INTRODUCTION

The use of the prefix "nano" in various fields of knowledge, such as nanoscience,
nanotechnology, nanomaterials, and nano chemistry, has indeed seen significant growth in the
last decade. This prefix, derived from the ancient Greek word "να̃νος" and the Latin "nanus,"
means "dwarf" and, in the context of modern science, signifies something very small. In the
International System of Units (SI), it is used to denote a reduction factor of 10^-9 times.
Therefore, the nanoscale world is typically measured in nanometres (nm), with 1 nanometre
corresponding to 10^-9 meters.

The nanoscale encompasses systems whose size falls between molecular dimensions and
macroscopic dimensions, typically ranging from greater than 1 nanometre to less than 100
nanometres. This incredibly small scale opens up a realm of possibilities for scientific research
and technological advancements. Nanotechnology, for instance, involves manipulating and
engineering materials and systems at the nanoscale to achieve new properties and
functionalities, which can have a profound impact on various industries, including electronics,
medicine, materials science, and more.

The broad acceptance of these nano-related terms in scientific literature, popular literature, and
the general public's vocabulary reflects the growing significance of nanoscience and
nanotechnology in our modern world.

DIFFERENCE IN BEHAVIOUR OF NANOMATERIAL AS COMPARED TO BULK

When the dimensions of a material are reduced to nanoscale, it exhibits properties which are
different from the bulk. For example, the colour of gold changes from golden yellow to red in
the nanoscale. Similarly, its melting point drops below that of bulk gold (1064 °C) at a particle
radius less than 10m.The number of surface atoms increases with decreasing particle size. The
surface atoms have lower coordination numbers than inner atoms and therefore become mobile
more easily. It has been observed that properties including excitation and emission become
dependent upon the size of a particle at nano-regime. The chemical reactivity and stability show
changes as the size changes from bulk levels to the nanoscale level. The properties of material
even change with the shape of the material. All materials, whether metal, semiconductor, or
insulator, show size-dependent, physico-chemical properties in the nano-range below a critical
size. This critical size is about 100m for most of the materials and depends upon the
composition and structure of the material.
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While the properties of most micro-structured materials are similar to those of the bulk
materials, the properties of nanomaterials are much different from those of atoms and bulk
materials. It is important to understand the reason for nanoparticles' behaviour being different
and intriguing.
Nanomaterial behaviour can be explained largely on the basis of surfaces and interfaces. The
unique properties of nanomaterials are due to a large number of surface atoms, high surface-
to-volume ratio high surface energy, spatial confinement, and reduced imperfections, unlike
the bulk materials. As the proportion of atoms on the surface or interface is larger in
nanomaterials, their properties show surface dependence. This may enhance or modify the
properties of the bulk materials.

Fig: Increase in surface-to-volume ratio with decrease in size of the

particle

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Most of the fundamental properties, such as exciton size in semiconductors, exchange
interaction length in magnetic material, and coherence length of a copper pair in
superconductors, are altered when the size of the nanoparticles approaches the de Broglie
wavelength limit and the diameter of a nanoparticle becomes smaller than the critical length of
the quasi-particle interaction. Due to the small size of nanomaterials, they show quantum size
effects. The energy band structure and charge carrier density in nanomaterials can be modified
from bulk materials.
Discrete electron energy levels in atoms broaden to form electron energy bands. Reduced
imperfections in nanomaterials are also important in determining their properties.
Nanomaterials favour self-purification. Impurities and intrinsic material defects move closer to
the surface upon thermal annealing. This increased perfection alters the properties of
nanomaterials. The chemical stability of nanomaterials can be altered and the mechanical
properties of nanomaterials can be enhanced more easily as compared to bulk materials. It is
not only possible to synthesize nanomaterials with properties different from bulk material but
it is also possible to manipulate and control their mechanical, electrical, optical, and magnetic
properties for newer applications.

Fig: Difference between nanoparticles and bulk material based on number of atoms in
cluster (a)nanomaterial (b)bulk material

By simply altering the size, shape, or assembly of materials, it is possible to get materials with
tailor-made properties. In fact, it is well-accepted that the quantum confinement of electrons
within the potential well of nanomaterials provides an excellent means to control their
mechanical, electrical, optical, magnetic properties, and thermoelectric properties. As an
example, chemical sensors made from nanoparticles and nanowires show enhanced sensitivity

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and selectivity. Metallic nanoparticles can be used as catalysts. Lasers and light-emitting diodes
made from quantum dots and quantum wires show great promise. Quantum dot device offers
the potential for high-density information storage.

SYNTHESIS OF NANOMATERIALS

Nanomaterials are synthetized by different methods based on the types and nature of the
nanomaterials. In a broad sense “top-down” and “bottom-up” are the two foremost methods to
synthesize nanomaterials. Further these methods are classified as Chemical methods,
Biological/green methods and physical methods.

Fig: Different methods to synthesis nanomaterials

Top-down Approach

According to this approach, a bulk or macro size material is gradually reduced, in one or more
dimensions, to the nanoscale through the use of lithographic techniques. For example, Si and
Gas integrated circuits are fabricated starting with the growth of the bulk crystal, machining
the crystal into wafers, and processing the wafer using lithographic techniques through steps
like epitaxy, thin film growth or deposition, etching, ion-implantation, etc., and transferring

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patterns of a circuit template or mask onto the wafer through a radiation-sensitive polymer
resist.

Similarly, fabrication of micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) is achieved by

micromachining of an Si water. Mass production of nanoparticles using ball milling is another
example of the top-down approach, where the initial bulk or crystalline material is broken or
milled using steel balls into nanocrystalline. structures, retaining the original integrity of the
material. The chemical reaction the constituents of the end product are also possible during the
ball milling process as it happens in the formation of nanoparticles of metal oxides or nitrides.

1. Chemical Methods

The development of novel materials is the fundamental focal point of chemical research.
Preparation of nanoparticles with well-defined size and morphology is very important for their
industrial application. The chemical route of synthesis of nanoparticles is also known as soft
synthetic route. This method uses the 'bottom-up approach' starting at the atomic level and
building up materials atom by atom.

Natural (chemical) forces are used to assemble nanostructures, making this a "self-assembly
process. The basis of nanoparticle synthesis is to produce a large number of nuclei
simultaneously and control its growth and aggregation. Although this approach is not new, It is
very important and useful for the fabrication of nanomaterials with the desired properties.

Developing a broad-based knowledge of various synthetic techniques is very important for any
student of nanotechnology. The utility of the method of nanomaterial synthesis for any
particular application depends on a number of factors such as homogeneity of the product,
control over size/shape, reproducibility of the product, and applicability for producing different
classes of products such as metals, semiconductors, oxides, or chalcogenides.

The synthesis of nanomaterials using chemical methods offers a number of advantages in

comparison to the physical methods. Some of the important ones are listed as follows.

