Resistance To Motion and Battery Terminology - 221017 - 071750

Session 2: Resistance to vehicle motion and
Calculations related to Vehicle performance.

Session 4: a. Energy storage, Batteries, Fuel Cell,
Supercapacitors and Flywheels,
b. Energy scenario in India.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL

TEACHERS TRAINING & RESEARCH
“ ELECTRIC MOBILITY”
By-NITTTR Extension Centre, Bengaluru
from 11/07/2022 to15/07/2022
Nandakumar M B. Associate Professor.
Department of Automobile Engineering, DSCE,
Bangalore
nandakumar-au@dayanandasagar.edu
9900826039
Force needed to move a vehicle forward
Nandakumar M B, Dept of Automobile Engineering, DSCE, Bangalore
F  Faccel  Faero  Frr  Fg

• Force to Accelerate (Faccel = ma & I forces)
• Aerodynamic drag force (Faero)
• Gradient resistance force (Fgrade)
• Rolling resistance force (Froll resist ).
Tractive Effort? Force that pushes the vehicle

• Torque increases with reduction in speed.
• Assuming the rated speed as 1200rpm and rated
torque as 10Nm – torque at the wheels would be
40Nm
tractive Effort? Force that pushes the vehicle
kitna deta hai - Specifications of EV
• Assuming the rated speed as 1200 and

Customers ask – Rs/km, range, max speed,
acceleration
• Assuming the rated speed as 1200 and
Force needed to move a vehicle forward
F  Faccel  Faero  Frr  Fg

• Force to Accelerate (Faccel = ma & I forces)
• Aerodynamic drag force (Faero)
• Gradient resistance force (Fgrade)
• Rolling resistance force (Froll resist ).
Aerodynamic drag force (Faero)

The density of air is 1.225
kg/m3 at sea level and at 150C.
Fdrag force α Project area A
α density of the medium (air)
α square of the velocity
Substituting the units

Fdrag force α density x (velocity)2 x coefficient
of air drag x frontal area
= kg/m3 * (m/s)2 * coefficient * m2
= kgm/s2
=N
Aerodynamic drag coefficient (Cd)
Shape drag: Is due to the shape of the

vehicle. air cannot instantaneously move
out of the way and its pressure is thus
increased. This results in high air pressure
in the front of the vehicle. The air behind
the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the
space left by the forward motion of the
vehicle. This creates a zone of low air
pressure.
Skin friction: The air close to the skin of
the vehicle moves almost at the speed of
the vehicle while the air away from the
vehicle remains still.
Coefficient of drag (Cd)
Shape of the body has an equal impact as the frontal projected area
Anything moving
in a medium
will experience
drag.
Car like a air plane
Drag History
Drag – Necessary Evil
Anything moving in a medium will

experience drag.
EV designers – Observe Cyclists
Cyclists conserve energy in every possible way – similarly electric

vehicles should aim towards zero resistance to vehicle motion to
increase the range of the electric vehicle for the same battery size.
Coefficient of drag (Cd) of bikes
Wind screen may increase the aerodynamics
Rolling Resistance Force (Frr)
• Tires form a flat area where they contact the
road
• Rolling resistance is proportional to the
component of weight normal to the surface
Frr  Mg Frr  Crr Mg

Rolling Resistance Force (Frr)
Rolling resistance is composed primarily of
F  C Mg
rr rr
• Resistance from tire deformation (90%)
• Tire penetration and surface compression ( 4%)
Substituting the units •Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel ( 6%)
•Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance
Fg α mass x acceleration
due to gravity
= kg * (m/s)2
=N
Gradient Resistance Force (Fg)
•Climbing upward requires more energy which is proportional
to the gradient angle.
• Grade Resistance is component of Gravitational force acting
on the vehicle against its motion parallel to road surface
.
Fg  mg sin  g
Substituting the units
Fg α mass x acceleration due to
gravity
= kg * (m/s)2
=N
Gradient Resistance Force (Fg)
Fg  mg sin  g
.
Lifting a car vertically

means angle = 900
So Fg = mg = weight
of the car
Acceleration Resistance Force (Frr)
An asteroid moving in space would just offer resistance
to acceleration unlike vehicles on the road.
For this truck to accelerate, the

