would be produced by a native speaker of the
L2 (a ‘frozen’ state of progress known as FOSSILIZATION in SLA). Native is someone who speaks a language from very
early childhood and is thus expected to be fluent in the language without formal instruction. In contrast, a non-native
speaker (also NNS) is a language user for whom a language is not their first language.
NATIVE SPEAKER (NS) / NATIVE USER vs. NON-NATIVE SPEAKER (NNS) / USER; NATIVE SPEAKERISM: someone
who speaks a language from very early childhood, and is thus expected to be fluent in the language without formal
instruction. In contrast, a non-native speaker (also NNS) is a language user for whom a language is not their first
language.
*NATIVE PROFICIENCY (vs. NEAR-NATIVE vs. ADVANCED vs. INTERMEDIATE vs. ELEMENTARY vs. ZERO
PROFICIENCY)
NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS (in S. Krashen’s “monitor model”): In language acquisition, the view that children
follow essentially the same path in learning a language, and that when adults learn a foreign language they follow
essentially the same path that they used when learning their mother-tongue. The motivation for the hypothesis came
from observing the way many learners make similar errors (e.g. I going), regardless of their language background.
NEGOTIATION OF MEANING / NEGOTIATION OF MEANING (see: “interaction hypothesis”; M. Long)
The process in which learners and competent speakers interact in various ways, making adjustments in their speech
exchanges until understanding is achieved.

