A few of the most common semiconductor materials were listed.

Silicon is the most common

semiconductor material and appears in column IV of the periodic table. ■ The properties of
semiconductors and other materials are determined to a large extent by the single-crystal lattice
structure. The unit cell is a small volume of the crystal that is used to reproduce the entire crystal.
Three basic unit cells are the simple cubic, bodycentered cubic, and face-centered cubic. ■ Silicon
has the diamond crystal structure. Atoms are formed in a tetrahedral confi guration with four
nearest neighbor atoms. The binary semiconductors have a zincblende lattice that is basically the
same as the diamond lattice. ■ Miller indices are used to describe planes in a crystal lattice. These
planes may be used to describe the surface of a semiconductor material. The Miller indices are also
used to describe directions in a crystal. ■ Imperfections do exist in semiconductor materials. A few of
these imperfections are vacancies, substitutional impurities, and interstitial impurities. Small
amounts of controlled substitutional impurities can favorably alter semiconductor properties as we
will see in later chapters. ■ A brief description of semiconductor growth methods was given. Bulk
growth, such as the Czochralski method, produces the starting semiconductor material or substrate.
Epitaxial growth can be used to control the surface properties of a semiconductor. Most
semiconductor devices are fabricated in the epitaxial layer.

A few basic concepts of quantum mechanics, which can be used to describe the behavior of
electrons under various potential functions, were considered. The understanding of electron
behavior is crucial in understanding semiconductor physics. ■ The wave–particle duality principle is
an important element in quantum mechanics. Particles can have wave-like behavior and waves can
have particle-like behavior. ■ Schrodinger’s wave equation forms the basis for describing and
predicting the behavior of electrons. ■ Max Born postulated that |(x)|2 is a probability density
function. ■ A result of applying Schrodinger’s wave equation to a bound particle is that the energy of
the bound particle is quantized. ■ A result of applying Schrodinger’s wave equation to an electron
incident on a potential barrier is that there is a fi nite probability of tunneling . ■ The concept of
quantum numbers was developed from the results of applying Schrodinger’s wave equation to the
one-electron atom. ■ The basic structure of the periodic table is predicted by applying Schrodinger’s
wave equation to the one-electron atom and using the Pauli exclusion principle.

binary semiconductor A two-element compound semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs).

covalent bonding The bonding between atoms in which valence electrons are shared. diamond
lattice The atomic crystal structure of silicon, for example, in which each atom has four nearest
neighbors in a tetrahedral confi guration. doping The process of adding specifi c types of atoms to a
semiconductor to favorably alter the electrical characteristics. elemental semiconductor A
semiconductor composed of a single species of atom, such as silicon or germanium. epitaxial layer A
thin, single-crystal layer of material formed on the surface of a substrate. ion implantation One
particular process of doping a semiconductor. lattice The periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal.
Miller indices The set of integers used to describe a crystal plane. primitive cell The smallest unit cell
that can be repeated to form a lattice. substrate A semiconductor wafer or other material used as
the starting material for further semiconductor processing, such as epitaxial growth or diffusion.
ternary semiconductor A three-element compound semiconductor, such as aluminum gallium
arsenide (AlGaAs). unit cell A small volume of a crystal that can be used to reproduce the entire
crystal. zincblende lattice A lattice structure identical to the diamond lattice except that there are
two types of atoms instead of one.

de Broglie wavelength The wavelength of a particle given as the ratio of Planck’s constant to
momentum. Heisenberg uncertainty principle The principle that states that we cannot describe with
absolute accuracy the relationship between sets of conjugate variables that describe the behavior of
particles, such as momentum and position. Pauli exclusion principle The principle that states that no
two electrons can occupy the same quantum state. photon The particle-like packet of
electromagnetic energy. quanta The particle-like packet of thermal radiation. quantized energies The
allowed discrete energy levels that bound particles may occupy. quantum numbers A set of numbers
that describes the quantum state of a particle, such as an electron in an atom.

1. **Semiconductor Materials:**

- Elemental: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)

- Compound: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium Phosphide (InP)

2. **Lattice Structures:**

- (a) Simple Cubic:

![Simple Cubic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cubic-
lattice.svg/200px-Cubic-lattice.svg.png)

- (b) Body-Centered Cubic:

![Body-Centered
Cubic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/BodyCenteredCubic.png/200
px-BodyCenteredCubic.png)

- (c) Face-Centered Cubic:

![Face-Centered
Cubic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/FaceCenteredCubic.png/200
px-FaceCenteredCubic.png)

3. **Volume Density of Atoms in a Crystal:** To find the volume density of atoms in a crystal, divide
the total number of atoms in the crystal by its volume. This can be calculated using the Avogadro's
number and the volume of the unit cell.

4. **Miller Indices for a Plane in a Crystal:** To obtain Miller indices for a plane in a crystal, find the
reciprocals of the intercepts of the plane with the crystallographic axes. Take these reciprocals, clear
fractions, and enclose the resulting numbers in parentheses. Then, if necessary, multiply by a
common factor to ensure the indices are integers.