1. Simplicity of techniques

2. Less expensive methodology as less sophisticated instruments are required

3. Generally, a lower reaction temperature (<350 °C) is required OR

4. Production of bulk quantities of products is possible

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5. Products obtained in the solution form can be easily converted into solid or thin films

6. Self-assembly is possible

7. Shape, size, and morphology of the products can be controlled

8. Better chance to obtain nanoparticles with less detects and more homogeneity

A . Sol-Gel Synthesis

Sols are colloidal suspensions having solid particles in a liquid. Gels are a continuous network
of particles with pores filled with solvent. The sol-gel process takes place by the formation of
a concentrated suspension (sol) first, followed by the connection of sol particles into a
continuous liquid phase network to form a gel. The final step involves drying of the liquid
inside the pores and forming powders, thin films, or monolithic solids.

Fig: Schematic representation of the different stages and routes of the sol–gel technology
M. Ebelman was the pioneer scientist to use the sol-gel technique for synthesis in 1846.
However, it got attention only in 1939 when Geffcken and Berger devised a method to prepare
oxide films using sol-gel precursors. The sol-gel method is based on inorganic polymerization

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reactions. Traditionally, this process refers to the hydrolysis and condensation of a metal
alkoxide-based precursor [e.g., aluminates, titanates, borates, curates, etc.] and alkoxysilanes
[e.g., tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS)I, though metal salts can also
be used.

The sol-gel method includes the following steps.

1. Formation of sol by hydrolysis with water or alcohols in presence of an acid or a base

according to the hydrolysis process

2. Formation of a network by polycondensation to form a gel, which results in an increase in

the viscosity of the solution

3. Ageing of the gel in which the growth of particles is accompanied by the contraction of the
gel to give out solvent from the pores

4. Drying of the gel to remove volatile liquids from the gel network and dehydrative to remove
surface bound groups, thereby stabilizing the gel

5. Thermal decomposition at a high temperature (3 800°C to decompose lie organic precursors.

B. Spinning method

Electrospinning is a cost-effective method for rapidly producing nanofibers using an

electrically charged jet of polymer solution. It is primarily used for creating sub-micron fibres
with high specific surface areas. The setup is straightforward, requiring a syringe, polymer
solution, gravity-based discharge, aluminium foil, and a low-current high-voltage appliance.

To set up an electrospinning experiment, you need:

1. A syringe with a metal tip and an inner diameter of several hundred micrometers.
2. A solution of a commercially available polymer, such as polyethylene oxide (PEO), in
a solvent, e.g., 10% PEO in water.
3. A weight to control the polymer solution discharge.
4. Position an aluminum foil a few centimeters below the syringe.
5. Use a high-voltage appliance to apply around 1 kV.

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 Fig: Schematic diagram representing electrospinning system

Without voltage, the syringe produces droplets that fall onto the aluminium foil. When a
sufficient voltage is applied, a fluid jet forms and solid fibres are deposited on the collector due
to solvent evaporation.

C. Reverse micelle methods

The reverse micelle method is also a useful technique for producing nanomaterials with the
desired shapes and sizes. An oil-in-water emulsion results in normal micelles, in which
hydrophobic tails are aimed towards a core that has trapped oil droplets within it. However,
reverse micelles are formed in the case of a water-in-oil emulsion, in which the hydrophilic
heads are pointing towards a core that contains water. The core of the reverse micelles acts as
a nanoreactor for the synthesis of nanoparticles. It acts as the water pool for developing
nanomaterials. The size of these nanoreactors can be controlled by varying the water-to-
surfactant ratio, ultimately affecting the size of the nanoparticles synthesized through this
method. If the water concentration is decreased, this results in smaller water droplets, resulting
in the formation of smaller nanoparticles. Thus, the reverse micelle method provides a facile

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route for synthesizing uniform nanoparticles with precisely controlled size. Nanoparticles
developed through the reverse micelle method are amazingly fine and monodispersed in nature.

D. Chemical Vapour Deposition

Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) has become very popular and is the preferred method for
a large number of materials. The CD processes can use plasma, optical excitation, etc., as the
alternative source of energy to enhance chemical reaction, allowing deposition to take place at
a low temperature Sherman 1987, Shivaram 1995]. A simple CVD reactor consists of a tube of
a circular or rectangular cross-section with a susceptor heated to a temperature Is carrying a
wafer for deposition, the reactant gas(s) entering from the left side end of the tube, and the
reaction byproducts and residual gases exiting from the right side end, as shown in Fig. 12.13.
The wall of the reactor tube is at a temperature Iw such that Is > I w. For example, consider the
deposition of a polysilicon (poly-Si) thin film on a silicon substrate covered with silicon
dioxide, required as a MOSFET gate electrode or an interconnect wire. It poly-Si is deposited
from silane gas (Siti4) as the source of silicon, it decomposes into Si and H2 as the Sill gas
approaches the hot susceptor. The concentration of silane gas will be depleted due to poly-Si
deposition as it flows from the left to the right, which will result in a reduced deposition rate,
successively causing non-uniform deposition. To overcome this problem of non-uniform
deposition across the wafer, an inert dilutant gas, like N2 is mixed with silane in (100:1
proportion). N2 gas in the present case also serves as a carrier gas. In a CVD deposition process,
the following steps are involved.

1. Transport of the reactants)/precursor(s) from the input port to the proximity of the water

2. Chemical reaction of the reactants to form depositing and other species of the

reaction

3. Transport of these reactants to the surface of the water

4. Surface reaction on the wafer releasing depositing species- silicon in the present case

5. Gaseous desorption of the byproducts.

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6. Transport of the byproducts away from the wafer and exiting them from the reactor through
the output port.

Fig: Schematic diagram representing chemical vapour deposition

E. Soft and hard templating methods.

Soft and hard template methods are extensively used to produce nano porous materials. The
soft template method is a simple conventional method for the generation of nanostructured
materials. The soft template method has been considered advantageous due to its
straightforward implementation, relatively mild experimental conditions, and the development
of materials with a range of morphologies. In the soft templating method, nano porous
materials are produced using plenty of soft templates, such as block copolymers, flexible
organic molecules, and anionic, cationic, and non-ionic surfactants. Most prominent
interactions between the soft templates and the precursors occur through hydrogen bonding,
van der Waals forces, and electrostatic forces. Soft templates of 3D specifically arranged liquid
crystalline micelles are used to synthesize 3D ordered mesoporous structures. One of the classic
examples involves mesoporous solids, such as lamellar (MCM-50), cubic (MCM-48), and
hexagonal (MCM-41) ordered mesoporous silicas, being produced using
alkyltrimethylammonium surfactant. Generally, for the synthesis of ordered mesoporous
materials via a soft templating method, two processes called cooperative self-assembly and
“true” liquid-crystal templating are adopted. Several factors can affect the mesoporous material
structures derived from 3D arranged micelles, such as the surfactant and precursor
concentrations, ratio of surfactant to precursor, surfactant structure, and environmental
conditions. The nanoporous material pore sizes can be tuned via varying the surfactant carbon
chain-length or introducing auxiliary pore-expanding agents. A range of nanostructured
materials, such as mesoporous polymeric carbonaceous nanospheres, single crystal nanorods,

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porous alumina, and mesoporous N-doped graphene, can be produced via the soft template
method.