It is an attempt made in conversation to clarify a lack of understanding. Negotiation of meaning is triggered when there
is a mismatch between a speaker’s intended message and what the listener interprets as the intended meaning. The
purpose of negotiation is to resolve the perceived mismatch, and such negotiations can occur in just about any kind of
interaction. Even natives speaking to other natives may say something like What’re you getting at? because they are not
quite sure what the other person’s intention is. Such negotiations are usually the result of pragmatic problems or a lack
of background knowledge. Negotiation of meaning is a term attributed to Michael Long and now widely used in the
interactional research literature. It stems from Long’s conviction that MODIFIED INPUT was necessary but not sufficient
for L2 acquisition. Originally using the term ‘modified interaction’, Long proposed that negotiation of meaning occurred
when teacher-learner interaction (or non-native speaker vs. native speaker interaction) broke down, or when one
participant in the interaction sensed that a breakdown may have occurred. In order that the speaker’s meaning might be
co-constructed a number of negotiation moves were possible:
• a clarification request—I’m sorry could you explain that?
• a comprehension check—Do you understand? Is that clear?
• a confirmation signal—Oh, right, you mean X
Negotiation of meaning is deemed important not just for communicative reasons but potentially for acquisitional reasons.
Negotiation of meaning provides indirect NEGATIVE EVIDENCE, clues to the learner that he did something wrong. Thus,
interaction potentially provides useful FEEDBACK about vocabulary, syntax, and so on. However, researchers are not in
agreement about the role that indirect negative evidence plays. Nonetheless, negotiation of meaning is important for
maximizing comprehension on the part of the learner. Not all miscommunications are a result of what learners do wrong;
they can result when learners do not understand someone else. Thus, negotiation helps to ensure comprehension. With
increased comprehension, there are increased chances for acquisition, because acquisition is a by-product of
comprehension to a certain degree.
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION (kinesics vs. proxemics vs. haptics vs. eye contact vs. silence) ; NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION vs. VERBAL COMMUNICATION / INTERACTION
• COMMUNICATION WITHOUT THE USE OF WORDS: this could be done, for instance, by gestures (see
paralinguistics) or signs (see sign language). The use of paralinguistic features in this sense is also called kinesics.
Proxemics is the study of the physical distance between people when they are talking to each other, as well as their
postures and whether or not there is physical contact during their conversation. These factors can be looked at in
relation to the sex, age, and social and cultural background of the people involved, and also their attitudes to each
other and their state of mind. Eye contact occurs when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time. In
humans, eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication and can have a large influence on social behavior.
Silence is complete absence of sound. Haptics means able to come into contact with.
• VERBAL COMMUNICATION is the use of words to share information with other people. It can therefore include
both spoken and written communication. However, many people use the term to describe only spoken
communication.
NOTICING HYPOTHESIS / NOTICING THE GAP (R. Schmidt): proposed by Schmidt (e.g., 1990; 1995), the Noticing
Hypothesis states that what learners notice in the input is what becomes intake for learning.
OUTPUT / LANGUAGE PRODUCTION (oral vs. written; interactive vs. non-interactive output): A use of the general
sense of this term in generative grammar to refer to a sentence which is produced after the application of a rule or set
of rules. It contrasts with input, which refers to the linguistic construct which triggers the application of a rule.
*PATTERN / LANGUAGE PATTERN; LANGUAGE PATTERN vs. LANGUAGE FEATURE
PERSONALITY / SPECIFIC PERSONALITY TRAITS (e.g., extroversion vs. introversion) (see: “individual
differences”): Individual differences are a term which refers to the differences in how learners learn an L2, how fast they
learn, and how successful they are. These differences include LANGUAGE APTITUDE, LEARNING STYLES, LEARNING
STRATEGIES, PERSONALITY, MOTIVATION, ANXIETY, WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE, and LEARNER BELIEFS.
These differences can be cognitive, effective, or social in nature. Extroversion is the extent to which a person has a deep-
seated need to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from other people, as opposed to
receiving that affirmation within oneself, as opposed to introversion, which is the extent to which a person derives a
sense of wholeness and fulfilment from ‘within’, apart from a reflection of this self from other people.
POLITENESS vs. IMPOLITENESS (in interaction; see “pragmatics”; L2 components):
• POLITENESS is in sociolinguistics and pragmatics, a term which characterizes linguistic features mediating norms
of social behaviour, in relation to such notions as courtesy, rapport, deference and distance. Such features include
the use of special discourse markers (please), appropriate tones of voice and acceptable forms of address (e.g. the
choice of intimate v. distant pronouns, or of first v. last names).
• IMPOLITENESS is a negative attitude towards specific behaviours occurring in specific contexts. It is sustained by
expectations, desires and /or beliefs about social organisation, including, in particular, how one person's or group's
identities are mediated by others in interaction.
PRAGMATIC FAILURE (based on inappropriate L2 use) vs. LANGUAGE ERROR (based on incorrect L2 form):
Pragmatic failure is a communicative failure that occurs when the pragmatic force of a message is misunderstood, for
example, if an intended apology is interpreted as an excuse. Language error is the study and analysis of the errors made
by second language learners. Error analysis (EA) involves a set of procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining
language errors made by learners in terms of linguistic level (pronunciation, grammar, lexis, style, etc.) and with
attempting to ascribe the causes of errors to particular sources, such as the application of conventions and rules in a
learner’s mother tongue (i.e., INTERFERENCE) or faulty application of target language rules.
PROFICIENCY; L2 PROFICIENCY LEVELS vs. PROFICIENCY SCALES (e.g., CEFR) vs. PROFICIENCY TESTS / L2
PROFICIENCY TESTS
• PROFICIENCY is the degree of skill with which a person can use a language, such as how well a person can read,
write, speak, or understand language. This can be contrasted with language achievement, which describes language
ability as a result of learning. Proficiency may be measured through the use of a proficiency test.
• L2 PROFICIENCY LEVELS are a description of a language learner’s level of performance in a target language, often
