APA Handbook of

Research Methods
in Psychology
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology: Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative,

Neuropsychological, and Biological, edited by H. Cooper, M. N. Coutanche, L. M. McMullen, A. T.
Panter, D. Rindskopf, and K. J. Sher
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 APA Handbooks in Psychology

APA Handbook of

Research Methods
in Psychology
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

SECOND EDITION

VOLUME 2

Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative,

Neuropsychological, and Biological

Harris Cooper, Editor-in-Chief

Marc N. Coutanche, Linda M. McMullen, A. T. Panter,
David Rindskopf, and Kenneth J. Sher, Associate Editors
 Copyright © 2023 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved. Except as permitted
under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed
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stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

The opinions and statements published are the responsibility of the authors and editors, and such opinions
and statements do not necessarily represent the policies of the American Psychological Association.

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Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Cooper, Harris M., editor. | American Psychological Association, issuer.

Title: APA handbook of research methods in psychology / editor-in-Chief
   Harris Cooper; associate editors Marc N. Coutanche, Linda M. McMullen,
   A.T. Panter, David Rindskopf, and Kenneth J. Sher
Description: Second Edition. | Washington, DC : American Psychological
   Association, [2023-] | Series: APA handbooks in psychology | Revised
   edition of APA handbook of research methods in psychology, c2012. |
   Includes bibliographical references and index. | Contents: v. 1.
   Foundations, planning, measures, and psychometrics -- v. 2. Research designs:
   quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological -- v. 3. Data
   analysis and research publication
Identifiers: LCCN 2022020492 (print) | LCCN 2022020493 (ebook) | ISBN
   9781433837135 (v. 1 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781433841330 (v. 2 ; hardcover) |
   ISBN 9781433841354 (v. 3 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781433841323 (v. 1 ; ebook) |
   ISBN 9781433841347 (v. 2 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781433841361 (v. 3 ; ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology--Research--Methodology--Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
   Psychology--Research--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC BF76.5 .A73 2023 (print) | LCC BF76.5 (ebook) |
  DDC 150.72/1--dc23/eng/20220802
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022020492
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022020493

https://doi.org/10.1037/0000319-000

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Volume 2: Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative,

Neuropsychological, and Biological
Editorial Board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Part I. Qualitative Research Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Section 1. Overview of Qualitative Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1. Developments in Qualitative Inquiry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Sarah Riley and Andrea LaMarre
Chapter 2. Metasynthesis of Qualitative Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sally Thorne

Section 2. Thematic Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Chapter 3. Grounded Theory and Psychological Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Robert Thornberg, Elaine Keane, and Malgorzata Wójcik
Chapter 4. Thematic Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke
Chapter 5. Phenomenological Methodology, Methods, and Procedures
for Research in Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Frederick J. Wertz

Section 3. Narrative and Language-Based Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Chapter 6. Narrative Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Javier Monforte and Brett Smith
Chapter 7. Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Paul ten Have
Chapter 8. Discourse Analysis and Discursive Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Chris McVittie and Andy McKinlay

vii
 Contents

Section 4. Multilayered Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Chapter 9. Ethnography in Psychological Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Elizabeth Fein and Jonathan Yahalom
Chapter 10. Visual Research in Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Paula Reavey, Jon Prosser, and Steven D. Brown
Chapter 11. Researching the Temporal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Karen Henwood and Fiona Shirani

Part II. Working Across Epistemologies, Methodologies, and Methods. . . . . . . . . . 233

Chapter 12. Mixed Methods Research in Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Timothy C. Guetterman and Analay Perez
Chapter 13. The “Cases Within Trials” (CWT) Method: An Example
of a Mixed Methods Research Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Daniel B. Fishman
Chapter 14. Researching With American Indian and Alaska Native Communities:
Pursuing Partnerships for Psychological Inquiry in Service
to Indigenous Futurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Joseph P. Gone
Chapter 15. Participatory Action Research as Movement Toward Radical
Relationality, Epistemic Justice, and Transformative Intervention:
A Multivocal Reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Urmitapa Dutta, Jesica Siham Fernández, Anne Galletta,
and Regina Day Langhout

Part III. Sampling Across People and Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Chapter 16. Introduction to Survey Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Roger Tourangeau and Ting Yan
Chapter 17. Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Rumi Kato Price and Heidi H. Tastet
Chapter 18. Collecting Longitudinal Data: Present Issues and Future Challenges. . . . . 385
Simran K. Johal, Rohit Batra, and Emilio Ferrer
Chapter 19. Using the Internet to Collect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Ulf-Dietrich Reips

Part IV. Building and Testing Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

Chapter 20. Statistical Mediation Analysis in Psychological Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
David P. MacKinnon, JeeWon Cheong, Angela G. Pirlott,
and Heather L. Smyth
Chapter 21. Structural Equation Modeling With Latent Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Rick H. Hoyle and Nisha C. Gottfredson
Chapter 22. Mathematical Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Parker Smith, Yanjun Liu, James T. Townsend, and Trisha Van Zandt
Chapter 23. Computational Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Adele Diederich
Chapter 24. Fundamentals of Bootstrapping and Monte Carlo Methods. . . . . . . . . . . 537
William Howard Beasley, Patrick O’Keefe, and Joseph Lee Rodgers

viii
 Contents

Chapter 25. Designing Simulation Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