The hard template method is also called nano-casting. Well-designed solid materials are
used as templates, and the solid template pores are filled with precursor molecules to achieve
nanostructures for required applications. The selection of the hard template is critical for
developing well-ordered mesoporous materials. It is desirable that such hard templates should
maintain a mesoporous structure during the precursor conversion process, and they should be
easily removable without disrupting the produced nanostructure. A range of materials has been
used as hard templates, not limited to carbon black, silica, carbon nanotubes, particles, colloidal
crystals, and wood shells. Three main steps are involved in the synthetic pathway for obtaining
nanostructures via templating methods. In the first step, the appropriate original template is
developed or selected. Then, a targeted precursor is filled into the template mesopores to
convert them into an inorganic solid. In the final step, the original template is removed to
achieve the mesoporous replica. Via using mesoporous templates, unique nanostructured
materials such as nanowires, nanorods, 3D nanostructured materials, nanostructured metal
oxides, and many other nanoparticles can be produced. From this brief discussion, it can be
seen that a wide range of unique structured nanomaterials can be produced using soft and hard
template methods.

Fig: Soft and hard templating methods

Characterization of nanomaterials is a critical aspect of understanding and utilizing these
extremely small-scale materials, which typically have dimensions ranging from 1 to 100
nanometers. Characterization involves studying their properties, structure, and behavior
without delving into the specific methods used for analysis. This process helps researchers and
scientists gain insights into the unique features and potential applications of nanomaterials.

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Characterization may include assessing properties such as size, shape, surface area,
composition, crystallinity, and the presence of defects. Additionally, it examines how these
properties impact the nanomaterial's chemical, physical, and electronic behavior. This
knowledge is essential for designing and tailoring nanomaterials for specific applications in
areas like electronics, energy, medicine, and materials science.

In summary, nanomaterial characterization is a fundamental step in the study and application

of nanomaterials, enabling a deeper understanding of their properties and behavior, which is
essential for harnessing their potential in various fields.

We would be discussing in detail, the following methods:

Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD) is a very useful tool that helps scientists learn more about
tiny particles. Imagine you have a special kind of camera that can take pictures of things that
are too small to see with your eyes. PXRD is like that special camera, but instead of using
regular light, it uses X-rays to take pictures of really tiny crystals.
When we want to learn about these super small crystals, we need to prepare them properly. We
turn these tiny crystals into a fine powder so that we have lots of them all mixed up.

We need a special machine called a "X-ray diffractometer" to do the actual PXRD. This
machine is like a combination of a camera and an X-ray gun. It sends out X-rays at our
powdered sample, and when these X-rays hit the tiny crystals, they bounce off in different
directions, just like how light reflects off a mirror. The machine catches these bouncing X-rays
and makes a pattern on a screen.

This pattern on the screen is like a secret code that we can decipher. It tells us a lot of
information about these tiny crystals. For example, it can tell us how far apart the atoms or
molecules are inside the crystal, and it can also reveal the shape of the crystal. It's like getting
a glimpse into the hidden world of super small structures.

Scientists use it for many different things. One of the most common uses is figuring out what
things are made of. Just like you can identify a person by their face, PXRD helps scientists
identify materials by looking at their crystal structures. This is handy in all kinds of fields, from
making sure the right materials are used in manufacturing to checking the quality of medicines.
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PXRD is also like a detective tool in the world of medicines. Sometimes, medicines can exist
in different forms, like ice, water, and steam are different forms of the same thing—water.
These different forms can affect how well the medicine works. PXRD helps scientists find out
what form a medicine is in, so they can make sure it works the way it should.

Another interesting thing about PXRD is that it's not just for known stuff. It can help solve
mysteries when scientists find something new and don't know what it is. By taking a PXRD
picture and comparing it to known patterns, they can figure out what the new thing is made of
and how its tiny pieces are put together.

PXRD is like a magician's trick because it doesn't harm what it's examining. Some methods
can change or even destroy the stuff they're studying, but not PXRD. The samples remain the
same after the PXRD test, so scientists can use them for other experiments or further testing.
In a nutshell, Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD) is like a super-powered camera that uses X-
rays to see and understand the tiny world of crystals. It's a tool that helps scientists figure out
what things are made of, how they're put together, and even solve mysteries when they discover
something new

Fig: Bruker D8 ADVANCE PXRD

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UV-Vis Spectrophotometry is a scientific technique used to analyze and quantify the amount
of light absorbed or transmitted by substances in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This method provides valuable information about the chemical
composition and concentration of substances and is widely applied across various scientific
disciplines, including chemistry, biology, environmental science, and industry.

At its core, UV-Vis Spectrophotometry relies on the principle that different substances have
distinctive patterns of absorbing and transmitting light at specific wavelengths within the UV
and visible spectrum. This technique involves passing a beam of UV or visible light through a
sample and measuring how much of the light is absorbed or transmitted. The extent of
absorption or transmission is directly related to the nature and concentration of the substances
within the sample.
The key instrument used for UV-Vis Spectrophotometry is the UV-Vis spectrophotometer.
This device comprises a light source that emits a broad range of UV or visible light, a sample
holder (often a transparent cuvette), and a light detector. The process unfolds as follows: the
spectrophotometer emits light through the sample contained in the cuvette, with some of the
light being absorbed by the substances within the sample while the remaining light is
transmitted. The detector in the spectrophotometer quantifies the amount of light that makes it
through the sample. This measurement is obtained by comparing the intensity of the reference
light (before passing through the sample) to the intensity of the sample light (after passing
through the sample).

UV-Vis Spectrophotometry boasts a wide range of applications. It is commonly used for

quantitative analysis to determine the concentration of specific substances in a sample. This is
achieved by constructing a calibration curve that correlates the amount of absorbed or
transmitted light with known concentrations of the substance of interest. Additionally, it serves
a qualitative role by identifying the presence of particular compounds within a sample based
on their unique absorption patterns. Substances exhibit distinct "fingerprints" in the UV-Vis
spectrum, allowing for accurate identification.

Moreover, the technique is instrumental in monitoring chemical reactions, aiding in the

understanding of reaction kinetics. In the realms of biological and pharmaceutical research,
UV-Vis Spectrophotometry is employed to analyze biological molecules, such as proteins and
nucleic acids, as well as pharmaceutical compounds. Researchers utilize it to investigate DNA,
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RNA, and protein concentrations, which has significant implications in the fields of genetics
and drug development. In environmental analysis, UV-Vis Spectrophotometry assists in the
assessment of pollutant concentrations, such as heavy metals or organic compounds, in
environmental samples like water and air. It plays an essential role in the evaluation of the
quality and safety of our environment.

Furthermore, the food and beverage industry benefits greatly from UV-Vis Spectrophotometry.
It is used to measure the concentration of various components in food and beverages, including
vitamins, colorants, and flavor compounds. By understanding the chemical composition and
concentrations of these components, food quality and safety can be ensured.