5. **Surface Density of Atoms on a Lattice Plane:** To find the surface density of atoms on a lattice
plane, calculate the number of atoms per unit area of the plane. This is done by dividing the number
of atoms intersecting the plane by the area of the plane.

6. **Preference for Non-Primitive Unit Cells:** A unit cell that is not primitive may be preferable for
certain crystal structures because it can provide a more convenient representation of the crystal's
symmetry and properties, especially in cases where the primitive unit cell would be too complex or
difficult to work with.

7. **Covalent Bonding in Silicon:** Silicon atoms form covalent bonds by sharing valence electrons
with neighboring atoms, resulting in a crystalline lattice structure. Each silicon atom has four valence
electrons, forming strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral arrangement with neighboring atoms.

8. **Substitutional and Interstitial Impurities:**

- Substitutional Impurity: A substitutional impurity in a crystal replaces a host atom at its lattice
site. It occupies the same position in the crystal structure as the host atom, but may have different
properties.

- Interstitial Impurity: An interstitial impurity occupies the spaces between host atoms in the crystal
lattice. It does not replace a host atom but rather occupies interstitial sites within the lattice.

1. **Wave-Particle Duality:** This principle, fundamental in quantum mechanics, states that

particles such as electrons and photons exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties. This
means they can behave as discrete, localized entities with well-defined positions and momenta
(particles), and also as spread-out waves with characteristic wavelengths and frequencies (waves).
The relationship between momentum (\( p \)) and wavelength (\( \lambda \)) is described by de
Broglie's equation: \( \lambda = \frac{h}{p} \), where \( h \) is Planck's constant. It suggests that
particles can exhibit wave-like behavior with longer wavelengths corresponding to lower momenta
and vice versa.

2. **Schrödinger’s Wave Function:** In quantum mechanics, Schrödinger’s wave function (\( \Psi \))
is a fundamental concept representing the quantum state of a particle. It provides a mathematical
description of the probability amplitude associated with finding a particle in a particular state. The
square of the wave function (\( |\Psi|^2 \)) gives the probability density of finding the particle at a
specific location in space. Essentially, it encapsulates the uncertainty inherent in quantum systems,
providing a tool to predict the likelihood of various outcomes of measurements.

3. **Probability Density Function:** In the context of quantum mechanics, a probability density

function (PDF) describes the likelihood of finding a particle within a specific region of space. It's
derived from the square of the wave function (\( |\Psi|^2 \)), which gives the probability density at
each point in space. The integral of this function over a certain region gives the probability of finding
the particle within that region. Essentially, it provides a probabilistic description of the spatial
distribution of particles in quantum systems.

4. **Boundary Conditions:** When solving Schrödinger’s wave equation for a given physical system,
boundary conditions specify the behavior of the wave function at the boundaries of the system.
These conditions ensure that the wave function and its derivatives remain continuous and finite
throughout the system. They play a crucial role in determining the allowed energy levels and spatial
distributions of particles within the system.

5. **Quantized Energy Levels:** In quantum mechanics, certain systems, such as atoms and
molecules, possess quantized energy levels. This means that the energy of particles within these
systems can only take on discrete, specific values, rather than any arbitrary value as predicted by
classical physics. For example, in an atom, electrons can only occupy specific energy levels defined by
the solutions to Schrödinger’s equation. These quantized energy levels arise due to the wave-like
nature of particles and the boundary conditions imposed by the system.

6. **Tunneling:** Tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon where a particle passes through

a potential energy barrier that it classically shouldn't be able to overcome. This occurs due to the
wave-like nature of particles, allowing them to penetrate barriers by spreading out spatially.
Tunneling plays a significant role in various physical processes, such as nuclear fusion in stars,
scanning tunneling microscopy, and the operation of tunnel diodes.

7. **Quantum Numbers of the One-Electron Atom:** Quantum numbers are sets of values that
uniquely describe the quantum state of a particle. For the one-electron atom, the relevant quantum
numbers include the principal quantum number (\( n \)), which determines the energy level of the
electron, the azimuthal quantum number (\( l \)), which specifies the angular momentum of the
electron, the magnetic quantum number (\( m_l \)), which describes the orientation of the electron's
angular momentum in space, and the spin quantum number (\( m_s \)), which characterizes the
intrinsic spin of the electron. These quantum numbers were developed through theoretical analysis
and experimental observations, particularly in the context of solving Schrödinger’s equation for the
hydrogen atom.

8. **Interrelationship and Inert Elements:** The quantum numbers of the one-electron atom dictate
the electron configuration and behavior within atoms. The stable electronic configurations of inert
elements, such as noble gases, arise from the filling of electron shells according to specific
combinations of quantum numbers. For example, noble gases have filled electron shells, which
correspond to stable configurations with low reactivity. This interrelationship between quantum
numbers and electron configurations ultimately leads to the development of inert elements with
unique chemical properties.

2.44 All elementsare from the group 1 column of the periodic table. All have one valence electron in
the outer cell