described in terms of beginner level, intermediate level or advanced level. Proficiency levels are often used to
describe difficulty levels of language courses and language teaching materials.
• PROFICIENCY SCALES are a description in the form of band levels on a scale and which describe what a student
is able to do in the different skill areas at different stages in a language programme. Proficiency scales have been
widely used as a framework for organizing language programme and courses and as a basis for the assessment of
language ability in a second or foreign language.
• PROFICIENCY TESTS are a test that measures how much of a language someone has learned. The difference
between a proficiency test and an achievement test is that the latter is usually designed to measure how much a
student has learned from a particular course or syllabus. A proficiency test is not linked to a particular course of
instruction, but measures the learner’s general level of language mastery. Although this may be a result of previous
instruction and learning, these factors are not the focus of attention. Some proficiency tests have been standardized
for worldwide use, such as the American toefl that is used to measure the English language proficiency of
international students who wish to study in the USA.
*RATE OF L2 ACQUISITION / LEARNING (how long does it take to learn a given feature in English?)
REGISTER vs. STYLE
• REGISTER is a term used in phonetics to refer to the voice quality produced by a specific physiological constitution
of the larynx. Variations in the length, thickness and tension of the vocal folds combine to produce (in singing) the
differences between soprano, contralto, tenor, bass, etc. voices, and also (within one person) such differences as
between ‘head’ (‘falsetto’) and ‘chest’ (or ‘modal’) voice. Some phoneticians use the term in a functional way in
relation to speech, to refer to types of phonation which the speaker varies in a controlled manner (as in creaky and
breathy voice). (2) In stylistics and sociolinguistics, the term refers to a variety of language defined according to its
use in social situations, e.g. a register of scientific, religious, formal English. In Hallidayan linguistics, the term is seen
as specifically opposed to varieties of language defined according to the characteristics of the users (viz. their
regional or class dialect), and is given a subclassification into field, mode and manner of discourse.
• STYLE is a branch of linguistics which studies the features of situationally distinctive uses (varieties) of language,
and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups
in their use of language.
RESTRUCTURING: Reanalysis is used in generative (especially transformational) grammar for a process which enables
a sequence of syntactic categories to be taken together as a single unit; sometimes known as restructuring.
SCAFFOLDING (in sociocultural theory): In a sociocultural approach, the role played by teachers, peers, and others
in supporting the learner’s development and providing support to get to a more advanced stage.
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITON (SLA) RESEARCH (a mejor field of study in applied linguistics) vs. L2
ACQUISITION (learning process and experience whose aim is to lead to sequential / late bilingualism):
• SLA is a common term which refers to the process of learning another language after the native language has been
learned. Sometimes the term refers to the learning of a third, fourth, or nth language. The important aspect is that
SLA refers to the learning of a non-native language after the learning of the native language. The additional language
is called a second language (L2), even though it may actually be the third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also
commonly called a target language (TL), which refers to any language that is the aim or goal of learning. The scope
of SLA includes informal L2 learning that takes place in naturalistic contexts, formal L2 learning that takes place in
classrooms, and L2 learning that involves a mixture of these settings and circumstances. For example, informal
learning happens when a child from Japan is brought to the US and picks up English in the course of playing and
attending school with native English-speaking children without any specialized language instruction, or when an
adult Guatemalan immigrant in Canada learns English as a result of interacting with native English speakers or with
co-workers who speak English as a second language. Formal learning occurs when a high school student in England
takes a class in French, when an undergraduate student in Russia takes a course in Arabic, or when an attorney in
Colombia takes a night class in English. A combination of formal and informal learning takes place when a student
from the USA takes Chinese language classes in Taipei or Beijing while also using Chinese outside of class for social
interaction and daily living experiences, or when an adult immigrant from Ethiopia in Israel learns Hebrew both from
attending special classes and from interacting with co-workers and other residents in Hebrew. Some might prefer
the term second language studies (SLS) as it is a term that refers to anything dealing with using or acquiring a
second/foreign language.
• L2 LEARNING / ACQUISITION may be defined as comparatively permanent changes* in language knowledge and
in communicative behavior that result from language contact and experience. L2 acquisition is a process by which
(1) new or modified KNOWLEDGE of the L2 is (not) gained (i.e., internalized into the learner's mind-brain), (2)
communicative SKILLS are (not) developed in the L2 (i.e., receptive and productive control/use), and (3) appropriate
ATTITUDES are (not) developed and/or modified concerning both the target language (L2) being acquired and
target-language culture(s), that is, the people in those communities where the L2 is used natively: their sociocultural
products (e.g., a skyscraper, a historic building), practices (e.g., verbal interaction, sports, religious festivals), and
perspectives (e.g., shared beliefs, assumptions, values). Language and cultural attitudes are the opinions and
feelings (positive, neutral, or negative) that learners have about the L2 and the L2 speakers.
SECOND: L2 ACQUISITION vs. SECOND DIALECT ACQUISITION: SLA is a common term which refers to the process
of learning another language after the native language has been learned. Sometimes the term refers to the learning of a
third, fourth, or nth language. The important aspect is that SLA refers to the learning of a non-native language after the
learning of the native language. The additional language is called a second language (L2), even though it may actually
be the third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also commonly called a target language (TL), which refers to any
language that is the aim or goal of learning. The scope of SLA includes informal L2 learning that takes place in naturalistic
contexts, formal L2 learning that takes place in classrooms, and L2 learning that involves a mixture of these settings and
circumstances. For example, informal learning happens when a child from Japan is brought to the US and picks up