The significance of UV-Vis Spectrophotometry lies in its capacity to provide precise and rapid
information about the composition and concentration of substances in a sample. It is non-
destructive, meaning the sample remains unchanged after analysis, enabling further testing and
research. Additionally, it is a relatively straightforward and cost-effective method compared to
some other analytical techniques, making it accessible and useful for both qualitative and
quantitative analysis.

Fig: Perkin Elmer LAMBDA 365

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is a powerful analytical technique used

to study and identify the chemical composition of materials by examining their interaction with
infrared light. It plays a crucial role in various scientific disciplines, including chemistry,
biology, materials science, and industry.

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FTIR operates based on the fundamental principle that different chemical compounds absorb
infrared light at distinct wavelengths. When infrared light is passed through a sample, the
molecules within the sample vibrate and absorb specific frequencies of light. This absorption
results in a unique infrared spectrum, which contains information about the types of chemical
bonds and functional groups present in the sample. By analyzing this spectrum, scientists can
deduce the composition of the material and gain insights into its structure and properties.

A FTIR spectrometer is the instrument used for this analysis. It emits a broad spectrum of
infrared light, which is directed through the sample. A detector measures the light that passes
through the sample, and this information is then transformed using a mathematical technique
called Fourier transform into an infrared spectrum. The resulting spectrum is a plot of intensity
(how much light is absorbed) versus the frequency of the infrared light.

FTIR finds applications in numerous fields for various purposes. It is used to identify and
quantify the chemical composition of unknown substances and can determine the presence of
specific functional groups and chemical bonds, making it a valuable tool in organic chemistry.
Industries use FTIR for quality control and assurance to ensure the consistency and purity of
pharmaceuticals, polymers, and other manufactured products. FTIR is also employed in
biology and medicine, aiding in the understanding of the structure and function of biological
molecules, as well as in diagnosing diseases. In environmental monitoring, FTIR helps analyze
air and water samples to detect pollutants and monitor environmental quality. Furthermore,
researchers in materials science use FTIR to investigate the composition and properties of
materials, including the analysis of coatings, films, and nanomaterials. It is even useful in
forensic investigations by identifying trace evidence and analyzing unknown substances found
at crime scenes.

The significance of FTIR lies in its ability to provide detailed information about the
composition and structure of materials. It is non-destructive, meaning that the sample remains
unchanged after analysis, making it suitable for further testing and research. Additionally, FTIR
is a highly sensitive technique, capable of identifying even small amounts of substances. This
makes it invaluable in various industries where product quality, safety, and compliance with
regulatory standards are critical.

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FTIR is also known for its speed and versatility. It can be used for both qualitative and
quantitative analysis, making it applicable across a wide range of scientific disciplines. Its
power to reveal the molecular identity of unknown substances is particularly useful in research,
industrial settings, and forensics. Furthermore, FTIR instruments have become more accessible
and user-friendly over the years, expanding its use to researchers, technicians, and even
students.

Fig: Bruker ALPHA FTIR with ZnS ATR Module

APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

The manipulation and control of matter at the, has found a wide range of applications across
various fields, revolutionizing industries and contributing to scientific advancements. This
transformative technology has opened doors to novel approaches and solutions, offering
improved performance, efficiency, and capabilities in areas as diverse as medicine, electronics,
energy, materials science, and environmental protection.

In Electronics, the miniaturization of electronic components has been driven by

nanotechnology. Nanoscale transistors and circuits have enabled the creation of smaller, more
powerful electronic devices. This has led to advancements such as faster computers, smaller
and more efficient sensors, and even the development of flexible electronic displays.

In the field of Medicine, nanotechnology has brought about groundbreaking developments.

One of the most notable areas is drug delivery. Nanoparticles can be designed to carry
medications to specific targets in the body, enhancing the drug's efficacy and reducing side
effects. Additionally, nanoscale materials like quantum dots are used for precise imaging and

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diagnosis of diseases. Nanomedicine is paving the way for more personalized and targeted
healthcare

` Fig: Nanotechnology in environmental applications

Energy is another field where nanotechnology has made significant contributions. In Solar
Photovoltaics, nanostructured materials like quantum dots, nanowires, and thin-film solar cells
enhance the efficiency of solar panels by capturing a broader spectrum of sunlight, resulting in
higher energy conversion. In Energy Storage, nanomaterials are used in the development of
high-performance batteries, capacitors, and fuel cells. These materials provide greater energy
density, faster charging and discharging rates, and improved longevity.

In the realm of Materials Science, nanotechnology has opened up new possibilities.

Nanostructured materials like carbon nanotubes and graphene are known for their extraordinary
strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties. These materials are used to create
stronger and lighter composites for aerospace and automotive applications. Additionally,
nanoengineered coatings improve the performance and durability of surfaces, protecting
against wear, corrosion, and fouling.

Agriculture benefits from nanotechnology as well. Nanoparticles are used to deliver nutrients
and pesticides to plants more efficiently. This approach reduces the environmental impact of
agriculture and increases crop yields.

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 Fig: Nanotechnology in agriculture
In Construction and Infrastructure, nanotechnology leads to the development of self-
cleaning and self-healing materials. Nanocoating applied to surfaces can repel dirt and water,
keeping structures clean and reducing maintenance needs. Self-healing concrete contains
nanoparticles that can repair cracks, increasing the lifespan of infrastructure.

In the Textile Industry, nanotechnology has given rise to fabrics with unique properties.
Nanoparticles can be embedded in textiles to make them stain-resistant, waterproof, or even
capable of blocking harmful UV radiation. These advanced textiles find applications in outdoor
clothing, sportswear, and medical textiles.

Space Exploration also benefits from nanotechnology. Nanosatellites and nanoprobes are used
for scientific research and exploration of space, offering a cost-effective means of gathering
data and conducting experiments in remote regions of the cosmos.

Environmental Protection is a critical area where nanotechnology plays a significant role.

Nanomaterials are employed in water and air purification processes. They can adsorb or
degrade pollutants, making it possible to remove contaminants from the environment.
Nanotechnology also contributes to the development of efficient catalytic converters for
vehicles, reducing harmful emissions.

In the realm of Defense and Security, nanotechnology plays a significant role. Lightweight,
durable nanomaterials are used to create stronger and more protective body armor. Nano
sensors are employed for chemical and biological threat detection. Additionally, advanced

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nanomaterials contribute to the development of stealth technology and more efficient energy
sources for military applications.

In the Food Industry, nanotechnology has enabled the creation of more effective food
packaging. Nanomaterials are used to develop antimicrobial and oxygen-absorbing packaging,
extending the shelf life of food products and reducing waste.

Fig: Nanotechnology in the food industry

Transportation has benefited from nanotechnology through the development of
nanocomposites that make vehicles lighter and more fuel-efficient. Additionally, nanocoatings
on vehicle surfaces provide protection against corrosion and improve aerodynamics.