Xitao Fan
Chapter 26. Bayesian Modeling for Psychologists: An Applied Approach. . . . . . . . . . 579
Fred M. Feinberg and Richard Gonzalez

Part V. Designs Involving Experimental Manipulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605

Section 1. Designs With Different Participant Assignment Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . 607
Chapter 27. Randomized Designs in Psychological Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Larry Christensen, Lisa A. Turner, and R. Burke Johnson
Chapter 28. Nonequivalent Comparison Group Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Henry May and Zachary K. Collier
Chapter 29. Regression Discontinuity Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Charles S. Reichardt and Gary T. Henry

Section 2. Experimental Manipulations in Applied Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Chapter 30. Treatment Validity for Intervention Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Dianne L. Chambless and Steven D. Hollon

Chapter 31. Translational Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Michael T. Bardo, Christopher Cappelli, and Mary Ann Pentz
Chapter 32. Program Evaluation: Outcomes and Costs of Putting
Psychology to Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
Brian T. Yates

Part VI. Quantitative Research Designs Involving Single Participants or Units . . . . . 745
Chapter 33. Single-Case Experimental Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
John M. Ferron, Megan Kirby, and Lodi Lipien
Chapter 34. Time Series Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Bradley J. Bartos, Richard McCleary, and David McDowall

Part VII. Designs in Neuropsychology and Biological Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785

Section 1. Neuropsychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
Chapter 35. Case Studies in Neuropsychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Randi C. Martin, Simon Fischer-Baum, and Corinne M. Pettigrew
Chapter 36. Group Studies in Experimental Neuropsychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
Avinash R. Vaidya, Maia S. Pujara, and Lesley K. Fellows

Section 2. Genetic Methods in Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825

Chapter 37. Genetic Methods in Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
Terrell A. Hicks, Daniel Bustamante, Karestan C. Koenen,
Nicole R. Nugent, and Ananda B. Amstadter
Chapter 38. Human Genetic Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
Floris Huider, Lannie Ligthart, Yuri Milaneschi,
Brenda W. J. H. Penninx, and Dorret I. Boomsma

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873

ix
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
 Editorial Board

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Harris Cooper, PhD, Hugo L. Blomquist Professor, Emeritus, Department of Psychology
and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Marc N. Coutanche, PhD, Associate Professor of Psychology, and Research Scientist in
the Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
PA, United States
Linda M. McMullen, PhD, Professor Emerita, Department of Psychology, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
A. T. Panter, PhD, Senior Associate Dean for Undergraduate Education, College of Arts
and Sciences, and Professor, L. L. Thurstone Psychometric Laboratory, The University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
David Rindskopf, PhD, Distinguished Professor of Educational Psychology and
Psychology, City University of New York Graduate Center, New York, NY, United States
Kenneth J. Sher, PhD, Chancellor’s Professor, Curators’ Distinguished Professor of
Psychological Sciences, Emeritus, Department of Psychological Sciences, University of
Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States

xi
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
 Contributors

Ananda B. Amstadter, PhD, Department of Psychiatry and the Virginia Institute

for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University,
Richmond, VA, United States
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Michael T. Bardo, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington,

KY, United States
Bradley J. Bartos, PhD, School of Government and Public Policy, University of Arizona,
Tucson, AZ, United States
Rohit Batra, MSc, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA,
United States
William Howard Beasley, PhD, Department of Pediatrics, University of Oklahoma
Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
Dorret I. Boomsma, PhD, Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Virginia Braun, PhD, School of Psychology, The University of Auckland, Auckland,
New Zealand
Steven D. Brown, PhD, Department of Management, Nottingham Trent University,
Nottingham, England
Daniel Bustamante, PhD candidate, Center for Life Sciences Education, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
Christopher Cappelli, PhD, Department of Health and Human Sciences, Frank R. Seaver
College of Science and Engineering, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA,
United States
Dianne L. Chambless, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA, United States
JeeWon Cheong, PhD, Department of Health Education and Behavior, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Larry Christensen, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama,
Mobile, AL, United States
Victoria Clarke, PhD, Department of Health and Social Sciences, University of the
West of England, Bristol, England
Zachary K. Collier, PhD, College of Education and Human Development, University
of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States

xiii
 Contributors

Adele Diederich, PhD, Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University
Bremen, Bremen, Germany
Urmitapa Dutta, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell,
MA, United States
Xitao Fan, PhD, Department of Educational Psychology, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong SAR, China
Elizabeth Fein, PhD, Department of Psychology, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA,
United States
Fred M. Feinberg, PhD, Stephen M. Ross School of Business and Department of
Statistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
Lesley K. Fellows, MDCM, DPhil, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery,
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
Jesica Siham Fernández, PhD, Department of Ethnic Studies, Santa Clara University,
Santa Clara, CA, United States
Emilio Ferrer, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA,
United States
John M. Ferron, PhD, Department of Educational and Psychological Studies, College of
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Education, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States