English in the course of playing and attending school with native English-speaking children without any specialized
language instruction, or when an adult Guatemalan immigrant in Canada learns English as a result of interacting with
native English speakers or with co-workers who speak English as a second language. Formal learning occurs when a
high school student in England takes a class in French, when an undergraduate student in Russia takes a course in
Arabic, or when an attorney in Colombia takes a night class in English. A combination of formal and informal learning
takes place when a student from the USA takes Chinese language classes in Taipei or Beijing while also using Chinese
outside of class for social interaction and daily living experiences, or when an adult immigrant from Ethiopia in Israel
learns Hebrew both from attending special classes and from interacting with co-workers and other residents in Hebrew.
Some might prefer the term second language studies (SLS) as it is a term that refers to anything dealing with using or
acquiring a second/foreign language.
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA) vs. FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (FLA) (closely related fields of
study):
• SLA is a common term which refers to the process of learning another language after the native language has been
learned. Sometimes the term refers to the learning of a third, fourth, or nth language. The important aspect is that
SLA refers to the learning of a non-native language after the learning of the native language. The additional language
is called a second language (L2), even though it may actually be the third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also
commonly called a target language (TL), which refers to any language that is the aim or goal of learning. The scope
of SLA includes informal L2 learning that takes place in naturalistic contexts, formal L2 learning that takes place in
classrooms, and L2 learning that involves a mixture of these settings and circumstances. For example, informal
learning happens when a child from Japan is brought to the US and picks up English in the course of playing and
attending school with native English-speaking children without any specialized language instruction, or when an
adult Guatemalan immigrant in Canada learns English as a result of interacting with native English speakers or with
co-workers who speak English as a second language. Formal learning occurs when a high school student in England
takes a class in French, when an undergraduate student in Russia takes a course in Arabic, or when an attorney in
Colombia takes a night class in English. A combination of formal and informal learning takes place when a student
from the USA takes Chinese language classes in Taipei or Beijing while also using Chinese outside of class for social
interaction and daily living experiences, or when an adult immigrant from Ethiopia in Israel learns Hebrew both from
attending special classes and from interacting with co-workers and other residents in Hebrew. Some might prefer
the term second language studies (SLS) as it is a term that refers to anything dealing with using or acquiring a
second/foreign language.
• FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION is also child language acquisition the process of learning a native language. It
seems that normal children all over the world go through similar stages, use similar constructions in order to express
similar meanings, and make the same kinds of errors. Also the process of learning a native language. First language
acquisition has been studied primarily by linguists, developmental psychologists, and psycholinguists. Most
explanations of how children learn to speak and understand language involve the influence of both the linguistic
input to which children are exposed in social interaction with their parents and other caregivers and a natural aptitude
for grammar that is unique to humans. However, proponents of universal grammar and the innatist position,
proponents of cognitive psychology and emergentism, and those who view language acquisition in terms of language
socialization disagree strongly on the relative importance of these factors.
SEGMENTAL vs. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES (see: “phonology”): within phonology, two branches of study are
usually recognized: segmental and suprasegmental. Segmental phonology analyses speech into discrete segments,
such as phonemes; suprasegmental or non-segmental phonology analyses those features which extend over more than
one segment, such as intonation contours.
SEQUENTIAL BILINGUAL (focus on users of the L2) vs. L2 LEARNER (focus on individuals who are acquiring the
L2)
• SEQUENTIAL BILINGUALISM can occur in contexts where the child speaks one language in the home
environment, but upon starting pre-school or kindergarten is exposed to a second language.
• L2 LEARNER is a neutral term typically used to refer to an individual acquiring a second language after the age at
which the individual is assumed to have established the basics (syntactic and phonological competence) of their first
language, held by many to be around age five.