In the field of Water Purification, nanotechnology has introduced highly efficient and cost-
effective solutions. Nanomembranes with precise pore sizes can filter out contaminants at the
nanoscale, making them highly effective in desalination and water treatment processes.

In Cosmetics and Personal Care Products, nanotechnology has led to the development of
products with improved skin penetration and better delivery of active ingredients. Nanoscale
particles are used in sunscreens for better UV protection.

The Biotechnology sector benefits from nanotechnology in various ways. Nanoparticles are
used in diagnostics and imaging techniques, leading to more accurate and sensitive medical
tests. Nanotechnology also plays a role in tissue engineering, where nanoscale materials are
employed to create scaffolds for the regeneration of damaged tissues and organs.

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In the field of Education, nanotechnology has become a critical part of curricula. Students and
researchers have access to nanotechnology laboratories, and education materials help impart
knowledge about the fundamental principles and applications of nanotechnology.

Art and Cultural Preservation also benefits from nanotechnology. Nanomaterials are used in
the restoration and preservation of artworks and cultural heritage items. They can be employed
to clean and protect delicate surfaces without causing damage.

Fig: Nanotechnology in the art conservation

In Sports and Recreation, nanotechnology is harnessed to create high-performance
equipment. For example, tennis rackets are reinforced with carbon nanotubes to improve
strength and durability. Sports clothing utilizes nanotechnology for moisture-wicking and odor-
control properties.

Manufacturing has undergone significant improvements through nanotechnology. The

precision and control enabled by nanoscale manipulation have led to the production of smaller
and more advanced devices, as well as more efficient manufacturing processes.

Finally, in the Emerging Field of Nanorobotics, nanoscale robots are designed for
applications in medicine, environmental cleanup, and various other areas. These robots can
perform tasks at the molecular level and have the potential to revolutionize industries and
scientific research.

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN WATER PURIFICATION

Nanomaterials have become pivotal in advancing the domain of water purification, offering a
range of innovative solutions that enhance the quality and safety of treated water. One of the
cornerstones of nanotechnology's impact in this field is the development of highly efficient
water filters. By harnessing the unique properties of nanoscale materials such as carbon

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nanotubes, graphene, and nanoparticles, these filters possess an exceptionally high surface area.
As a result, they excel at trapping or adsorbing a wide array of contaminants, including heavy
metals, organic pollutants, and bacteria, thereby elevating the quality of treated water to
unparalleled levels.

Nanoengineered membranes, adorned with nanopores, represent a sophisticated solution for

microfiltration and ultrafiltration processes. These specialized membranes excel in removing
particles, bacteria, and viruses, ensuring that the drinking water is not only purified but also
devoid of any microbial threats. Their precise design allows for efficient separation and
purification of water, enhancing overall water quality.

At the heart of water purification is the art of selective adsorption, a fundamental process
greatly empowered by nanoscale adsorbents. These engineered materials are tailored to target
specific contaminants with precision. For instance, activated carbon nanoparticles specialize in
adsorbing organic pollutants, while nanosized iron particles exhibit remarkable efficacy in the
removal of heavy metals, further enhancing the quality and safety of drinking water.

In the realm of water purification, antimicrobial nanoparticles play a crucial role in ensuring
the safety of drinking water. These nanoparticles, including silver nanoparticles, act as
sentinels, effectively preventing the proliferation of harmful microorganisms. By inhibiting
microbial growth, nanomaterials provide an additional layer of protection, contributing to the
overall purification process.

To address the issue of biofilm and fouling in water treatment systems, nanotechnology
introduces self-cleaning surfaces. These surfaces are ingeniously engineered to prevent the
buildup of biofilms and fouling on filters and membranes, ensuring consistent and efficient
performance over time. Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis processes are also revolutionized
by nanotechnology, offering selective removal of salts and solutes from water. This not only
purifies the water but also makes it suitable for drinking. In addition, photoactive nanoparticles,
activated by UV light, break down organic contaminants in water, providing an advanced and
environmentally friendly method of water treatment. Moreover, nanotechnology plays a pivotal
role in creating portable, cost-effective point-of-use water purification devices to bring clean
water to remote and underserved populations. Finally, real-time monitoring of water quality
and treatment effectiveness is crucial, and nano sensors, designed with high sensitivity and
accuracy, are instrumental in detecting the presence of contaminants in water. In regions
grappling with water scarcity, nanotechnology contributes to the development of more efficient

22
and cost-effective desalination technologies, offering a sustainable solution to the pressing
issue of water supply. These remarkable advancements demonstrate the transformative impact
of nanotechnology on water purification, ensuring the availability of clean and safe drinking
water to communities around the world.

NANOTECHNOLGY APPLICATIONS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Nanotechnology, with its ability to manipulate matter at the nanoscale, is revolutionizing

various aspects of energy generation, storage, and distribution, as well as corrosion control. In
the realm of renewable energy, it has significantly enhanced solar photovoltaics and thermal
collectors, fuel cell efficiency, and power generation and distribution. Moreover,
nanotechnology's influence extends to critical areas like transmission cables, storage batteries,
supercapacitors, and transformers, improving efficiency and reliability

Solar Photovoltaics
Nanotechnology has brought significant advancements to solar photovoltaics. Nanostructured
materials, including quantum dots, nanowires, and thin-film solar cells, are being employed to
enhance the efficiency of solar cells. These materials are designed to capture a broader
spectrum of sunlight, increasing the conversion efficiency of sunlight into electricity.
Additionally, nanostructured surfaces can trap and guide light within solar cells, increasing
light absorption and energy conversion. This results in more efficient solar panels and a better
utilization of sunlight for power generation. Furthermore, the development of flexible and
transparent solar cells, made possible through nanomaterials, allows for their integration into
various surfaces, including windows and clothing, expanding the potential for solar energy
generation in diverse applications

Fig: Working of nanomaterial based-solar thermal

collectors

23
Solar Thermal Collectors
In the realm of solar thermal collectors, nanotechnology has also made significant
contributions. Nanofluids, which are heat transfer fluids containing nanoparticles, have
superior thermal conductivity and heat-absorbing capabilities. These nanofluids are used to
enhance the performance of solar thermal collectors, ensuring that more of the captured solar
energy is efficiently converted into thermal energy. Nanocoating on solar collectors play a role
in improving their absorption properties and reducing heat loss, ultimately leading to higher
efficiency in converting sunlight into thermal energy. Moreover, nanotechnology enables the
use of nanostructured materials, such as nanoscale absorbers and selective coatings, to improve
the performance and durability of Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems, which concentrate
sunlight to produce high-temperature heat.

Fuel Cells
Fuel cells rely on catalysts to facilitate electrochemical reactions, and nanotechnology has
revolutionized this aspect. Highly efficient nano catalysts, such as platinum nanoparticles, have
been developed, significantly increasing the rate of reactions and reducing the need for
expensive catalyst materials. This has led to more cost-effective and efficient fuel cell systems.
In addition to catalysts, nanotechnology also plays a crucial role in improving the materials
used in fuel cells, such as proton-exchange membranes (PEMs) and solid oxide fuel cell
(SOFC) electrolytes. These materials are engineered at the nanoscale to enhance the overall
efficiency and durability of fuel cells. This innovation has the potential to make fuel cells a
more practical and sustainable energy solution.

