DIVISION OF

TEACHER
EDUCATION

COURSE:
JBTE/COM
101English for
Communication
II

NAME OF
ASSIGNMENT:
Portfolio -
Inclusion

STUDENT ID:
1907037

DATE: April
24th, 2020

LECTURER: Ms.
Marise Butler
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Argumentative Outline

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Table of Contents
12

Introduction First Draft of the Argumentative

………………………………… Essay
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Argumentative Critique Expository Outline

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…. 4 …. 21

Argumentative Passage to be First Draft of the Expository

Critiqued……………………… Essay
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Expository Critique …………………….. 26

………………………………… Rubrics
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Expository Passage to be ……………… 30

Critiqued
 there has been many debates and

discussions concerning

segregation and inclusion.

Today, as we move to accept and

embrace differences in people,

Argumentative Critique
we must recognize that this
Introduction
acceptance and embracing must
The word Villegas (2019) 4 Common
also take place in the classroom.
'inclusion' has Arguments against Inclusive
Based on the principles and
become very Education - And Why They're
policies of Education for All,
popular in Wrong
The Ideal Caribbean Person and
educational
the Millennium Developmental Villegas' (2019) article
circles and is
Goals, inclusion must be comprises four arguments against
synonymous with
educators prime target. This inclusive education and four
the term
portfolio consists of several counter-arguments to convince
'Inclusive
pieces of writing on the theme of readers, particularly teachers, to
Education'. When
inclusion in the forms of embrace inclusive classrooms. His
educators speak
expository and argumentative argumentative techniques of
of 'inclusion',
writing. refutation, emotive language and
they are referring
structure; their effectiveness and
to a situation
overall success of this argument are
where disabled
the focal points of this critique.
and nondisabled
The main argumentative
children engage
technique used by Villegas (2019)
in learning in the
is refutation. This is evident in the
same classroom.
second argument where disabled
Consequently,
children are better argument for the final argument, counter-arguments in a concise

served classrooms argues that general education manner.

that have fewer teachers should be equipped to

Villegas (2019) article
distractions. He teach all students. Yet, Villegas
provides a brief description of
refutes this by (2019) highlights the need in
arguments and counterarguments
stating that some school districts to have
relating to inclusive education. His
nondisabled special education training for
employment of refutation, emotive
students will help 'new hires' (p.3, para.2) .
language and structure, for the most
their disabled
Villegas (2019) secondly part, prove reasonable.
peers "in a way
employs emotive language. Notwithstanding such, overall,
that's socially and
Clauses such as: "if you believe" Villegas (2019) lacks
emotionally
and "ask yourself" (p.3, para.3) sources/references, relevant
appropriate"
and his use of contractions statistical data, critical thinking and
(Villegas, (2019),
make the technique plausible by an appropriate layout for a
p. 2) This proves
strengthening the author's scholarly paper. Consequently, his
to be convincing
position. Nevertheless, the ability to convince the reader that
as it highlights
absence of reputable citations current views against inclusive
the benefit rather
denies it authoritativeness and education are wrong, proves to be
than the
thereby lessens critical thinking. futile.
drawback of

