Article
Microgrid-Based Small Modular Reactor for a
High-Renewable-Energy Penetration Grid in Ghana
Genesis Lord Asiamah and Choong-koo Chang *
Citation: Asiamah, G.L.;
Chang, C.-K. Microgrid-Based Small
Modular Reactor for a High-
Renewable-Energy Penetration Grid
in Ghana. Energies 2024, 17, 1136.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051136
Academic Editor: Ahmed Abu-Siada
Received: 4 December 2023
Revised: 9 February 2024
Accepted: 14 February 2024
Published: 27 February 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/).
Energies 2024, 17, 1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051136
Department of Nuclear Power Plant Engineering, KEPCO International Nuclear Graduate School (KINGS),
658-91 Haemaji-ro, Seosang-myeon, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 45014, Republic of Korea; genesisasiamah96@gmail.com
* Correspondence: ckchang@kings.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-52-712-7303
Abstract: Achieving the necessary energy balance entails the capacity to adapt both power supply and
demand, which is known as flexible operation. At present, the Ghana National Commission on Culture
depends on a combination of well-coordinated measures designed to uphold the system’s integrity
when confronted with abnormal system conditions stemming from significant disturbances within the
system. The set of coordinated measures comprises manual (controlled load shedding) and automatic
(Special Protection Schemes, Under-Frequency Load Shedding, Over-Frequency Control Scheme,
scheme against voltage collapse, etc.) steps to control important system parameters to keep the power
system stable and cascading effects leading to major blackouts. Ghana’s system suffers from voltage
and frequency degradation as a result of a mismatch of power supply and demand; to maintain grid
stability and avoid power outages, a flexible operation is required for real-time supply and demand
balancing. SMRs, with their load-following capability, can adjust their output to match the change in
demand. This research proposes a microgrid-based design for a high-renewable-energy penetration
grid in Ghana with the inclusion of an SMR for voltage stability.
Keywords: flexible operation; small modular reactor (SMR); power grid; frequency stabilization;
renewable energy (RE)
1. Introduction
The flexible operation of a power plant is defined by the ability to adjust power sup-
ply to match demand, with the objective of achieving the required energy balance [1].
Ghana’s electric power grid suffers from a great mismatch between supply and demand
due to the infiltration of renewable energy sources (RES) and unpredictable generation
from hydroelectric power plants that are supported by costly thermal power plants [2].
For this reason, the grid frequency is largely affected and often requires mitigation
measures to curtail the fluctuating frequency in the grid. Ghana’s grid code [3] provides
a set of coordinated measures, which aim to maintain the integrity of the system.
The code provides the operational procedures to be taken in case of abnormal system
conditions resulting from large system disturbances affecting system frequency. These
coordinated measures include manual (controlled load shedding) and automatic (Special
Protection Schemes, Under-Frequency Load Shedding, Over-Frequency Control Scheme,
scheme against voltage collapse, etc.) steps to control important system parameters in or-
der to keep the power system stable and cascading effects leading to major system out-
ages.
Previous studies show that SMRs which are characterized by small electrical capacity
modules have the ability to operate flexibly in grids for voltage and frequency stabiliza-
tion [4]. This is because of their load-following capability whereby they can adjust their
output to match the change in demand [5,6]. This study proposes a microgrid-based SMR
design for voltage stabilization of a high renewable energy penetration grid in Ghana.
www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 2 of 15