Power Generation and Distribution

Nanotechnology is revolutionizing power generation and distribution as well. Nanogenerators
have been developed, capable of converting small mechanical energy inputs into electrical
power. This technology is harnessed for self-powering sensors, energy harvesting from
vibrations, and even using body movements to generate electricity. Additionally, high-
efficiency conductors and cables are created using nanomaterials, which significantly reduce
power losses during electricity transmission and distribution. Nanotechnology is also
instrumental in the development of advanced energy storage systems, such as lithium-ion
batteries and supercapacitors. These materials with nanoscale features store and release energy
more efficiently, contributing to the reliability and sustainability of power generation and
distribution systems. In conclusion, nanotechnology continues to drive innovation in renewable

24
energy technologies, making them more efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable. These
advancements have the potential to revolutionize the way we generate, store, and distribute
energy, ultimately contributing to a greener and more sustainable energy future.

Transmission Cables
Nanotechnology has played a vital role in improving the performance of transmission cables,
particularly in high-voltage and long-distance power transmission. Nano-engineered materials,
such as carbon nanotubes and graphene, are used to enhance the conductivity and mechanical
strength of the cable's core. These materials exhibit exceptional electrical and thermal
conductivity, reducing power losses during transmission. Additionally, nano-insulators are
designed to have superior dielectric properties, improving the overall efficiency and reliability
of the cable. The use of nanotechnology in transmission cables leads to reduced energy wastage
and more efficient electricity delivery over long distances.

Storage Batteries
Nanotechnology has made significant contributions to the development of advanced energy
storage systems, particularly in rechargeable batteries. Nanomaterials, such as nanostructured
electrodes and electrolytes, are used to enhance the performance of lithium-ion batteries,
among others. These materials provide a larger surface area for electrochemical reactions,
leading to increased energy density and faster charging and discharging rates. Moreover, the
use of nanomaterials can improve the lifespan and stability of batteries. This is crucial for
applications ranging from portable electronic devices to electric vehicles and grid energy
storage, as it results in longer-lasting and more reliable battery systems

Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors, or ultracapacitors, are energy storage devices known for their rapid charge
and discharge capabilities. Nanotechnology is instrumental in supercapacitor development.
Nanomaterials, like carbon nanotubes and graphene, are used to create high-surface-area
electrodes. This leads to increased energy storage capacity and faster energy exchange, making
supercapacitors suitable for applications requiring rapid bursts of energy, such as regenerative
braking in electric vehicles and energy harvesting systems. Nanotechnology also enhances the
structural stability of supercapacitors, improving their long-term performance and durability.

25
Transformers
Transformers are essential components in electrical power distribution systems, and
nanotechnology has been used to enhance their efficiency and reliability. Nano-insulating
materials with superior dielectric properties are applied in transformer designs. These materials
provide better thermal stability and reduce the risk of electrical breakdown. Additionally,
nanocoating are used to protect transformer components from moisture and contaminants,
thereby extending their lifespan. Nanotechnology also enables the development of transformers
with reduced size and weight, making them more suitable for compact and efficient electrical
substations.

Nanocoating
Nanocoating is a thin protective layer containing nanoparticles, like metal oxides or polymers,
that acts as barriers against corrosive agents. They offer enhanced protection and can be
designed to be self-healing.

Nanoscale Corrosion Inhibitors

Nanoscale corrosion inhibitors, dispersed within coatings or directly applied to metal surfaces,
release active compounds when they detect corrosive agents, effectively stopping corrosion.

Nanoparticles in Paints and Primers

Nanoparticles can be incorporated into paints and primers, improving adhesion to metal
surfaces and enhancing the durability of protective layers.

Smart Corrosion Sensors

Smart corrosion sensors, using nanotechnology, continuously monitor environmental
conditions and detect early corrosion signs, allowing for timely intervention.

Reinforcement with Nanomaterials

In construction and infrastructure, nanomaterials are used to reinforce structural materials,
making them more resistant to corrosion and mechanical stress.

Advanced Anti-Corrosion Coatings

Nanotechnology has led to coatings with superior anti-corrosion properties, offering protection
against corrosion, UV resistance, extreme temperature resistance, and improved chemical
resistance. These coatings find applications in various industries, from aerospace to
automotive.

26
SOCIETAL IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology has had a profound impact on society, with far-reaching consequences in

various aspects of life, including healthcare, the environment, and more. In the Indian scenario,
these impacts are significant and hold promise for addressing many challenges while also
posing unique socio-economic and ethical considerations. In India, nanotechnology has
brought about revolutionary changes in healthcare and medicine. The development of
nanoscale drug delivery systems allows for more efficient and targeted drug therapies, reducing
side effects and increasing the effectiveness of treatments. This has particular significance in a
country with a large and diverse population, as it enables personalized medicine tailored to
individual needs.

Nanotechnology has also improved diagnostic capabilities. Nanoscale materials, such as

quantum dots, enable precise imaging and early detection of diseases, contributing to more
effective healthcare. The development of low-cost diagnostic tools based on nanotechnology
can be a game-changer in India, especially in rural areas where access to advanced medical
facilities is limited.

Moreover, the application of nanotechnology in medical devices and implants has made
procedures safer and more efficient. Nanomaterials used in implants reduce the risk of rejection
and improve the integration of the device with the human body. This technology addresses the
growing healthcare demands in India and provides solutions for various medical conditions

In the realm of environmental protection, nanotechnology plays a crucial role. India faces
numerous environmental challenges, including air and water pollution, waste management, and
industrial emissions. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions in these areas.

Nanomaterials have been used to develop efficient and cost-effective water purification
systems. Nanomembranes can remove contaminants at the nanoscale, providing clean and safe
drinking water. Given the prevalence of waterborne diseases in many parts of India, this
technology has a significant positive impact on public health.

Air purification is another critical application. Nanoparticles can be used to remove pollutants
from the air, enhancing air quality, and mitigating health issues related to air pollution. Given
the alarming levels of air pollution in major Indian cities, such technologies have the potential
to significantly improve living conditions.

27
Nanotechnology also contributes to sustainable energy solutions. India's energy demands are
growing, and the country is actively investing in renewable energy sources. Nanotechnology
enhances the efficiency and reduces the cost of solar panels and energy storage solutions. This
development can accelerate India's transition to clean and sustainable energy systems, reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and addressing climate change.

In a country where agriculture is a significant part of the economy, nanotechnology has the
potential to transform the agricultural sector. Nanoparticles can be used to deliver nutrients and
pesticides to plants more efficiently, reducing the environmental impact of agriculture and
increasing crop yields. This can help address food security challenges by improving crop
productivity.