SIGN LANGUAGE (e.g., American Sign Language (ASL); British Sign Language; Lengua Española de signos): A
language employed by those with impaired hearing, whose modality is the use of gesture rather than sound. Sign
language is based on three components: the place where the sign is made, the shape and angle of the hand(s), and the
movement of the hand(s).
SKILLS (listening, speaking, reading, writing, interpreting, translating) vs. SUBSKILLS / MICROSKILLS (e.g.,
listening to lectures vs. music):
(in language teaching) the mode or manner in which language is used. Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are
generally called the four language skills. Sometimes speaking and writing are called the active/ productive skills and
reading and listening, the passive/receptive skills. Often the skills are divided into subskills, such as discriminating sounds
in connected speech, or understanding relations within a sentence.
1. Listening comprehension (listening). It is a receptive skill.

2. Reading comprehension (reading). It is a receptive skill.
3. Oral expression (speaking – interacting). It is a productive skill.
4. Written expression (writing). It is a productive skill.
5. Interpreting (spoken texts). It is a productive skill. The exact or rough content of a spoken message is transferred
from the source language into the target language.
6. Translation (written texts). It is a productive skill. The exact content of a written text is transferred from the source
language into the target language.
MICROSKILLS is (in language teaching) a term sometimes used to refer to the individual processes and abilities which
are used in carrying out a complex activity. For example, among the micro-skills used in listening to a lecture are:
identifying the purpose and scope of the lecture; identifying the role of conjunctions, etc., in signalling relationships
between different parts of the lecture; recognizing the functions of pitchand intonation. For the purposes of syllabus
design, the four macroskills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening may be further analyzed into different microskills.
SKILS; RECEPTIVE vs. PRODUCTIVE
• RECEPTIVE SKILLS such as reading and listening involve receiving information and so they are called the receptive
skills. Speaking and writing are known as the productive skills because they involve producing words, phrases,
sentences, and paragraphs.
• PRODUCTIVE SKILLS such as speaking and writing are known as the productive skills as they both require some
form of language output, while reading and listening are known as the receptive skills. Alternatively, you may also
find the productive skills referred to as the active skills and the receptive skills referred to as the passive skills.
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY (L. Vygotsky’s perspective on L1 / L2 acquisition): Applied to SLA, this refers to the view
that social interaction is necessary for L2 development and learning needs to be examined in its social context. It is an
approach established by the Russian psychologist Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitates language
learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is
grounded in sociocultural settings. These settings include schools, family life, peer groups, work places, and so on.
Socioculturalists claim that the most important cognitive activities in which people engage are shaped by these
environments. The theory considers language and, by extension, SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA) as
contextually situated and is concerned with situated language as it relates to internal processes. This paradigm, despite
the label ‘sociocultural’, does not seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how
knowledge of an L2 is internalzed through experiences of a sociocultural nature. In SLA research sociocultural theory
has been used as a framework for analyzing tasks and activities. Given the same task, not all students will interpret it in
the same way and consequently their behavior in relation to that task will vary with its interpretation. It has also been
used as a way to describe how learners regulate their learning behaviors through meta-comments about the language
task and through interacting with others.
SPEECH ACT / LANGUAGE FUCTION (direct vs. indirect speech acts): A term derived from the work of the
philosopher J. L. Austin (1911– 60), and now used widely in linguistics, to refer to a theory which analyses the role of
utterances in relation to the behaviour of speaker and hearer in interpersonal communication.
• DIRECT SPEECH refers to the use of actual utterance, with no grammatical modification, e.g. ‘Is he coming?’ John
asked is a direct question, whereas John asked if he was coming is an indirect question.
• INDIRECT SPEECH (or ‘reported speech’) refers to the use of a grammatical construction where the words of the
speaker are subordinated to a verb in a main clause, e.g. she said that she had a cold, where the ‘direct speech’
would have been I have a cold.
STARNDARD ENGLISH (Spanish, etc) vs. NON-STANDARD ENGLISH (Spanish, etc)
In sociolinguistics, a much debated term for the variety of English used as a communicative norm throughout the English-
speaking world. The notion has become increasingly difficult to handle because of the emergence of differing national
standards of usage (in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and spelling) in areas where large numbers of people speak
English as a first or second language: there are important regional differences between the UK, the USA, Canada,
Australia, South Africa, the West Indies, India, West Africa and several other parts of the English-speaking world.
Non-standard English is the informal version of the language, which can change depending on where it is being spoken.
It contains lots of slang (very informal versions of standard words), which can be particular to a certain area or group of
people, so may not be used or understood by everyone.
STANDARD VARIETY / STANDARD DIALECT vs. NON-STANDARD VARIETY / DIALECT: ‘Standard