inclusive Structure is Villegas' Villegas' (2019) article "4

education. (2019) third device. This Common Arguments against

However, not all organizational technique allows Inclusive Education - And Why

the refutations all parts of the article to be They're Wrong"presents arguments

were congruous. clearly identified, while and counterarguments against

The counter- presenting the arguments and inclusive education. His

argumentative
st Inclusive
techniques,and
the argument's
Education—
And Why
overall
effectiveness They're
were discussed in Wrong
this critique.
Tim Villegas
September 5, 2019
Advocacy
Ask any teacher their
opinion about including
students with disabilities in
general education
classrooms, and you'll likely
hear views based either
firmly in support or staunch
opposition. The debate can
become even more heated
when you talk about
including students with more
significant disabilities like
Autism Spectrum Disorder or
Down syndrome.
Some may immediately see
Argumentative the academic, social, and
Passage to be emotional benefits that
Critiqued students with disabilities
and their nondisabled peers
receive when learning in an
4 inclusive classroom. Other
educators say that the
Comm increasing amount of time
that students with
on
disabilities spend in typical
classrooms is detrimental to
the future of education.
Argum Truthfully, the
ents implementation of a fully
inclusive education model is
not easy to accomplish and
Again without the proper support,
can be unsuccessful. When
teachers raise objections to
the practice of inclusion, it may
be because they've seen it fail
firsthand. It's also possible that
they may have experienced
what they thought was
"inclusion" but really, was a
situation in which educators
put disabled and nondisabled
students together and hoped
for the best.
Here are some of the most
common arguments teachers
use to object to inclusive
education—with counter-
arguments to prove that in
many cases, they're not
exactly right.
Students with
disabilities take
too much time
away from their
nondisabled
peers.
Imagine an elementary school
classroom of 30 students, one-
third of whom require
specialized services, otherwise
known as "special education."
In cases like this, many doubt
that a teacher can provide
adequate support to ten
students with Individualized
Education Programs while
delivering lessons to general
education students.
This argument
assumes that students
with disabilities are so
different that they
require distinctly
unique students. In this setting, all interventions to a particular
students can benefit from group. In reality, the space
instruction the additional educational tailors to a homogenous group
al methods. support and resources while of disabled students. It mostly
teachers can create fails to deliver the models for
The truth stronger, more well-rounded communication and behavior
is,special lessons and better balance that are necessary to help
education their workload. students with disabilities learn
doesn't have to how to navigate a given
mean a situation best.
different or
separate
A safe Instead, teachers can often
education.
Research-based
classroom find these models in inclusive
classrooms. Here, nondisabled
reading, environment students can help students
blended with disabilities become
learning, and with fewer comfortable communicating
behavior their needs and interact with
intervention distractions others in a way that's socially
strategies like and emotionally appropriate.
offering
better serves Inclusive classrooms also
feedback and
continuously
students with foster an environment in which
differences are acknowledged
monitoring significant and respected, and special and
progress work general education teachers
for students disabilities. plan for the success of all
with disabilities students.
and This argument focuses on
nondisabled whether placement within a
students. general education classroom
is "appropriate" for students
Students with
Co-teaching is with more significant
another
disabilities won't
disabilities. In other words,
essential piece it supports the belief that a get anything out
to providing the small special education
support needed classroom with fewer of general
in an inclusive students and distractions is
classroom. This better suited for students education.
practice is with special needs.
defined through A common argument against
teacher inclusion is that students with
The problem? A self-
collaboration more significant disabilities
and often contained classroom don't belong in a general
implemented rarely delivers the education classroom because
when general they "won't get anything out of
and special
outcomes that it it." Typical examples include
education promises touts. algebra, world history, or
teachers work foreign language class.
together to This type of classroom,
share the especially when specific to This argument makes
responsibilities disabilities like autism,
of planning, seems reasonable as it me wonder, what does
instructing, and devotes a concentration of any typically
assessing specialized support and
developing student get
out of a student unless every
possible supportive aide and
classes appropriate service has been Inclusion is hard.
that they exhausted.
Do it anyway.
think are
boring or Schools across the country
irrelevant? General practice inclusive education to
ensure students with and
Students with
education without disabilities receive the
maximum benefit of their
and without teachers didn't education. If you believe that
disabilities
come in various go to school to
all students deserve to live,
learn, and play in a diverse and
shapes, sizes,
and abilities— work with
welcoming environment, ask
yourself how you can move
which makes
the social,
students with toward inclusive practices—no
matter how impossible the
emotional, and disabilities.
barriers may seem.
educational
benefits of a
If you are a teacher, you
general
signed up to teach all
education
students, not nondisabled
classroom
students only. In this
exceptional.
respect, teaching programs
Modifying
fail their students when they
content to suit
don't set expectations that
inclusive
they'll face a wide variety of
instruction
student abilities in their
focuses on
classrooms.
using
alternative
methods to Fortunately, the
engage all expectation is there
students and
provide them
for most recent
with more graduates of
control over education programs,
how they learn.
some of which have
If you didn't completed dual
know, the certification in
Individuals with
Disabilities
general and special
Education Act education.
(IDEA) does not Expository Critique
mandate that This certification provides
with disabilities them with intervention
have to "keep strategies to work with all
up" with their students, not just those who
peers within an qualify for special education Hasan, M., Halder, U. K., &
inclusive services. Some states and Debnath, D. (2018). Inclusive
classroom. school districts require their Education and Education For All.
Teachers new hires to have special
International Journal of
cannot remove education training.
Research and their effectiveness are the foci in be very effective as it offers readers
Analytical
Reviews. 5(3), this critique. a channel through which
605-608
information can be verified and
The first expository
further explored. It also adds to the
device used by the authors is
Hassan,
authors' genuineness in producing
structure. The physical layout
Halder and
the article.
reflects that of a well written,
Debnath (2018)
scholarly paper. Clear, definitive Third device used was
article shows the
definitions and sub - titles are citations. Several citations are made
relation between
used to introduce various that are not only reputable but
Inclusive
subsections of the article. The relevant to the topic. For example,
Education and
paragraphs are well structured UNESCO ( 2000) and Ainscow
Education For All
and there is a smooth flow of (1999) are used to speak of the
to inform
continuity in ideas throughout improvement needed in the quality
education policy
the article. One section feeds of education. This also proves to be
makers of the
directly into another. This very effective and further
need to
techniques proves to be quite consolidates the use of factual
implement
effective since readers are able information.
inclusive
to connect previous thoughts
education in
with present ones.
order to achieve
The article shows an
the goal of A second device used is
expository piece that employs the
education for all. factual information. The authors
use of structure, factual information
The authors' use build their exposition "on
and citations. The elements of
of structure, various UNESCO documents
exposition were very effective in
factual and other published articles"
aiding the authors to show that
information and (Hassan, Halder and Debnath
Inclusive Education is a critical
citations, and (2018), p. 605). This proves to
component of the