Ghana’s grid requirements will be analysed using data from the grid operator and design
for the appropriate placement of the SMRs in the grid to mitigate the current challenges.
The designed SMR’s electrical operations will evaluate the impact on the grid will be
demonstrated in this study. The study findings will be discussed and conclusions will be
drawn with the purpose of addressing the various challenges posed by the increasing
penetration of RES in the Ghana grid and the lack of flexibility of baseload power plants.
The following sections detail our study comprehensively. Section 2 elucidates the
outcomes of the requirements’ review pertaining to the research topic, encompassing the
requisites for Ghana’s power grid control, the load-following of SMRs, SMRs’ reactive
power control capability, and the microgrid concept. Section 3 outlines the study method-
ology. Section 4 presents simulation results and corresponding discussions. Finally, Sec-
tion 5 summarizes the study’s findings and implications.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Requirements for the Electric Power System’s Stable Operation
Voltage and frequency are the two significant parameters of the electric power sys-
tem. This study focuses on the frequency component in the electric power system. In order
for a power system to operate in a stable manner, frequency control is fundamental in the
supply and demand matching operations.
In order to keep the expected operating conditions and supply energy to all the users
(loads) connected, it is important to control these two parameters within predefined lim-
its, to avoid unexpected disturbances that can create problems to the connected loads or
even cause system failure [7]. The most commonly used nominal frequency (Fn) in power
systems is 50 Hz (Europe, Africa, and most parts of Asia) and 60 Hz (North America). In
line with the above, historical circumstances and technological constraints were the factors
that influenced this decision. Ghana’s grid code sets the required grid frequency at 49.8–
50.2 Hz [3]. But in general, when the frequency ranges from 47.5 Hz to 51.5 Hz, it is called
an emergency condition, while as soon as the system operates in a range of frequency Fn
± 0.1 Hz, it is in the standard conditions. In general, the acceptable voltage margin is +/− 5
ranges from 95 to 105% as the allowable range. For grid control stability, it is necessary to
adjust the voltage levels at the generator terminal with the acceptable limit, and this can
be achieved through primary and secondary voltage control.

2.2. Primary Voltage Control

When there are changes in load or disturbances, the generator’s automatic voltage
regulator (AVR) immediately modifies the primary voltage. In order to keep the genera-
tor’s terminal voltage within allowable bounds, this control mechanism works quickly by
modulating the excitation current or field voltage using the AVR. It guarantees the sys-
tem’s stability in the event of unexpected changes in load or malfunctions.
The generator responds more quickly to variations in demand and preserves system
stability in real time when the primary control loop keeps voltage within a predetermined
range. This is essential for maintaining transient stability and averting voltage collapse in
the event of abrupt disruptions or variations in load [8].

2.3. Secondary Voltage Control

Compared to primary control, secondary voltage control operates on a longer time-
scale. It entails coordinating several generators or control systems inside the power net-
work and using more complex control procedures. Secondary control, as opposed to pri-
mary control, is concerned with preserving long-term voltage stability and returning the
system voltage to its nominal value following large disruptions. Primary control reacts to
changes instantly.
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 3 of 15

Power system stabilizers (PSSs), additional control devices, and automatic voltage
regulator (AVR) set-point modifications are examples of secondary voltage control tech-
niques. By modifying the generators’ set-points or control settings, these systems, which
usually work in tandem with automated generation control (AGC), attempt to bring the
system back to a steady state and guarantee long-term stability [8].

2.4. SMR Reactive Power Compensation

The reactive power flow to and from the SMR plays a pivotal role in voltage stability.
According to the IEEE C57.116™-2022 standard, the main generator (MG) should have
the capability of providing reactive power to the grid as well as absorb any reactive power
from the power system in order to maintain the grid voltages within the acceptable limits
[9]. The generator mostly supplies both active and reactive power to the grid by operating
at a lagging power factor (PF).
In a highly penetrated RES grid, the SMR performs reactive power compensation
within the generator’s reactive power capability from 0.95 pf leading to 0.85 pf lagging.
Figure 1 shows the generator operation thermal limits under which it operates [9]. The
three limits are the stator heating, the overexcited, and the under-excited limits. The tur-
bine capability limits the generator megawatt (MW) output. The voltage magnitude dif-
ference between generator voltage and system voltage determines the reactive power
flow. The generator is rated at 13.8 kV, with an allowable variation of ±5% of the rated
voltage. Therefore, the reactive power range was primarily considered in the selection of
the impedance and turns ratio of the MT. This study assumes that the SMR is installed in
a finite grid with high RES and is therefore capable of influencing the grid voltage on a
need basis.

Figure 1. Capability curves of synchronous generator.