Tractive force should be more
than total resistance.
Now lets use the equations for a Tesla Model s
Tesla weighs 2000kgs with a torque of 920lb-ft at the wheels and assume air density at
sea level of 1.22kg/m3.
a. Find the rolling resistance if coefficient of rolling resistance is 0.01
b. Find the air drag if coefficient of air drag is 0.21 at 60KMPH
c. gradient resistance if the inclination is 50
d. Find the acceleration at 60KMPH if the motor produces tractive effort is 800N at
the wheels.
frontal area = 80% of

(1.964m X 1.445m) =
2.27m2
a. Rolling resistance:
F rolling = Crr * M * g = 0.01*2000kg*9.81m/s2
=196.2N (20kg force )
b. Aerodynamic drag, Faero= 0.5 * Cd * Af * ρ * V 2
=0.5 * .21 * 2.27 * 1.22 * (60 *1000m/3600seconds)2 =80 N ( 8kg
force)
c. Gradient resistance: Fg = M * g * sin α
= 2000kg * 9.81 * sin50
= 1709 N ( 170kg force )
Lets get the math behind acceleration
Total resistance = 196.2 N + 80 N + 1709 N = 1985N ( approx 200kg force )
Vehicle will be at constant velocity if tractive force is equal to total resistance. but
the tractive force exceeds the resistive forces and accelerates the vehicle.
The P100D outputs 588 hp (438 kW) and
920 lb⋅ft (1,247 N⋅m) torque on a dyno
265/35R21 tyre
21’’ is .533 m
35% of .265m = 0.0927 so radius is (0.533/2)+0.0927
R = 0.3592m or 35.92 cm
Lets get the math behind acceleration
265/35R21 tyre
Effective diameter = C + B
21’’ is .533 m + 35% of .265m = 0.365m or 36.5 cm
Force at the wheels = torque / wheel effective radius
= 1247.35Nm /0.365 m = 3417N
The excess force = 3417N – 1985N = 1432N ( approx pulling force of 61kg force )
1432 N = 2000kg * acceleration a

acceleration a = 0.716 m/s2
To find the maximum speed on level road
The vehicle speed keeps increasing until the air drag and the rolling
resistance is equal to tractive force.
Tractive force or Force at the wheels = torque / wheel effective radius
= 1247.35Nm /0.365 m = 3417N
Total resistance = Air Drag + 196.2 N = Tractive force = 3417N
British man sets new cycling speed record of more than
174mph
To find the maximum speed on level road
At max speed tractive force is equal to total resistance and there is no excess force
for acceleration.
Total resistance = 3417N = air drag + 196.2 N
Air drag = , Faero= 0.5 * Cd * Af * ρ * V 2 = 3417N – 196.2N = 3220.8N
V 2 = 3220/ (0.5 * Cd * Af * ρ )
V 2 = 3220/ (0.5 * .21 * 2.27 * 1.22)
V 2 = 3220 / (0.5 * .21 * 2.27 * 1.22)
V = 105.24m/s X3600s/1000 or 378KMPH ( tesla claims 250KMPH )
The Cd – coefficient of drag increases with speed and therefore it has led to this error.
Why this error:

Cd is not constant it increases with speed.
Taking the Cd of 0.3 for higher speeds we get
Max speed = 291 KMPH
But the biggest mistake is considering the
peak torque for calculating tractive force.
peak torque can not be used for computing
max velocity.
Making a correction in Torque
Taking the torque a peak speed to be 40% of the
maximum torque
Torque at max speed = 40% of 1247Nm
=0.4 X 1247.35Nm
= 499Nm
Force at the wheels = torque / wheel effective
radius
= 499Nm /0.365 m =
1366N
Total resistance = 1366N = air drag + 196.2 N
The excess force = 1366N – 196.2N(rolling resistance)

= 1170N ( approx pulling force of 120kg force )
Air drag = , Faero= 0.5 * Cd * Af * ρ * V 2 = 1170N
V 2 = 1170N/ (0.5 * Cd * Af * ρ )
V 2 = 1170/ (0.5 * .21 * 2.27 * 1.22)
V = 63.45m/s X3600s/1000 = 228KM/hr( tesla claims 250KMPH )