Education For All

initiative.

Hassan,

Halder and

Debnath (2018)

article entitled

"Inclusive

Education and

Education For

All"shows

inclusive

education as an
sExpository Passage to be
integrant of
Critiqued
Education for All.

The [VOLUME 5 I ISSUE 3 http://ijrar.com/

authors'devices,

and their

effectiveness

were discussed in

this critique.
 Cosmos Impact Factor 4.236
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5138

Inclusive Education and Education for All

Merajul Hasan1, Dr. Ujjwal Kumar Halder2*& Dr.Debabrata Debnath3

1Contractual Faculty, Department of Education, Raiganj University

2Assistant Professor, Department of Education, University of Gour Banga 3Associate

Professor & Head, Department of Education, University of Gour Banga* Corresponding

Author

Received: June 28 , 2018 Accepted: August 04, 2018

ABSTRACT
The Education for All (EFA) movement is a global commitment to provide quality basic education
forall children, youth and adults. Inclusive education is also a new approach towards educating the children with
diverse abilities andlearning difficulties with that of normal ones within the same manner. It seeks to address the
learning needsof all children with a specific focus on those who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion. The
focus of this paper is to explore the theoretical interrelation between the Inclusive education and Education for all and
conclude them with various UNESCO documents and other published articles. The entire documentary analysis in the
paper shows the relation between inclusive educationand Education for All with various perspectives. The paper also
shows various implications of inclusive Education as a strategy. The theoretical analysis indicates that inclusive
education as an integral part of Education for all.

Keywords: Education for All (EFA), Inclusive education, UNESCO, Theoretical interrelation.

Introduction

Education for All (EFA) is a global movement led by UNESCO, which aimed to provide quality basic
education for all children, youth and adults. International efforts to promote EFA intensified following the
first World Conference on Education for All held in Jomtien, Thailand, with its slogan of ‘EFA by the year
2000’ (UNESCO, 1990). The significance of Jomtien was its acknowledgement of the exclusion of large
numbers of vulnerable and marginalized groups of learners from education systems worldwide. It also
presented a vision of education as a much broader concept than schooling, beginning with early childhood,
emphasising women’s literacy and recognising the importance of basic literacy skills as part of lifelong
learning. This was a landmark conference towards inclusive education, even though this concept was not
widely used at that time.

Although the initial vision of EFA was broad and ambitious, the rhetoric of ‘all’ has so far failed to reach the
poorest and most disadvantaged children, including those with disabilities (Miles &Singal). With
international attention focused on achieving the Millennium Development Goals, EFA has become
increasingly focused on ensuring access to, and completion of, five years of Universal Primary Education for
all children by 2015. Yet a broader notion of all and a greater appreciation of difference in the education
system could hold the key to improving the quality of the education delivered in those five years (Ainscow,
1999).
Inclusive Education

Inclusive education is the new approach towards educating the children with diverse abilities andlearning
difficulties with that of normal ones within the same manner. It seeks to address the learning needsof all
children with a specific focus on those who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion. Itimplies all
learners- with or without disabilities being able to learn together through access to commonpreschool
provisions, schools and community educational setting with an appropriate network ofsupport services.
This is possible only in flexible education system that assimilates the needs of diverserange of learners and
adapts itself to meet these needs.