2.5. Requirements for the Load-Following Operation of SMRs

In essence, load-following means modifying power generation such that it matches
the predicted power demand as precisely as possible. By adjusting output in accordance
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 4 of 15

with a predefined plan or in response to commands or signals from the grid control centre,
this kind of generation can synchronize with demand [10]. Based on the assessment above,
the following are typical requirements for each SMR load-following mode.
(a) Scheduled Operation
This has to do with consciously controlling power plant production, which can be
anywhere between 20% and 80%, in line with the power supply and demand plan. Output
control has a timescale of hours or even days. Reactor maintenance or recuperation may
occasionally need the reactor’s output to be fine-tuned to the 20% to 80% range; in these
cases, the timescale is usually expressed in hours. Over time, the output power manoeu-
vring range varies. The power can be changed between 100% of the nominal output and
about 25% of the nominal power during the first 65% of the fuel cycle. But as the fuel cycle
goes on, rising excess reactivity and falling boron concentrations cause the power control
range to gradually shrink from 25% to 80% of nominal power. Although nuclear power
plants can operate at a minimum power level of 10%, the realistic minimum output usu-
ally falls between 20% and 25%, similar to many conventional power plants [11].
(b) Unforeseen Operation
This refers to a scenario where the output of the power plant is modified in response
to grid conditions rather than being preplanned. Load-following operates by controlling
the nuclear reactor’s output between 20% and 80% of its total output. The Transmission
System Operator (TSO) instruction process takes place in a matter of minutes [12].

2.6. Power Change Dependent on Grid Plans

This is typically some percentage of the rated thermal power. The power changes can
be obtained through Automatic Generation Control (AGC) and Governor-Free Control
(GF) [5].
1. Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
It involves the automatic modulation of plant output within a restricted range based
on signals from the TSO. This mode of operation is commonly known as AGC. Power
adjustments typically fall within a range of 20~40% of the rated thermal power (RTP), with
timescales measured in minutes [13].
2. Governor-Free (GF) Control
This entails controlling frequencies that go outside a set frequency range. When the
system frequency rises over the higher limit, it involves utilizing the turbine governor to
decrease the generator output; when the system frequency falls below the lower limit, it
involves increasing the output. The plant operator has the option to manually or automat-
ically initiate frequency control in response to frequency variations. Most of the time, the
power adjustment is made in seconds and typically occurs in the range of 20–40% of the
RTP or ±10% of the RTP [13], and the timescale is in seconds.

2.7. Power Change Dependent on Active and Reactive Power

It is necessary to control the SMR’s output before it may perform load-following ac-
tivity. SMRs are able to regulate their output by varying the reactor power level; this can
be achieved using a variety of systems and mechanisms, as shown in Figure 2 [14].
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 5 of 15

Figure 2. Control hierarchy for the load-following of PWR nuclear power plants.

(a) Control Rods

To obtain the required output power level of the SMR, the control rods can be re-
moved from the core as needed. Inside the reactor, the control rods are used to regulate
the nuclear chain reaction. The reactor’s power output decreases when the control rods
are placed into the reactor core. By removing the control rods, we boost power output by
allowing more neutrons to engage in fission [15].
(b) Coolant Flow Control
An SMR has the ability to regulate the flow rate, which affects how quickly heat is
evacuated from the reactor core, by changing the flow rate of the coolant circulating
through the reactor core [16]. The reactor will heat up and produce more power if the
coolant is slowed down. An increase in the temperature of the reactor coolant introduces
feedback and reduces reactor power [1].
(c) Turbine and Generator Control
The power output to the grid can be changed by varying the load on the generator.
Through the use of a steam turbine and generator, the power from the reactor can be
transformed into electricity. By doing so, the SMR is able to change the load on the turbine
to correspond with the demand for electricity [17].

2.8. Microgrid
Microgrids are classified based on their mode of connectivity to the main grid, their
intended application, and the source of energy they are providing to support the power
system they are connected to. Different types of microgrids have different designs based
on their application, the energy demand, and their mode of operation. In this research, the
focus is on the grid-connected microgrid.
Grid-connected microgrid: The grid-connected microgrid maintains a connection to
the main electrical grid, but can function independently as needed. Its main goal is to
make the electrical grid overall more dependable, efficient, and sustainable [18]. The mi-
crogrid with grid connectivity exhibits significant characteristics, such as its responsive-
ness to demand, enhanced frequency and voltage stability, bidirectional energy flow, im-
proved grid resilience, and the integration of renewable sources [19]. Figure 3 shows a
typical scheme of the grid-connected microgrid [20].
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 6 of 15

Figure 3. Typical scheme of the grid-connected microgrid.