Furthermore, nanoscale sensors can provide real-time data on soil conditions, crop health, and
environmental factors. This data can help farmers make informed decisions, optimize resource
use, and increase agricultural productivity.

While nanotechnology offers numerous advantages, it also poses challenges and ethical
considerations in the Indian context. Firstly, there is a need for robust regulations to ensure the
safe use of nanomaterials in products and industries. India must establish stringent guidelines
for the production and handling of nanoparticles to avoid unintended environmental and health
consequences

Another concern is equitable access to nanotechnology-based solutions. While India is making

strides in adopting nanotechnology, there's a need to ensure that these advancements benefit all
segments of society, including those in rural and underserved areas. Bridging the urban-rural
divide in access to healthcare and clean technologies remains a significant challenge.

Furthermore, there is a need for increased investment in research and development in

nanotechnology. India has made progress in this area, but sustained investment is required to
foster innovation and stay competitive globally.

The development of indigenous nanotechnology solutions can reduce the country's reliance on
imported technologies and improve its economic self-sufficiency. To fully harness the
potential of nanotechnology, India needs a skilled workforce. Education and training programs
in nanotechnology should be expanded to provide the necessary expertise. The government,
academic institutions, and industry can collaborate to develop a workforce capable of leading
in nanotechnology innovation.

28
SYNTHESIS

CaAl2O4 nanoparticles were synthesized by solution combustion method. The starting

materials, calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2·4H2O), Aluminium nitrate (Al(NO3)3.9H2O) are the
sources of Ca, Al respectively and Urea and Glycine were used separately as fuel for two
different nanomaterials.

• PREPARATION OF NANOMATERIAL USING UREA AS FUEL

Accurately measured 2.36 g of Calcium Nitrate, 7.50 g of Aluminium Nitrate and 4.00 g of
Urea were taken in a crystalline dish and dissolved in distilled water and stirred till all the
particles were dissolved.

The crystalline dish containing the heterogeneous redox mixture was introduced into a muffle
furnace maintained at 500 ± 30 C.
First the solution boils and undergoes dehydration. Eventually the mixture undergoes
decomposition, which results in the liberation of large amounts of gases (like CO2, H2O and
N2). This is followed by a spontaneous ignition which results in flame type combustion. The
whole process is over in less than 8 minutes and a highly CaAl2O4 white coloured nano
powder is obtained as per the following chemical equation:

Ca(NO3)2 + 2Al(NO3)3 4C2H6N4O2 =CaAl2O4 + 12N2 + 8CO2 + 12H2O

• PREPARATION OF NANOMATERIAL USING GLYCINE AS FUEL

Accurately measured 1.18 g of Calcium Nitrate and 3.75 gram of Aluminium Nitrate with
3.33 g glycine were taken in a crystalline dish and dissolved in distilled water and stirred till
all the particles were dissolved.

The crystalline dish containing the heterogeneous redox mixture was introduced into a muffle
furnace maintained at 500 ± 30 C.
First the solution boils and undergoes dehydration. Eventually the mixture undergoes
decomposition, which results in the liberation of large amounts of gases (like CO2, H2O and
N2). This is followed by a spontaneous ignition which results in flame type combustion. The
whole process is over in less than 9 minutes and a highly CaAl2O4 grey coloured nano
powder is obtained as per the following chemical equation:

29
3Ca(NO3)2 + 2A1(NO3)3 + 10C2H5NO2 = 2CaAl204 + 10CO2 + 5H2O+ 6N2

Fig: Solution Combustion preparation of nanoparticles

PREPARATION OF AQUEOUS METHYLENE BLUE (MB) SOLUTION

An accurately weighed amount (10 mg) of the MB dye was dissolved in 1000 ml distilled
water to prepare 10 ppm stock solution.

Fig: 10 ppm stock solution of MB

30
CHARACTERISATION

PXRD ANALYSIS

XRD analysis was carried out on fresh sample to assess the purity of the expected phases and
the degree of crystallization, i.e., size, composition and crystal structure. XRD was performed
by Rigaku diffractometer using Cu-Kα radiation (1.5406 Å) in a θ-2θ configuration. The XRD
pattern of the prepared CaAl2O4 nanoparticle is shown below.

Fig: Graph obtained in PXRD for Urea-fuel nanoparticle

Fig: Graph obtained in PXRD for Glycine-fuel nanoparticle

The pattern is in good agreement with the standard card no. 01-070-0134, which belongs to the
monoclinic phase with crystal parameters including space group P 21/n, space group number
14, a = 8.7000 Å, b = 8.092 Å, c = 15.1910 Å and β = 90.1700°. The crystallite sizes (D) was
calculated from the full width half maximum of the main reflection peaks using Scherrer’s
formula. According to the Debye–Scherrer’s formula (D = Kλ/ (βcosθ), where K is the
Scherrer’s constant, λ the X-ray wavelength, β is the peak width at half-maximum and θ is the

31
Bragg diffraction angle), The calculated average crystallite size of the product is found in the
range of 40-45 nm.

UV/ VISIBLE SPECTROPHOTOMETRY ANALYSIS

The UV-VIS spectrophotometer was used for the determination of absorbance in the range of
200 to 800 nm.

Fig: Graph obtained in PXRD for Urea-fuel nanoparticle

Fig: Graph obtained in PXRD for Glycine-fuel nanoparticle

In order to determine the optical energy band gap of sample, the UV-Vis absorption spectrum
was recorded-Vis absorption spectrum of sample. The sample shows a strong absorption peak
(λmax) at 205 nm at the UV region. This can be attributed to photo excitation of electron from
valence band to conduction band. The optical energy band gap (Eg) was estimated by the
method proposed by Wood and Tauc according to the following equation,

αhν = B(hν -E g ) n

32
Where ‘α’ is the absorbance, ‘h’ is the Planck constant, ‘ν’ is the frequency, ‘Eg ’ is the optical
energy band gap and ‘n’ is a constant associated to the different types of electronic transitions
(n= 1/2, 2, 3/2 or 3 for direct allowed, indirect allowed, direct forbidden and indirect forbidden
transitions, respectively). Eg value for CaAl2O4 nanoparticles is ~ 5.0 eV which is well
agreement with the literature. The scanning electron micrograph of CaAl2O4 nanoparticles is
shown in Fig.4. The powder shows foamy disconnected structures with significant porous and
loosely packed particle clusters. The agglomeration of particles in sample might be due to high
exothermic nature of the reaction resulting in partial sintering of the particles.

FTIR ANALYSIS

Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) is a

specialized and sophisticated technique designed to address the analysis of challenging samples
that are highly absorbing or thick, thus impeding the transmission of infrared radiation. ATR-
FTIR utilizes a high-refractive-index crystal positioned at a 45° angle to capture the reflected
signal from the sample's surface. This innovative approach offers enhanced surface sensitivity,
making it ideal for samples that would typically pose difficulties in conventional FTIR analysis.
It is particularly valuable for direct measurements of gas, fluidic, and thin-film solid-state
samples, eliminating the need for intricate sample preparation procedures. Moreover, ATR-
FTIR features a lower penetration depth compared to traditional FTIR, which is an advantage
when dealing with materials that inhibit the transmission of IR radiation.