Inclusion is not an experiment to be tested but a value to be followed. All the children whetherthey are
disabled or not have the right to education as they are the future citizens of the country. In theprevailing
Indian situation resources are insufficient even to provide quality mainstream schools forcommon children,
it is unethical and impracticable to put children with special needs to test or to proveanything in a research
study to live and learn in the mainstream of school and community (Dash, 2006).

Inclusive Education and Education for All

Progress towards achieving EFA was reviewed at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000
and the following key challenge was identified:

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‘to ensure that the broad vision of Education for All as an inclusive concept is reflected in national government
and funding agency policies. Education for All… must take account of the need of the poor and the most
disadvantaged, including working children, remote rural dwellers and nomads, and ethnic and linguistic
minorities, children, young people and adults affected by conflict, HIV/AIDS, hunger and poor health; and those
with special learning needs…’ (UNESCO, 2000).

The broad vision of EFA lives on in the six EFA goals which are now articulated as:

 To expand early childhood care and education;

 Provide free and compulsory primary Education for All;

 Promote learning and life skills for young people and adults;
 Increase adult literacy by 50 per cent;

 Achieve gender equality by 2015; and

 Improve the quality of education. (UNESCO, 2000).
The commitment to EFA was reiterated in the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) developed by
the international community (United Nations, 2000). The MDGs are seen as part of a broader commitment
towards building a better world in the 21 century by eliminating global poverty, promoting gender equality,
education and environmental sustainability. The importance of education as a strategy in poverty reduction
is made explicit in these international targets which seek to end the vicious cycle of exclusion from
education leading to chronic poverty and further social exclusion.

Inclusive Education as a strategy for achieving Education for All

As a result of the World Education Forum in Dakar, 2000, the challenge of exclusion from education has
been put on the political agenda in many countries. This has helped to focus attention on a much broader
range of children who may be excluded from or marginalized within education systems because of their
apparent difficulties.These may include:

 Those who are enrolled in education but are excluded from learning
 Those who are not enrolled in schools but who could participate if schools were more flexible in
their responses and welcoming in their approach;

 The relatively small group of children with more severe impairments who may have a need for
some form of additional support.

The Dakar World Education Forum recognised the urgency to address the needs of these learners: ‘…
Education systems must be inclusive, actively seeking out children who are not enrolled, and responding
flexibly to the circumstances and needs of all learners…’

The ultimate goal of inclusive education is a school where all are participating and treated equally. However,
it is important to remember that inclusive education is a constant process to ensure that Education for All
really is for all.

When looking to reach the students who don’t participate fully, it is important to give attention to the forms
of education provided for all children, including a consideration of which children are given the opportunity
to participate in school and which children are excluded and on what basis. Care has to be taken when
looking into which children come to be categorized as being in some way ‘special’ or ‘excluded’ within
particular contexts. In communities where all children, including children with disabilities, are sent to the
local school, the community and the school take responsibility for all children. Bringing special needs
thinking, where one group of children is identified as different, into such a context might diminish this sense
of responsibility. It is also important to remember that a child categorized in one context as ‘special’ might
not be so in another and that children categorized within one ‘group’ might have more different than similar
needs. Experiences in different countries show that it is not sufficient to look at how to integrate one
particular group of children, such as children with disabilities.

In some schools one can see that children categorized as having special needs might be in the same
classroom, but have separate tasks to do or even a separate teacher. Communication and interaction with
the other pupils then become difficult, and eventually the child is excluded within the class. Integrating one
group of students may not address other grounds for discrimination in classrooms. So, when moving
towards more inclusive policies and practice, the focus needs to be on strategies to remove barriers to
learning and participation for all children.

Implications of Inclusive Education as a Strategy

It is necessary to look into how schools can be modified or changed to make sure that the education is
relevant to the local context, includes and treats all pupils with respect and is flexible so that all can
participate. This requires redirecting resources and inter-sectorial cooperation and has implications on the
following areas:

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Cosmos Impact Factor 4.236

a. Policy Development

In few countries policies exist that open up a possibility for authorities not to take responsibility for certain
groups of children. Often this applies to children with severe intellectual disability, but it might also refer,
for instance, to ethnic minorities or children without a birth certificate. Also in a great number of countries,
the education of some specific groups of learners might be the responsibility of another authority than the
Ministry of Education. Often this allows for a situation where these learners are not expected or encouraged
to participate in mainstream education.

b. Curriculum Development

The curriculum may be one of the major obstacles for inclusion within the education system. In many
countries, the curriculum is extensive and demanding, and centrally designed and rigid. The curriculum can
facilitate the development of more inclusive settings if it leaves for the school or teacher to make
adaptations so that it makes sense in the local context and for the individual learner. Linked to this is the
issue of language of instruction. In many countries it may be different than the language that students use at
home making it difficult for some of them to follow what is happening in the classroom. Bilingual education
can help to address this problem.