languages/dialects/ varieties’ cut across regional differences, providing a unified means of communication, and thus an
institutionalized norm which can be used in the massmedia, in teaching the language to foreigners, and so on. Linguistic
forms or dialects which do not conform to this norm are then referred to as substandard or (with a less pejorative prefix)
non-standard – though neither term is intended to suggest that other dialect forms ‘lack standards’ in any linguistic
sense. The natural development of a standard language in a speech community (or an attempt by a community to impose
one dialect as a standard) is known as standardization.
*SUCCESS OF (L2) ACQUSIITON / ULTIMATE ATTAINMENT / FINAL PROFICIENCY LEVEL vs. RATE OF
ACQUISITION
TANDEM LEARNING: It is a term which takes its name from the idea that speakers of different languages may work
closely together (i.e., ‘in tandem’) to learn one another’s language and culture through a reciprocal exchange of language.
Ideally, both partners should benefit equally from the exchange. Partners are responsible for establishing their own
learning goals and deciding on methods and materials. Tandem learning may take place in face-to-face situations or by
telephone or on-line, synchronously or asynchronously. Forms of tandem learning may also be called ‘language
exchange’ or ‘language buddies’, or other terms which convey the reciprocal and autonomous nature of the learning.
TARGET CULTURE / FOREIGN CULTURE / SECOND CULTURE (C2) vs. NATIVE / SOURCE / HOME CULTURE (C1):
Second culture acquisition, an integral aspect of the acculturation process, is the adjustment of the immigrant to the
dominant culture. In the new culture, immigrants must navigate through situations in which they have no experience,
often without a grasp of the language.
TARGET LANGUAGE (TL / L2) vs. NATIVE / SOURCE LANGUAGE (L1)
• TARGET LANGUAGE is (in language teaching) the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a first language
or mother tongue.
• NATIVE LANGUAGE is the language which a person acquires in early childhood because it is spoken in the family
and/or it is the language of the country where he or she is living. The native language is often the first language a
child acquires but there are exceptions. Children may, for instance, first acquire some knowledge of another
language from a nurse or an older relative and only later on acquire a second one which they consider their native
language.
*TARGET-LIKE INPUT, OUTPUT / NATIVE-LIKE INPUT, OUTPUT vs. NON-TARGET LIKE / NON-NATIVE-LIKE INPUT,
OUTPUT
TEACHER TALK vs. STUDENT TALK (simplified speech / 2 interaction types used in classroom discourse):
• TEACHER TALKS is that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching.
L2 teacher talk can be viewed as a special register, analogous to FOREIGNER TALK. Studies of teacher talk, like
those of foreigner talk, have sought to describe its phonological, lexical, grammatical, and discoursal properties. The
research indicates that teachers modify their speech when addressing L2 learners in the classroom in a number of
ways and also that they are sensitive to their learners’ general proficiency level. Many of these modifications are the
same as those found in foreigner talk but some seem to reflect the special characteristics of classroom settings—in
particular the need to maintain orderly communication.
• STUDENT TALK includes verbal discourse regarding academic material. This communication may take place both
in and outside of the classroom. Also, this dialogue may be teacher-to-student, student-to-teacher, or student-to-
student.
THEORY (theorize) / APPROACH / FRAMEWORK / MODEL / PARADIGM / PERSPECTIVE vs. HYPOTHESIS