3. Methodology
This research proposes the installation of an SMR power plant in Sekondi Takoradi
district, Ghana. Sekondi Takoradi is a densely populated urban area with high commercial
and industrial loads. It is located 318 km from Akosombo power station, which has an
installed capacity of 1033 MW.
The area often suffers from frequent load management by load shedding due to volt-
age stability issues. The area is also supplied with grid-connected renewable energy from
small-scale RES power stations. The power generation and consumption data for the area
of study were obtained from Ghana’s electrical grid operator. The map of the area under
study, which was derived from the Political Map of Ghana on the One World-Nations’
website , is shown in Figure 4 [4].
The energy demand (energy mix) for Ghana by 2040 is estimated to grow to 13,100
MW according to the Ghana Energy Transitions and Investment Report. The share of re-
newable energy is estimated at 10% (1310 MW). The region is modelled with 3% RE pen-
etration at 39.3 MW.

Figure 4. The map of the area under study in Ghana.

Energies 2024, 17, 1136 7 of 15

3.1. Configuration of IEEE 5-Bus System in ETAP

In this research, this area is modelled by lumping the generating stations and load
centre into the IEEE 5 bus system, as illustrated in Figure 5. The average demand and
supply data for the buses in the model were obtained from Ghana’s transmission and
generating station databases. Bus 1 is considered as the slack bus where the area network
links to the national grid at the Techiman capital where the transmission substation is
located. The Sekondi Takoradi capital often suffers from voltage-stability-related outages
whenever system disturbances occur. The adjacent load centres have additional grid-tied
renewable energy generations, with the most significant RES being the solar power plants.
For this reason, the inclusion of an SMR that is capable of varying its power output to
match the demand is projected to be capable of mitigating this challenge and consequently
ensure that the system retains its stability.

Figure 5. IEEE 5-Bus system model built on ETAP.

The network is modelled at 161 kV as the transmission voltage, at a frequency of 50

Hz, according to Ghana’s grid code, and the voltage margin is set to +/− 10%. The trans-
mission line distance and impedance were also modelled according to the data provided
by the grid operator.

3.2. Evaluation of Grids with a High Penetration of RES

For the purpose of the analysis, it was assumed that switching power electronic de-
vices were used by RES, namely, Solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems, to convert DC to AC
voltage. This presumption created questions regarding grid synchronization, possibly
making it challenging to keep the RES and the grid’s synchronous generators (SGs) in sync
during disruptions. Figure 6 illustrated the contribution of generation sources matching
the daily demand of the area under study.
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 8 of 15

Figure 6. Contribution of generation sources to meet daily demand.

Figure 6 illustrates the daily demand profile of the study area for 24 h of a day and
the contributions of various energy sources. Figure 7 provides an overview of the central-
ized generation setup featuring high renewable energy sources (RES) in the study. The
RES data are obtained from a 39.3 MW solar power plant (see Table 1), while the fixed
power supply is sourced from a 40 MW Combined Cycle Plant (CCP) from Kumasi, oper-
ating at half capacity when the small modular reactor (SMR) is installed to reduce opera-
tional costs. The specific SMR model used in this context is the 107 MW System-Integrated
Advanced Modular Reactor (SMART) from Korea. The small modular reactor (SMR) is
engineered to modulate its power output, ranging from 50% to 100% of its rated power
(Pr), with a change rate of 3–5% per minute in response to fluctuations in power demand,
as detailed in reference [6]. Certain SMRs are even capable of operating at as low as 20%
of their rated capacity in load-following mode. The combined load consists of various
components, including sensitive, switchable, and controllable loads, all designed to align
with the typical dynamic load requirements of the area under study.