c. Teacher Training
Often much of the teaching in the classroom is based on rote learning, meticulous following of textbooks and
copying. In order to change the practices in the classroom into more child-friendly and flexible practices,
teachers and schools need training building on the existing expertise. There also needs to be a school
environment that encourages risk-taking so teachers have the time and dare try out new approaches, and
for example do not have to worry about inspectors or head teachers not liking what they are doing. A whole
school approach to school improvement has proven more effective in establishing change in schools, than
training a few of the staff.

d. Local Capacity Building and Community Involvement

The first task in building effective support for schools is to mobilize the resources that already exist in
schools and the local community. In addition, there might be need for some external support such as teams
of teacher trainers or support teachers coming in on a regular basis. For instance, in some countries, the
roles of the inspectors have changed from ‘grading’ schools and teachers to giving pedagogical support on a
regular basis. Often this type of support can also be derived from the elders in the local community.

UNESCO recognises that separate projects for marginalized and excluded groups do not have a huge impact.
Instead, UNESCO promotes inclusive approaches throughout its activities. UNESCO concentrates on how we
can work together to raise the quality of Education for All students. The focus of the work has been on:

 Strengthening inclusive approaches in national EFA plans, education policies and strategies
 Developing approaches and resource materials to address diverse needs in education

 Supporting national capacity building for government policy-making and system management
gathering and disseminating information

 Gathering and disseminating information and idea

Conclusion

Education for All ensured that all children have access to basic education of good quality. This implies
creating an environment in schools and in basic education programmes in which children are both able and
enabled to learn. Such an environment must be inclusive of children, effective with children, friendly and
welcoming to children, healthy and protective for children and gender sensitive. The development of such
child friendly learning environments is an essential part of the overall efforts by countries around the world
to increase access to, and improve the quality of, their schools.

The entire theoretical analyses mentioned above proves that EFA is very much correlated to inclusive
education. The issue of inclusion also has to be framed within the context of the wider international
discussions around the United Nations organisations’ agenda of ‘Edu cation For All’ (EFA), stimulated by the
1990 Jomtien Declaration.The Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs
Education(UNESCO, 1994) provides a framework for thinking about how to move policy and practice
forward. Indeed, this Statement, and the accompanying Framework for Action, is arguably the most
significant international document that has ever appeared in special education. It argues that regular
schools with an inclusive orientation are: ‘…the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes,
building an inclusive society and achieving Education For All.’

In the early documentation on EFA, there was a rather token mention of ‘special needs’. This has been
gradually replaced by recognition that the inclusion agenda should be seen as an essential element of the

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whole EFA movement. In taking an inclusive approach we must not lose sight of its origins in special needs
discourse as well as the fact that children with disabilities remain the largest group of children out of school.

References

1. Ainscow, M. (1999). Understanding the development of inclusive schools. Falmer.

2. Banga, C. L. (2015). Inclusive Education in the Indian Context, International Multidisciplinary e-Journal, 4(3), p.
67-74.

3. Dash, N. (2006): Inclusive Education Why Does it Matter? Edutracks, 5(11), p. 5-10

4. Miles, S. &Singal, N. (in press). The Education for All and Inclusive Education debate: Conflict, Contradiction or
Opportunity? International Journal of Inclusive Education.

5. Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, Government of Bangladesh. (2015). Education for All 2015 National
Review (Submitted to UNESCO)

6. Oppertti, R. (2004). Education for All (EFA) & Inclusive Education: A Renewed Discussion

7. Peters, S. J. (2007). “Education for all”A Historical analysis of international inclusive education policy and
individuals with disabilities, Journal of disability policy studies, 18 (2), 98-108.

8. Singh, J. D. (2016). INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN INDIA – CONCEPT, NEED AND CHALLENGES, Scholarly Research
Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 3(13), p. 3222-3232

9. UNESCO. (1990) World Declaration on Education for All. Paris: UNESCO.

10. UNESCO. (1994).Final Report: World conference on special needs education: Access and quality. Paris:
UNESCO.

11. UNESCO. (2000).Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments. Notes on the Dakar Framework for
Action. Paris: UNESCO.

12. UNESCO. (2001).The Open File on Inclusive Education. Paris: UNESCO

13. UNESCO. (2005). Guidelines for Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All
14. UNESCO (2007)EFA Global Monitoring Report: EFA. Strong Foundations: Early Childhood Care and Education.
Paris: UNESCO.