MCQ
Q: Locomotive using steel wheels on steel rails and lined up with coaches one
behind the other will benefit by __________.
a. Low gradient resistance
b. Low rolling resistance
c. Lower air drag
d. both b and C
Q: Air drag is _________
a. Proportional to square of the vehicle speed,
b. Proportional to vehicle speed,
c. Proportional to projected area,
d. Both a and b
Q: Drag Force predominantly depends upon ____
i)Velocity ii) Frontal area iii) Coefficient of drag iv) All the above
Q: Coefficient of air drag of most of the cars which are similar to tesla is
around _____
i)0.1 ii)0.3 iii) 0.8 iv) none of these
MCQ
Q: Rolling resistance for a car with 1000kg mass is in the order of __________
i)10N ii)100N iii)1000N iv)None of these
Battery terminologies
• State of charge (SoC) is the level of charge of an electric battery
relative to its capacity.
• Nominal Cell Voltage - The average voltage a cell outputs when
charged. The nominal voltage of a battery depends on the
chemical reaction behind it. For Li ion battery nominal voltage is
3.7V- 4.2V per cell.
• Capacity or Nominal Capacity (Ah for a specific C-rate)
Observe the battery pack capacity
• Energy storage
capacity is
measured in
kilowatt-hours
(kWh).
Battery Pack
• The Tesla 85 kWh battery pack weighs 1,200 lb (540 kg)
• Contains 7,104 lithium-ion battery cells
• In 16 modules wired in series (14 in the flat section and two stacked on the
front). Each module contains 6 groups of 74 cells wired in parallel; the 6 groups
are then wired in series within the module.
Battery Pack
Can u determine the number of cells used for this
scooter, Energy capacity of the battery.
Can 1C rating of the

cell satisfy the
power
requirement
Discharge rate or C rate:
• A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which
a battery is discharged relative to its
maximum capacity.
• A 1C rate means that the discharge
current will discharge the entire battery in
1 hour.
• For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-
hrs, this equates to a discharge current of
100 Amps. Higher the C rate, less the
current you can draw from a battery.
Discharge rate or C rate:
• A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which
a battery is discharged relative to its
maximum capacity.
• A 1C rate means that the discharge
current will discharge the entire battery in
1 hour.
• For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-
hrs, this equates to a discharge current of
100 Amps. Higer the C rate, less the
current you can draw from a battery.
Energy or Nominal Energy or Battery

capacity (Wh (for a specific C-rate)) –
• The “energy capacity” of the battery, the
total Watt-hours available
• 2 batteries just can not be compared with
Ah rating. Wh is more meaningful.
Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD) – The number of discharge-charge cycles the
battery can experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria.
• Tesla claims 3000 to 5000 cycles
Specific Energy density (Wh/kg) –
• The nominal battery energy per unit mass.
determines the battery weight required to achieve a given electric range.
Specific Power density (W/kg)
• The maximum available power per unit mass.
• Relates to maximum acceleration
Nandakumar M B, Dept of Automobile Engineering, DSCE, Bangalore Battery terminologies
Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD) – The number of discharge-charge cycles the
battery can experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria.
• Tesla claims 3000 to 5000 cycles
Specific Energy density (Wh/kg) –
• The nominal battery energy per unit mass.
determines the battery weight required to achieve a given electric range.
Specific Power density (W/kg)
• The maximum available power per unit mass.
• Relates to maximum acceleration
Comparison of Specific Energy density (Wh/kg)
and Specific Power density (W/kg)
• capacitors and Flywheels can absorb/deliver huge power in short time.
Therefore can be used to store energy during braking of a vehicle since
batteries have limited charging rate capacity.
Comparison of Volumetric Energy density (Wh/L)
and Volumetric Power density (W/L)
Volumetric Energy
Density (Wh/L) : The
nominal battery energy
per unit volume.
determines the battery
size required to achieve
a given electric range.
Volumetric Power Density
(W/L) – The maximum
available power per
unit volume. It
determines the battery
size required to achieve
a given performance
target.
Comparison of specific energy or energy density of
Petrol to battery.
In terms of kWh per weight, a battery generates only 10 percent of what fossil
fuel produces.
• One kilogram (1.4 liter, 0.37 gallons) of petrol yields roughly 15kWh of
energy.
• whereas a 1kg battery delivers about 150Wh.
• However, the electric motor is 90 percent efficient while a modern ICE
comes in at about 25 percent.
• So 1 litre of petrol is equal to 10kg battery.
Relation between capacity of the battery and range of the vehicle.
MCQ
Q:12v battery with 5Ah rating has a load which needs 5W. How long can this
sustain the load assuming 75% discharge capacity?
a. 12hours b. 9 hours c. 2.5 hours d. none of these.
Q:Lead acid batteries are not preferred for EV’s since _______
a) They have low specific power b) They have low energy density c) They have
low depth of discharge d) all of these.
Q:12v battery with 5Ah rating has a C rating of 4. What is the maximum current
that can be drawn from the battery.
a. 5A b. 4A c. 20A d. 48A
Q: Which of the following batteries has a nominal voltage of 4.2V.
a. lead acid battery. b. NiCd c. NiMH d. Li-ion
Q: The ratio of remaining capacity to the total battery capacity is defined as
______
i)State of charge ii)State of current iii) State of battery iv) State of Health
Discharge of batteries.
• Battery delivers almost constant power throughout