Table 1. The average supply and demand data for Sekondi Takoradi and adjacent buses.

Generation
Synchronous Consumption
Bus Area Intermittent RES
Machines
MW Mvar MW MW Mvar
1 Techiman Slack bus - - - -
2 Kumasi 40 30 9.825 49.667 24
3 New Obuasi - - 10.825 45.285 21
4 Nkwakaw - - 9.825 39.56 5.2
Sekondi
5 107 66 8.825 51.57 18
Takoradi
Total 147 93 39.3 186.082 68.2
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 9 of 15

Figure 7. 3% High-RES-integrated generation.

3.3. Addressing SMR Delays Respond in Output Power Stabilization

From Figure 6, the illustration of the daily demand profile of the study area with the
contributions of various energy sources, it was observed that from 11:30 in the morning,
the output power of the SMR falls to a low level. SMRs are known for their load-following
abilities by changing their output power level to match up with demand, and these
changes can be affected once or twice in a day, in a range between 100% or 50%. An SMR
can also reduce its power output level below 50%. Controlling the output power level can
be achieved by controlling the reactor system, and especially for the PWR reactor, by using
the control rod to regulate the nuclear chain reaction. By placing the control rod in the
reactor core, the output power level decreases, and by removing the control rod, the out-
put power increases, allowing more neutrons to engage in fission. In this case, the ramping
up of the SMR output power will take a long time due to its ramping ratio of 10% per
minute. In the event of a situation like this, the Energy Storage System (ESS) would play
a vital role in responding to the delay and stabilizing the output power to ensure optimum
energy flow in the system, as illustrated in Figure 8.

200.0
AREA ENERGY BALANCE

150.0
ENERGY (MW)

100.0

50.0

0.0
9:00

17:00
0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00

10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00

18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
23:59
0:30
1:30
2:30
3:30
4:30
5:30
6:30

-50.0

-100.0
TIME OF DAY
Demand SMR RES Base Load ESS

Figure 8. ESS response to SMR delay in output stabilization.

Energies 2024, 17, 1136 10 of 15

3.4. Modelling Case Study for Analysis in ETAP

The selected area is modelled in ETAP to analyse the system response when disturb-
ances occur. The disturbances under study are limited to intermittent supply from RES, a
sudden ramp in load, and the sudden loading of the network with a large capacity load.
The two cases to be analysed for system stability are as follows:
Case -1: Network with RES minimum and maximum contributions.
Case -2: Network with SMR minimum and maximum contributions.
The model is generated in 3 steps before running the simulations for the two cases.
The ultimate goal is to demonstrate the contribution of the SMR to voltage stabilization
and to establish the power response in the SMR power plant. The steps are as detailed
below:
Step 1: Equipment Sizing and Placement on the ETAP Model Editor
The major equipment in the model are the generators, transformers, transmission
lines, solar power plants, and frequency relay modules. All other protective and control
devices are assumed to be operational according to Ghana’s grid code and IEC standards.
Step 2: Modelling SMR Generator in ETAP for Simulation
An assumption was made that the RES (Solar Photovoltaic) uses switched power
electronic devices for the conversion of DC to AC voltage. Switched power electronic de-
vices take time to synchronize with the grid such that it would be impossible to keep the
source in step with the synchronous generators (SGs) in the grid whenever disturbances
occurred.
An assumption was made that the SMR performs reactive power compensation
within the generators’ reactive power capability from 0.95 pf leading to 0.85 pf lagging,
according to the IEEE Guide for Transformers Directly Connected to Generators, IEEE Std
C57.116-2022 [9]. Figure 1 shows the generator operation thermal limits under which it
was set to operate. The stator heating, the overexcited, and the under-excited limits were
considered as the three thermal limits in which the generators will operate.
Step 3: Modelling Transmission Lines in ETAP Simulation
The transmission line parameters were obtained from Ghana’s grid operator and are
summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Transmission line impedance values between the load centres.

