Linear Equation

A linear equation is an equation in which the highest power of the variable

is always 1. It is also known as a one-degree equation.
The standard form of a linear equation in one variable is of the form Ax +
B = 0. Here, x is a variable, A is a coefficient and B is constant. The
standard form of a linear equation in two variables is of the form Ax + By =
C. Here, x and y are variables, A and B are coefficients and C is a constant.
A linear equation value when plotted on the graph forms a straight line.
The general form of a linear equation is ax + b = c, where a, b, c are
constants x and y are variables.

Non-Linear Equation

An equation in which the maximum degree of a term is 2 or more than two

is called a nonlinear equation.
The nonlinear equation values when plotted on the graph forms a curve.

The general form of a nonlinear equation is ax 2+by2=c, where a, b, c are

constants x and y are variables.
Example:
 Roots of Function

Roots of Function

Bracketing Methods Open Methods System of Non-

linear equation

Simple Fixed-point
Bisection Method False Position Method
iteration

Secant Method

The Newton-Raphson
Method

System of Linear Simultaneous Equations

Direct Methods Indirect Method

(Exact Method) (Iterative Method)

Gauss Jacobian Method

Gauss’s Elimination Gauss’s Jordan Method

Method
Gauss-Seidel Method
[N.B. When calculating a trigonometric function use your calculator in radian
mode.]
Bracketing Method

The Bisection Method

Bisection Method is also known as Binary chopping, Interval halving,

Bolzano’s method.

Algorithm:
1. Write the given function

F(x) = 0
[N.B. x is the unknown property we have to determine.]

2. Choose xl, xu such that

f(xl) * f(xu) < 0
[N.B. xl and xu can be given or can be obtained by using graphical
method]

3. Define Root (xr),

xr = (xl + xu)/2

4. If f(xl)*f(xr) < 0
xu = xr

(Lower Sub Interval)

If f(xl)*f(xr) > 0
xl = xr

(Upper Sub Interval)

 If f(xl)*f(xr) = 0
The root equals xr

5. For Approximate Percent Relative Error

6. For True Error

True Error = |True value – Approx. value| / True value

iteration xl xu F(xl) F(xu) xr F(xr) F(xl)*F(xr) Approx. True

Error Error
1
2
.
.
n

Calculator Equation:

A:B:C=(A+B)/2:D=(B-A)/(B+A):E= f (A) * f (B)

A = xl
B = xu
C = xr = (A+B)/2
D = Approx. Error = (B-A)/(B+A)
E = f (xl) * f (xr) = f (A) * f (B)
The False-Position Method

It is also called as Regular Falsi method.

1. Write the given function

F(x) = 0
[N.B. x is the unknown property we have to determine.]

2. Choose xl, xu such that

f(xl) * f(xu) < 0
[N.B. xl and xu can be given or can be obtained by using graphical
method]

3. Define Root (xr),

4. If f(xl)*f(xr) < 0
xu = xr

(Lower Sub Interval)

If f(xl)*f(xr) > 0
xl = xr

(Upper Sub Interval)

If f(xl)*f(xr) = 0
The root equals xr
 5. For Approximate Percent Relative Error

6. For True Error

True Error = |True value – Approx. value| / True value

iteration xl xu F(xl) F(xu) xr F(xr) F(xl)*F(xr) Approx. True

Error Error
1
2
.
.
n

Calculator Equation:

A:B:C:D=(B-A)/(B+A):E= f (A) * f (B)

A = xl
B = xu
C = xr
D = Approx. Error = (B-A)/(B+A)
E = f (xl) * f (xr) = f (A) * f (B)
Difference between bisection method and false positioning method

Bisection Method False Position Method

slow quick
easy Relatively hard
C= (a+b)/2 c = (af(b) – bf(a))/(f(b) – f(a))
Open Method

Simple fixed-point iteration

It is also called as single point iteration or one point iteration method.