(hypothesize)
• THEORY is a statement of a general principle or set of propositions, based upon reasoned argument and supported
by evidence, that is intended to explain a particular fact, event, or phenomenon. One view of the difference between
a theory and a hypothesis is that a theory is more strongly supported by evidence than a hypothesis. Another view
is that the distinction is related to breadth of coverage, a theory being broader than a hypothesis.
• HYPOTHESIS is a speculation concerning either observed or expected relationships among phenomena.
TURN-TAKING BEHAVIOUR; SPEAKING TURNS (see: pragmatics): In conversation, the roles of speaker and listener
change constantly. The person who speaks first becomes a listener as soon as the person addressed takes his or her
turn in the conversation by beginning to speak. The rules for turn-taking may differ from one community to another as
they do from one type of speech event (e.g. a conversation) to another (e.g. an oral test).
TRANSFER (negative / interference vs. positive transfer): the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two
types of language transfer may occur. Positive transfer is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when
both the native language and the target language have the same form. For example, both French and English have the
word table, which can have the same meaning in both languages. Negative transfer is the use of a native-language
pattern or rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language. Negative transfer can be referred to
as interference, in that previously learned material interferes with subsequent material—a previous item is incorrectly
transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned.
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG) (on the basis of an idealized, monolingual NS in a majority language context): It is a
theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she
speaks. It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters
that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits. The theory was proposed by Noam Chomsky
and has been stated more specifically in his model of government/binding theory. According to UG theory, acquiring a
language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, e.g. English, French or German, and
learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.
U-SHAPED DEVELOPMENT: It is a process in first and second language acquisition where a syntactic feature appears
to have been acquired but is later used or formed incorrectly. In Ushaped development, learners often go through three
distinct phases, where they can initially manifest accurate performance, then show a decrease in their performance,
which in turn is followed by a progression in learning.
UPTAKE (see: feedback / corrective feedback): Student utterance that reacts to, and incorporates, instructor
feedback. The illocutionary force (see speech act) a hearer interprets from an utterance. For example in the following
exchange: Child: I’m tired. Mother: You can stop doing your homework now. The uptake or interpretation by the mother
is as if the child had said “Can I stop doing my homework now?” But sometimes there may be a difference between the

intended uptake (what the speaker wants the hearer to understand) and the actual uptake (what the hearer actually
understands).
UTTERANCE (spoken) vs. SENTENCE (written): An UTTERANCE is a unit of analysis in speech which has been
defined in various ways but most commonly as a sequence of words within a single person’s turn at talk that falls under
a single intonation contour. Utterances may sometimes consist of more than one sentence, but more commonly consist
of stretches of speech shorter than sentences. Clearly written, complete SENTENCES require key information: a subject,
a verb and a complete idea. A sentence needs to make sense on its own. Sometimes, complete sentences are also
called independent clauses. A clause is a group of words that may make up a sentence.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD, see: sociocultural theory, L. Vygotsky’s theory): Another concept that
is associated with sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is defined as the
distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.
What this means is that learning results from interpersonal activity; it is interpersonal activity that forms the basis for
individual functioning. This clearly embodies the social nature of learning and underscores the importance of
collaborative learning as it shapes what is learned.
WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE (see: individual differences): an underlying continuum representing the

predisposition toward or away from communicating, given the choice. A factor related to attribution and self-efficacy (see
ATTRIBUTION THEORY), one that has seen a surge of recent interest in the research literature, is the extent to which
learners display a willingness to communicate as they tackle a second language.

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Wuolah Free GLOSSARY Completo

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GLOSSARY-completo.