Conversely, Microscopic FTIR (micro-FTIR) integrates the capabilities of an IR spectrometer

with a visible light microscope, significantly enhancing the sensitivity and precision in
detecting condensed-phase compounds. Unlike the standard FTIR method, which provides
averaged information from a homogenized sample, micro-FTIR empowers researchers to
perform localized measurements at specific points within solid or liquid thin film samples. This
localization is achieved by focusing the IR laser beam directly on the sample, resulting in
measurements that are primarily sourced from the targeted focal point. While micro-FTIR
offers an unprecedented level of detail, it is sensitive to even minor displacements in the laser
beam or the sample itself. As a result, this technique excels at enabling highly specific, local
measurements within the sample, providing invaluable insights into the composition and
characteristics of the materials under investigation.

33
Fig: Graph obtained in PXRD for Urea-fuel nanoparticle

Fig: Graph obtained in PXRD for Glycine-fuel nanoparticle

34
APPLICATION- Removal Of Hazardous Methylene Blue From Aqueous Solution Using
Combustion Derived Caal2o4 Nanoparticles: A Comparative Study

OVERVIEW

A 10-ppm stock solution of Methylene Blue was prepared and divided into six volumetric
flasks containing 50ml of the solution each. Dosage effect was created by adding an increasing
quantity of nanoparticles from 0 mg to 10 mg in increments of 2 mg.

After mixing them well for 30 minutes, they were transferred into six different vials that were
then marked and placed in a centrifuge for five minutes at 2000 RPM.

The contents of the vials were carefully subjected to gel electrophoresis and graphs were
plotted from the data obtained.

Fig: Dosage effect set up

Fig: Vials prepared for centrifugation

35
ANALYSIS OF GEL ELECTROPHORESIS RESULTS

Fig: Graph showing absorption range for urea fuel nanoparticle

Fig: Graph showing absorption range for glycine fuel nanoparticle

Adsorption of dye is strongly influenced by the amount of the adsorbent. Adsorption of MB

onto CaAl2O4 nanoparticles is studied with changing the amount of adsorbent from 2 mg to
10 mg at a constant stirring rate of 30 minutes with concentration of 10 ppm of 50 ml dye
solution. It is observed from the Fig that with increase in the dose, adsorption of MB increases
up to optimum quantity of adsorbent.

36
 Glycine-fuel Calcium Aluminate shows various range of adsorption as seen in the
figure. As seen the absorbance is low for 10 mg at maximum wavelength which says that
methylene blue is adsorbed by calcium aluminate.

Whereas looking at graph for urea-fuel Calcium aluminate there is not much variation
in absorbance for 10 mg of adsorbent used and 0 mg of adsorbent used.

37
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

In conclusion, our research endeavours have brought to light the crucial issue of methylene
blue contamination and its potential harm to human health, highlighting the urgent need for
effective methods of removal. Methylene blue, a synthetic dye widely employed in various
industrial applications and laboratories, has been recognized as a hazardous substance when
consumed in excessive amounts. It can lead to a spectrum of health issues, including
gastrointestinal disturbances, cyanosis, respiratory problems, and, in severe cases, life-
threatening conditions such as haemolysis. As such, the development of efficient removal
techniques is of paramount significance to safeguard public health and environmental integrity.
The findings of our research shed light on the potential use of CaAl2O4 nanomaterials for the
removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions, highlighting the importance of
understanding the adsorption processes involved. Methylene blue is a widely recognized
hazardous substance when present in unstable amounts, and its efficient removal is of utmost
importance to mitigate potential health risks and environmental contamination.

Our investigation has yielded promising insights into a practical solution for the removal of
methylene blue from aqueous solutions. Through the utilization of CaAl2O4 nanomaterials,
we have demonstrated that effective adsorption can be achieved. Notably, our research has
employed gel electrophoresis as a reliable tool to monitor and quantify the adsorption process,
shedding light on the mechanics and efficiency of methylene blue removal.

The heart of our study lay in the synthesis of CaAl2O4 nanomaterials using two distinct fuels,
glycine and urea, via the solution combustion method. Over a rigorous span of 10 days, we
painstakingly prepared and subjected these nanomaterials to rigorous characterization using
FTIR, UV-visible spectrophotometry, and PXRD, aiming to assess their suitability for the
removal of methylene blue.

Our experimental approach involved introducing varying quantities of CaAl2O4

nanomaterials, ranging from 0mg to 10mg in 2mg increments, into six separate flasks, each
containing 50ml of a 10ppm methylene blue solution. We carefully mixed the solutions for 30
minutes before subjecting them to centrifugation for 5 minutes at 2000rpm. The resulting
filtrate was then subjected to gel electrophoresis, where the changes in methylene blue
adsorption efficiency were meticulously recorded.

38
The outcomes of our research have been highly instructive. Notably, we observed a consistent
trend: as the quantity of nanomaterial increased, the concentration of methylene blue in the
solution decreased, signifying enhanced adsorption and removal of the dye. This phenomenon
was further substantiated by the graphical representation of adsorption by wavelength, where
we noted a distinct absorption peak at approximately 630 nm. This peak gradually decreased
with increasing amounts of nanomaterial, confirming the removal of methylene blue from the
solution.

Perhaps one of the most significant findings in our research is the comparative performance of
the two fuels—glycine and urea—in the synthesis of calcium aluminate nanomaterials. Our
results unequivocally establish that glycine-fuel calcium aluminate nanomaterials outperform
their urea-fuel counterparts in the removal of methylene blue. This outcome underscores the
importance of selecting the appropriate fuel for the synthesis of nanomaterials, as it can have a
substantial impact on their effectiveness in removing hazardous substances from water sources.

In conclusion, our study has made significant strides in addressing the crucial issue of
methylene blue contamination. By offering a novel approach utilizing CaAl2O4 nanomaterials,
particularly those synthesized with glycine as the fuel, we present a promising solution to
mitigate the risks associated with this hazardous substance. Nonetheless, it is essential to
acknowledge that further research and practical applications are imperative to ensure the safe,
reliable, and widespread utilization of these methods for the removal of methylene blue.
Ultimately, our research underscores the critical importance of advancing our understanding of
effective removal strategies to protect human health and the environment from the potential
dangers posed by this synthetic dye.

Overall, our research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on nanomaterial-based

approaches for water purification, specifically in the context of removing potentially harmful
substances like methylene blue. By understanding the adsorption mechanisms and optimizing
the choice of fuel for nanomaterial synthesis, we can make strides toward safer and more
effective methods for mitigating the risks associated with methylene blue contamination.
However, it is essential to note that further research and testing are needed to validate the long-
term effectiveness and safety of these materials in real-world applications, with the ultimate
goal of ensuring human and environmental well-being.

39
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40