Algorithm:
1. Write the given function
f(x) = 0
2. Get the equation of x and name it g(x)
g(x) = x
3. In g(x) put the value of x
For normal equation x = 0.5
For trigonometric/exponential/logarithmic equation x = 3.2

4. You get the value x 0

x0 = g(x)
5. Put the value x 0 in g(x) and you get the value of x 1
x1 = g(x0)
6. Put the value x 1 in g(x) and you get the value of x 2
x2 = g(x1)
7. Put the value x 2 in g(x) and you get the value of x 3
x3 = g(x2)
8. Put the value x i in g(x) and you get the value of x i+1
xi+1 = g(xi)

9. Stop when two values of Xi are close or equal or the given error is got
xi g(xi)

Calculator Equation:
A:A=f(A)
A = equation with x
The Newton-Raphson method

Algorithm:
1. Write the function
f(xn)
2. Find f ′(xn)

3. Find xl, xu so that f(xl)*f(xu) < 0 (0,1)

4. Continue with x0 = xl or x0 = xu

5. Suppose f(x l) is closer to zero. Let’s continue with x0 = xl

6. Find f(x0) and f ′(x0)

7. xn+1 = xn – f(xn)/f ′(xn)

8. Use the value of xn+1 for the next xn

9. Stop when two values of xn+1 are close or equal or the given error is got

Xn f(xn) f ′(xn) xn+1

Calculator Equation:

A:B=f (A):C= f ′(A):D=A – (B/C)

A = xn
B = f (xn) = f (A)
C = f ′(xn) = f ′(A)
D = xn+1 = xn – f(xn)/f ′(xn) = A – (B/C)
Secant Method

Algorithm:
1. Write the given function
f(x)
2. Choose X0, X1 such that
f(x0) * f(x1) < 0

3. Find x2, x3, x4, ….. , xn+1

4. Stop when two values of x n+1 are close or equal or the given error is got
System of Linear Simultaneous Equations

Direct Method

Gauss Elimination Method

Algorithm:
1. Write the given linear equations

a11x + a12y + a13z = b1

a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3

2. Matrix form
AX = B

3. Write the augmented matrix

C = A: B

4. Reduce the augmented matrix to echelon form using elementary row

transformations

5. Form the corresponding equations and by solving the equations get the
values of x, y and z
Gauss Jordan Method

Gauss Jordan Method is the modified form of Gauss Elimination Method.

Algorithm:
1. Write the given linear equations

a11x + a12y + a13z = b1

a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3

2. Matrix form
AX = B

3. Write the augmented matrix

C = A: B

4. Applying elementary row transformations to augmented matrix to

reduce coefficient matrix to unit matrix

5. Form the corresponding equations

x = d1
y = d2
z = d3
Indirect Method

Gauss Jacobian Method

This method is applicable to the system of equation in which leading

diagonal elements of coefficient matrix are dominant (large in magnitude) in
their respective rows.
Algorithm:
1. Write the equations
a11x + a12y + a13z = b1
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3

2. Check if the diagonal dominance property is satisfied

| a11 | > | a12 | + | a13 |
| a22 | > | a21 | + | a23 |
| a33 | > | a31 | + | a32 |
3. Get x, y, z
x = (b1 – a12y – a13z)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x – a23z)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x – a32y)/a33
4. Write x = x0, y = y0, z = z0
 x = (b1 – a12y0 – a13z0)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x0 – a23z0)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x0 – a32y0)/a33
1. Put initial values of x 0, y0, z0 and if the initial value is not given then
put x0 = 0, y0 = 0, z0 = 0

5. Again, substituting these values of x, y, z, the next approximation is

obtained. The above iteration process is continued until two successive
approximations are equals.

iteration x y z
1 0 0 0
2 x1 y1 z1
3 x2 y2 z3
.
n

Calculator Equation:

X = equation with B, C
Y = equation with C, A
Z = equation with A, B
A:B:C:D=X:E=Y:F=Z
A=X
B=Y
C=Z
Gauss-Seidel method

This method is applicable to the system of equation in which leading

diagonal elements of coefficient matrix are dominant (large in magnitude) in
their respective rows.
Algorithm:
2. Write the equations
a11x + a12y + a13z = b1
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3

3. Check if the diagonal dominance property is satisfied

| a11 | > | a12 | + | a13 |
| a22 | > | a21 | + | a23 |
| a33 | > | a31 | + | a32 |
4. Get x, y, z
x = (b1 – a12y – a13z)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x – a23z)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x – a32y)/a33
5. Determine x, y, z
x = (b1 – a12y0 – a13z0)/a11
y = (b2 – a21x – a23z0)/a22
z = (b3 – a31x – a32y)/a33
 6. Again, substituting these values of x, y, z, the next approximation is
obtained. The above iteration process is continued until two successive
approximations are equals.

iteration x y z
1 x 0 0
2 x1 y z
3 x2 y1 z3
.
n

Calculator Equation:
X = equation with B, C
Y = equation with C, A
Z = equation with A, B
A:B:C:A=X:B=Y:C=Z
A = X1
B = X2
C = X3