Principios del Aprendizaje del Inglés

3º Grado en Estudios Ingleses

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ACCENT vs. DIALECT

APPLIED LINGUISTICS vs. GENERAL / THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS (competence/performance)

ATTITUDE vs. APTITUDE

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BILINGUALISM vs. BILITERACY

BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL vs. BICULTURAL INDIVIDUAL

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BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL vs. MONOLINGUAL vs. MULTILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL

BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL vs. ‘DOUBLE MONOLINGUAL’

BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL (RECEPTIVE VS PRODUCTIVE)

BILINGUALISM (ADDITIVE vs. SUBTRACTIVE)

BILINGUALISM (INDIVIDUAL vs. SOCIAL)

• INDIVIDUAL BILINGUALISM (multilingualism): multilingualism usually refers to a speaker’s knowledge and

BILINGUALISM (SEQUENTIAL vs. SIMULTANEOUS)

BRAIN vs. MIND

CODE-SWITCHING vs. CODE-MIXING

COGNATES (TRUE vs. PARTIALLY TRUE vs. FALSE)

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COGNITIVE vs. AFFECTIVE FACTORS

COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES: LEARNING, TEACHING, ASSESSMENT:

COMPONENTS OF AN L2: (phonology-orthography, lexis, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics-

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• LEXIS: the vocabulary of a language in contrast to its grammar (syntax).

(COMPREHENSIBLE) INPUT HYPOTHESIS vs. (COMPREHENSIBLE) OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS

CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK TYPES

• CLARIFICATION REQUEST: asking the person to clarify.

• REPETITION: (i.e., the student repeats the teacher’s feedback).

DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCES / DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES / STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT / ORDERS: fixed

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DOMINANT / STRONGER LANGUAGE (“language dominance” in bilinguals) vs. NON-DOMINANT / WEAKER

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*ERROR DETECTION vs. ERROR CORRECTION

− DEVELOPMENTAL: those reflecting natural stages of development.

− OVERGENERALIZATION: errors caused by extension of target language rules to inappropriate contexts.

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*FACE-TO-FACE, ONE-TO-ONE INTERACTION WITH MORE ADVANCED INTERLOCUTOR (see: interaction;

IDENTITY / SOCIAL IDENTITIES / SOCIOLINGUISTIC IDENTITIES (see “individual differences”): individual

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INDIVIDUAL VARIATION / INTERINDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY (in language acquisition): in second-Language

INTENSIVE L2 LEARNING; INTENSIVE L2 INSTRUCTION vs. EXTENSIVE L2 LEARNING, EXTENSIVE L2

INTERACTIONAL COMMUNICATION: is primarily person-orientated, whereas transactional communication is primarily

INTERACTIONAL MODIFICATIONS / MODIFIED INTERACTION (e.g., comprehension checks, requests for

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION vs. INTRACULTURAL COMMUNICATION

INTERLOCUTOR / CONVERSATION PARTICIPANT / CONVERSATION PARTNER vs. SPEAKER

L1 vs. L2 (vs. L3)

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L2 ACQUISITION vs. SEQUENTIAL INDIVIDUAL BILINGUALISM (EXPECTED LONG-TERM GOAL):

L2 ACQUISITION vs. L2 LEARNING (DISTINCTION MADE IN S. KRASHEN'S 'MONITOR MODEL', OTHERWISE

L2 COMPONENTS vs. L2 SKILLS (see: 'components' and ‘skills*):

L2 LEARNING CONTEXTS / SETTINGS (INSTRUCTION-ONLY vs. MIXED/STUDY ABROAD vs. NATURALISTIC-

LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES vs. LANGUAGE ATTITUDES:

LANGUAGE vs. DIALECT / DIALECTAL VARIETY; DIALECT/VARIETY vs. ACCENT:

LEARNER AUTONOMY / AUTONOMOUS LEARNING / SELF-DIRECTED L2 LEARNING: This is defined as an L2

LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES / OPPORTUNITIES FOR USE vs. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:

LINGUISTIC vs. PSYCHOLINGUISTIC vs. SOCIOLINGUISTIC vs. NEUROLINGUISTIC VIEWS IN SLA:

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MONOLINGUAL BIAS / MONOLINGUAL MINDSET / MONOLINGUAL PRINCIPLE (e.g., monolingual, educated

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