Discharge of batteries.
• The electrochemical battery has the advantage over other energy storage
devices in that the energy stays high during most of the charge and then
drops rapidly as the charge depletes.
• The supercapacitor has a linear discharge
• Compressed air and a flywheel storage device is the inverse of the battery by
delivering the highest power at the beginning.
tesla battery and its location
The batteries constitute 40%
weight of the car and they are
placed in a car as close to the
ground to keep centre of
gravity as low as possible.
This minimize roll over
tendencies and improves
handling of the car.
Popularly known as skate
board chassis
Range of tesla – Battery capacity, Range
What does 100kWH battery mean to you
Do you know this Just to give you an idea
palace which uses This 100kWh battery can light up this for 6 minutes
98000 bulbs with this 10W led bulb
- No surprise that 100kWh tesla battery costs 25k usd
= 20 Lakh indian rupees.
Battery Pack - battery management system (BMS)
• To maintain the safety and reliability of

the battery, charge control. Provides
protection against overcharge and deep
discharge.
• parameters such as Depth of Discharge
can be set.
• state monitoring and evaluation, and cell
balancing functionalities.
Reverse Engineer the Range calculation for Tesla
To find the range on a flat road Using the same data previously used for
100kWh battery
Taking depth of discharge as 80% and battery with DC to AC conversion
efficiency is 90% and motor efficiency at 92%
The loss in power available for traction = 100kWh * 0.8 * 0.92 * 0.9
power available for traction = 66.24kWh
a. Rolling resistance: F rolling =196.2N

Faero =0.5 * .21 * 2.27 * 1.22 * (60 *1000m/3600seconds)2 = 80 N ( 8kg force)
c. Gradient resistance: Fg = M * g * sin α = no resistance for flat

road.
Total resistance = 196.2 N + 80 N + 0 N = 276N ( 28kg force)

• Energy = 66.24kWh
• 1 kWh is called as 1 unit ( for example in Electricity bills)
Watt is the unit of power

Power is defined as the rate of work done, i.e., Power = Work done /Time
1 Watt = 1 Joule/sec
Joule is unit of work done

1 Joule = 1N of force through a distance of 1m
1 Joule = 1N X 1m = 1Nm
Therefore 1W = 1Nm/s
Energy or Work capacity available in the battery = 66240WH
= 66240Nm/s *3600s
Workdone in moving the vehicle
= Force required to move the vehicle X distance
through which the vehicle is moved
At constant speed of 60KMPH the vehicle will have a total resistance of 276 N
work done in moving the car by X metre is = Force * distance = 276N * X metre =
energy provided by the battery pack = 66.24kW
energy provided by the battery pack = 66.24kW
276 N * Range in metres = 66240WH = 66240Nm/s *3600s
Range in meters = 864000m or 864 KM in a flat road with constant 60KMPH.
But Tesla claims 628kM per charge

but in city driving situations of braking and accelerating the range will still go
down.
Driving cycle
Find the Range of Ather on flat road
• Battery Capacity = 2kWh
• Vehicle Weight = 108 Kg
• Vehicle Weight with the rider =
200kg
• Battery Capacity = Wh = Ah X V
• Battery capacity = 42.4Ah X 51 V
=19.62N (2kg force )
Find the Range of Ather on flat road at 36 KMPH
• Frontal projected area = height X Width

• Height = 1.25m + 0.75 m = 2m
• Frontal projected area = height X Width
• Frontal projected area = 2m X 0.7m = 1.4m2
=0.5 * 0.6 * 1.4 * 1.22 * (36 *1000m/3600seconds)2 =5.12 N ( 0.5kg
force)
Find the Range of Ather on flat road at 36 KMPH
=0.5 * 0.6 * 1.4 * 1.22 * (36 *1000m/3600seconds)2 =5.12 N ( 0.5kg force)
Total resistance= 24.744 N = 25N = Resistance to move scooter
energy provided by the battery pack = 2kW
25N * Range in metres = 2000WH = 2000Nm/s *3600s
Range in meters = 7200000Nm / 25N
Range in meters = 288000m or 288 KM in a flat road with constant 36KMPH.
But Ather Claims 116kM per charge
Where do you think we have gone wrong?