Charging B Length
From Bus To Bus Line ID Line R (pu) Line X (pu)
(pu) km
Akosombo Techiman Z (0–1) 0.0294 0.1284 0.1163 318
Techiman Kumasi Z (1–2) 0.0294 0.1284 0.1163 115.0
Techiman New Obuasi Z (1–3) 0.0289 0.1212 0.1097 93.6
New Obuasi Kumasi Z (2–3) 0.01595 0.0672 0.0609 60.2
New Obuasi Nkawkaw Z (3–4) 0.03749 0.1843 0.0841 105.0
Sekondi
Nkawkaw Z (4–5) 0.0181 0.1151 0.0534 104.0
Takoradi
Sekondi
Kumasi Z (2–5) 0.0586 0.2101 0.0949 132.0
Takoradi

The configuration of the area power distribution was performed as shown in Figure
5. The ETAP software model edit menu was used. Typical commercial load centres, typical
solar power plants, a typical generator, and the SMR were used to mimic the actual sys-
tem.
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 11 of 15

3.5. Load Flow Analysis Simulation for Voltage Stabilization

To conduct large-scale interactive simulations for assessing voltage stabilization in
high-renewable-energy-source (RES) grids with SMR support, it is essential to compare
the load variation with the bus voltage. By selecting a particular time of the day, simula-
tion can be performed for the case scenarios of RES minimum and maximum and SMR
minimum and maximum. The voltage margin is +/- 10%, which means that the bus voltage
must be maintained at a minimum of 90% and a maximum of 110% of the rated voltage.

4. Results and Discussion

In this article, it was projected that the voltage stability will probably be significantly
impacted by the reactive power flow to and from the SMR. The SMR’s role is to match the
deficit power supply arising from the mismatch between demand and supply provided
by the RES, small-capacity synchronous-based generator, and the grid. The model used in
this study was built based on Ghana’s transmission network in the selected areas which
have frequently experienced loss of power supply due to system instability. In most cases,
the voltage falls below the acceptable threshold and therefore mitigation is required to
keep the system stable. With the presence of RES using switched power electronic devices
for the conversion of direct current to alternating current in these areas, these devices take
a longer time to synchronize with other generators in the grid [21]. For this reason, a nu-
clear power plant that can be located near load centres and with load-following capability
is recommended to support the grid. A load flow study was carried out, which involves
establishing the power system network’s steady-state operational parameters by the ap-
plication of numerical techniques. Transmission line and bus data were provided to serve
as the basis for this investigation. The model’s load flow analysis results are shown in
Table 3. The focus is on the contribution of the SMR power plant to the selected power
system network. This was undertaken to evaluate the stability of the designed grid in the
event that the intermittent RES grid operates at full capacity or loses generation com-
pletely.

Table 3. Load flow analysis report on load centres.

Case -1, RES Minimum at Time 7:30

Bus Generation Load Voltage
RES Angle
ID kV MW Mvar MW Mvar % Mag
(MW) (Degree)
Techiman 161 0 0 0 0 0 98.21 −1.73
Kumasi 161 40 30 2.5 40 30 97.21 −1.72
Obuasi 161 0 0 2.5 0 0 97.2 −1.74
Nkwakaw 161 0 0 2.5 0 0 97.15 −1.72
S-Takoradi 161 77 56 2.5 77 56 98.15 −1.73
Total Power 117 86 10 117 +10 86
Case -2, Minimum SMR at Time 11:30
Bus Generation Load Voltage
RES Angle
ID kV MW Mvar MW Mvar % Mag
(MW) (Degree)
Techiman 161 0 0 0 0 0 98.05 −1.83
Kumasi 161 40 30 9.5 40 30 97.92 −1.83
Obuasi 161 0 0 9.5 0 0 96.92 −1.83
Nkwakaw 161 0 0 9.5 0 0 98.15 −1.73
S-Takoradi 161 41.3 40 9.5 41.3 40 97.98 −1.73
Total Power 81.3 70 38 81.3 + 38 70
Case -3, RES Maximum at Time 13:30
Bus Generation Load Voltage
Energies 2024, 17, 1136 12 of 15