Simon Fischer-Baum, PhD, Department of Psychological Sciences, Rice University,
Houston, TX, United States
Daniel B. Fishman, PhD, Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, United States
Anne Galletta, PhD, Department of Curriculum and Foundations, Cleveland State
University, Cleveland, OH, United States
Joseph P. Gone, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA;
Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston,
MA, United States
Richard Gonzalez, PhD, Departments of Psychology and Statistics, Institute for Social
Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
Nisha C. Gottfredson, PhD, Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global
Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC,
United States
Timothy C. Guetterman, PhD, Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, MI, United States
Gary T. Henry, PhD, College of Education and Human Development, University of
Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
Karen Henwood, PhD, School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales
Terrell A. Hicks, MS, Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University,
Richmond, VA, United States
Steven D. Hollon, PhD, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN,
United States
Rick H. Hoyle, PhD, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University,
Durham, NC, United States
Floris Huider, PhD candidate, Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Simran K. Johal, MA, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis,
CA, United States

xiv
 Contributors

R. Burke Johnson, PhD, Department of Counseling and Instructional Sciences,

University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, United States
Elaine Keane, PhD, School of Education, National University of Ireland, Galway,
Ireland
Megan Kirby, PhD, Department of Child and Family Studies, University of South
Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
Karestan C. Koenen, PhD, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA,
United States
Andrea LaMarre, PhD, School of Psychology, Massey University, Auckland,
New Zealand
Regina Day Langhout, PhD, Psychology Department, University of California,
Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, United States
Lannie Ligthart, PhD, Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Lodi Lipien, MSPH, Department of Educational and Psychological Studies, College of
Education, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
Yanjun Liu, PhD, Department of Psychological Sciences, Vanderbilt University,
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Nashville, TN, United States

David P. MacKinnon, PhD, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University,
Tempe, AZ, United States
Randi C. Martin, PhD, Department of Psychological Sciences, Rice University,
Houston, TX, United States
Henry May, PhD, Center for Research in Education and Social Policy (CRESP),
University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
Richard McCleary, PhD, School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine,
Irvine, CA, United States
David McDowall, PhD, School of Criminal Justice, University at Albany, Albany, NY,
United States
Andy McKinlay, PhD, School of Philosophy, Psychology, and Language Sciences,
The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
Chris McVittie, PhD, Division of Psychology, Sociology, and Education, Queen Margaret
University, Edinburgh, Scotland
Yuri Milaneschi, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Javier Monforte, PhD, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Durham University,
Durham, England
Nicole R. Nugent, PhD, Bradley Hasbro Children’s Research Center and The Warren
Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
Patrick O’Keefe, PhD, Department of Neurology, Oregon Health and Science University,
Portland, OR, United States
Brenda W. J. H. Penninx, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije
Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Mary Ann Pentz, PhD, Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research,
Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
Analay Perez, PhD candidate, Department of Educational Psychology, University of
Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States

xv
 Contributors

Corinne M. Pettigrew, PhD, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University

School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
Angela G. Pirlott, PhD, Department of Psychology, Saint Xavier University, Chicago, IL,
United States
Rumi Kato Price, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of
Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
Jon Prosser, PhD, Independent Scholar, Leeds, England
Maia S. Pujara, PhD, Department of Psychology, Sarah Lawrence College, Bronxville,
NY, United States
Paula Reavey, PhD, Department of Psychology, London South Bank University, London,
England
Charles S. Reichardt, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Denver,
CO, United States
Ulf-Dietrich Reips, PhD, Research Methods, Assessment, and iScience, Department of
Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
Sarah Riley, PhD, School of Psychology, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
Joseph Lee Rodgers, PhD, Department of Psychology and Human Development,
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States

Fiona Shirani, PhD, School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales
Brett Smith, PhD, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Durham University,
Durham, England
Parker Smith, BS, Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen,
Germany
Heather L. Smyth, PhD, Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School
of Public Health, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO,
United States
Heidi H. Tastet, MD, Complete Care Clinic, Division of General Medicine, Department
of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis,
MO, United States
Paul ten Have, PhD, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of
Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (retired)
Robert Thornberg, PhD, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping
University, Linköping, Sweden
Sally Thorne, PhD, RN, School of Nursing, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC,
Canada
Roger Tourangeau, PhD, Westat, Rockville, MD, United States
James T. Townsend, PhD, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana
University, Bloomington, IN, United States
Lisa A. Turner, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
AL, United States
Avinash R. Vaidya, PhD, Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological
Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
Trisha Van Zandt, PhD, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH, United States
Frederick J. Wertz, PhD, Department of Psychology, Fordham University, New York,
NY, United States

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 Contributors

Malgorzata Wójcik, PhD, Department of Social and Organizational Behavior Psychology,

SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
Jonathan Yahalom, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Los Angeles,
Los Angeles, CA, United States
Ting Yan, PhD, Westat, Rockville, MD, United States
Brian T. Yates, PhD, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC,
United States
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

xvii
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Part I

METHODS
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.

Section 1

OVERVIEW OF
QUALITATIVE METHODS
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.