Riding position will effect range
Kitna deta hai – Rs/Km for a tesla
• 1 kWh is equal to using
1000W geyser for 1 hour
• 1 kWh is called 1 unit which costs Rs 2.5

• So for charging 100kWh battery of tesla it costs Rs
250
• Tesla model s has a range of 628kM for 100kWH
charge
• so 250Rs / 628km = 39Paisa per kM
Kitna deta hai – Rs/Km for a Ather
For a ather scooter range of 60km for full charge
Battery capacity = 42.4Ah X 51.1V = 2116.64Wh or

2.1kWh = 2.1 units
Cost for full charge = 2.1 X Rs2.5 = Rs5.25
Cost per kM is = Rs 5.25/60 = 8 paisa /kM

Kitna deta hai – Rs/Km for a Ather
Battery – used in parallel with Fuel cells
Comparison of BEV and Fuel cell(hydrogen)
Comparison of BEV and Fuel cell(hydrogen)
Tesla uses _______ type of lithium ion cells

i) Prismatic ii) Pouch iii) cylindrical iv) None of these
Q: Choose the incorrect statement wrt a fuel cell car
a. Fuel cell cars store hydrogen in tanks
b. Fuel cells are used in addition to batteries to increase the
range
c. Fuel cells combust hydrogen
d. Fuel cells generally use oxygen from atmosphere.
Super Capacitors
• Supercapacitors are electric storage • high-capacity capacitor with

devices which can be recharged very capacitance values much higher
quickly and release a large amount of than other capacitors
power.
• In the automotive market they
cannot yet compete with Li-ion
batteries in terms of energy content,
but their capacity is improving every
year.
• They are already used as ancillary
devices to store energy from braking
and to provide the necessary boost
during quick accelerations, ultimately
increasing the efficiency of the
vehicle
Sustainable System

Resistance To Motion and Battery Terminology - 221017 - 071750

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Resistance To Motion and Battery Terminology - 221017 - 071750

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Session 2: Resistance to vehicle motion and

Calculations related to Vehicle performance.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL

F  Faccel  Faero  Frr  Fg

Tractive Effort? Force that pushes the vehicle

• Assuming the rated speed as 1200 and

F  Faccel  Faero  Frr  Fg

Aerodynamic drag force (Faero)

Substituting the units

Aerodynamic drag coefficient (Cd)

Shape drag: Is due to the shape of the

Anything moving in a medium will

Cyclists conserve energy in every possible way – similarly electric

Frr  Mg Frr  Crr Mg

Lifting a car vertically

For this truck to accelerate, the

frontal area = 80% of

1432 N = 2000kg * acceleration a

Why this error:

Total resistance = 1366N = air drag + 196.2 N

The excess force = 1366N – 196.2N(rolling resistance)

V = 63.45m/s X3600s/1000 = 228KM/hr( tesla claims 250KMPH )

Can 1C rating of the

Energy or Nominal Energy or Battery

• Battery delivers almost constant power throughout

• To maintain the safety and reliability of

a. Rolling resistance: F rolling =196.2N

b. Aerodynamic drag, Faero= 0.5 * Cd * Af * ρ * V 2

c. Gradient resistance: Fg = M * g * sin α = no resistance for flat

Total resistance = 196.2 N + 80 N + 0 N = 276N ( 28kg force)

Watt is the unit of power

Joule is unit of work done

Range in meters = 864000m or 864 KM in a flat road with constant 60KMPH.

But Tesla claims 628kM per charge

• Frontal projected area = height X Width

But Ather Claims 116kM per charge

Where do you think we have gone wrong?

• 1 kWh is called 1 unit which costs Rs 2.5

Battery capacity = 42.4Ah X 51.1V = 2116.64Wh or

Cost per kM is = Rs 5.25/60 = 8 paisa /kM

Tesla uses _______ type of lithium ion cells

• Supercapacitors are electric storage • high-capacity capacitor with

You might also like