RES Angle
ID kV MW Mvar MW Mvar % Mag
(MW) (Degree)
Techiman 161 0 0 0 0 0 99.98 −5.59
Kumasi 161 40 30 9.225 40 30 99.98 −5.59
Obuasi 161 0 0 9.225 0 0 100.5 −1.81
Nkwakaw 161 0 0 9.225 0 0 100.5 −1.76
S-Takoradi 161 51.6 43.9 9.225 51.6 43.9 99.97 −5.96
Total Power 91.6 73.9 36.9 91.6 + 36.9 73.9
Case -4, SMR Maximum at Time 19:00
Bus Generation Load Voltage
RES Angle
ID kV MW Mvar MW Mvar % Mag
(MW) (Degree)
Techiman 161 0 0 0 0 0 100.6 −1.93
Kumasi 161 40 30 0 40 30 100.5 −1.93
Obuasi 161 0 0 0 0 0 98.72 −1.89
Nkwakaw 161 0 0 0 0 0 100.5 −1.88
S-Takoradi 161 97.4 52.6 0 97.4 52.6 100.6 −1.88
Total Power 137 82.6 137 + 0 82.6

Frequency Response for RE’s Disturbance without Inclusion of SMR to the Power System
As illustrated in Figures 9–12 for the voltage stabilization cases, in general, the oper-
ating voltage margin is +/− 5%. But in this study, the voltage margin is limited to +/− 10%.
If the voltage present in the buses is less than the system voltage margin, the system will
collapse, leading to blackouts in the region under study. It means that the bus voltage
must be maintained at a minimum of 90% and a maximum of 110% of the rated voltage.
As illustrated in the graphical figures for all four case scenarios, it was established that the
voltage present at various buses was operating above the 95% margin and other buses
were recording voltage margin of about 100.5%. This shows that the power system is sta-
ble and will not need another generator or import power from the grid to support this
region, and load shading will not be required. The inclusion of the SMR in this region has
also played a vital role in maintaining its operating voltage at above 99.9%, as illustrated
in the graphical figure.

Figure 9. Case -1. RES minimum at 7:30.

Energies 2024, 17, 1136 13 of 15

Figure 10. Case -2. SMR minimum at 11:30.

Figure 11. Case -3. RES maximum at 13:30.

Figure 12. Case -4. SMR maximum at 19:00.

Energies 2024, 17, 1136 14 of 15

In addition, a review was carried out on the interaction between an SMR power plant
and the RES power grid during load-following operation. Most SMRs with following ca-
pability are suitable for use in grids with RES due to their ability to mitigate voltage sta-
bility challenges. Voltage stabilization is conventionally achieved through reactor control,
turbine control, and generator excitation control. The load flow analysis report obtained
from the ETAP software demonstrated conclusively the magnitude of the role played by
the SMR in voltage stabilization. Voltages were kept within a stable operating limit de-
spite the changes in system power demand introduced by the intermittent RES and dy-
namic system load demand.

5. Conclusions
In the quest to achieve electrical power system stability in Ghana, voltage stability is
key. In addition, Ghana is keen to meet the net global carbon neutrality target by 2050. For
these reasons, generation from renewable energy sources together with nuclear power
plants is emerging as a game-changer. In this study, voltage instability was outlined as an
existing challenge in high-renewable-energy-penetrated grids that are far away from the
main synchronous generator-based power supply. The inclusion of a load-following SMR
for active power control was used as a solution to voltage stability in high-RES grids. The
standard functional requirements for load-following SMR integration in high-renewable-
energy grids and the pitfalls in the integration of SMR to renewable energy grids for the
purpose of load-following and voltage stability were outlined and discussed. The pro-
posed methodology for the power system design is feasible since it was able to produce
the desired results. From the results of the study, it was deduced that the flexible opera-
tions of SMRs in Ghana through electrical power control while maintaining the mechani-
cal power constant mitigate voltage stability issues. Therefore, this study met its objec-
tives.

Author Contributions: G.L.A. wrote the paper and C.-k.C. provided technical review and per-
formed editorial reviews and update. Both authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data are unavailable due to ethical restrictions.
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the 2023 Research Fund of the KEPCO Inter-
national Nuclear Graduate School (KINGS), Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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