15. UNESCO. (2008).The EFA Global Monitoring Report. Education for All by 2015. Will we make it? Paris: UNESCO
16. UNESCO. (2010). Education for All movement.
 17

Argumentative Outline

Topic: Climate Change is a Natural and Normal Occurrence and is not caused by Mankind

Purpose: The purpose of this essay is to convince readers that as humans, we are the prime cause

of the climatic changes that are taking place on the planet.

Audience: The audience to which this essay will be targeted is every human being on planet

Earth. However, humans who own factories, manufacturing firms and those engage in any

activity that result in large amounts of carbon dioxide emission are the point of special focus.

Introduction

In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) European Region recorded over 70 000

deaths from heat-wave from twelve European countries (WHO, 2010). From the period 2007 -

2016, the frequency of weather-related diseases has increased by 46% in developing countries

and in the Caribbean the number of "very hot" days are increasing while the number of "really

cool" days and nights are decreasing" (MHM Institute of Health Professions, 2016). Who is

responsible for all of these changes? Upon whose shoulder should these charges be laid? Over

the past few decades the world's population has grown exponentially and this growth has led to

profound adverse changes in the environment. The actions of man are the prime cause of climate

change due to large production of carbon dioxide gas, changes in land cover such as

deforestation and increase in livestock farming which ultimately result in increased emissions

into the atmosphere.

 18

Body

Paragraph 1

Claim: Human activities particularly the burning of fossil fuel, coal, oil and natural gas release

huge amounts of carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere.

Data:

 Since the commencement of the Industrial Revolution, over 2,000 billion tons of carbon

dioxide have been emitted into the atmosphere by human activities (Scott & Lindsey,

2016).

 These sources of energy, used in their multifaceted ways, have produced carbon dioxide

in quantities that greatly surpassed the ability of the Earth's absorption rate (The Climate

Reality Project, 2019).

 The production of cement, deforestation and other landscape changes also contribute to

the production of tons of carbon dioxide.

Counter-claim: In contrast, there are those who believe that volcanoes produce and therefore

emit more carbon than industries and others that utilize these energy sources combined.

Rebuttals:

 Human activities emit 60 more times the amount of carbon dioxide released by volcanoes

each year. . . . In fact, several individual states emit more carbon dioxide in a year than

all the volcanoes on the planet combined do (Scott & Lindsey, 2016, para.1).
 19

 Solomon, Qin, Manning, Chen, Marquis, Averyt, Tignor and Miller (2007) further

purport that the impact of the Industrial era on the climate has greatly exceeded known

changes in natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions.

Strategies: Counter-claim, Rebuttal, Use of Statistics

Paragraph 2

Claim: Human-driven changes in land cover, such as deforestation, result in changes to the

reflectivity of the Earth's surface causing more heat in the atmosphere.

Data:

 Is it estimated that 25% of the world's greenhouse gases come from deforestation alone

(Bennett, 2017 ).

 Trees help to regulate the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

When they are cut, cleared and or burnt the carbon dioxide stored in them is released into

the atmosphere.

 Simply put, "deforestation decreases Earth's albedo" (the measure of how much of the

Sun's energy is reflected back into space) (Wayne, 2016, para.6)

Counter-claim: On the other hand, proponents of natural occurrence of climate change argue

that the sun itself, due to its changes in incoming energy, angle, output and the cyclic variations

of Earth's orbit, is responsible for changes in its own albedo.

Rebuttal: According to NASA Global Climate Change (2019) the warming we've seen over the

last few decades is too rapid to be linked to changes in Earth's orbit, and too large to be caused
 20

by solar activity. . . . Greenhouse gases coming from burning of trees is over 50 times greater

than the slight extra warming coming from the Sun itself over that same time interval. (para.1

and 5).

Strategies: Counter-claim, rebuttal, Statistics

Paragraph 3

Claim: Large amounts of methane are produced by livestock during digestion which is released

into the atmosphere.

Data:

 Livestock, particularly cows, emit methane gas through their flatulence and overall,

livestock are responsible for approximately 14% of all greenhouse emissions from human

activities (Watts, 2019).

 Research done by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) posits that although methane

does not stay in the atmosphere as long as carbon dioxide, it is far more destructive to the

climate.

 Methane has a greater ability to absorb heat and it is eighty-four (84) times more potent

than carbon dioxide.

Counter-claim: Notwithstanding the evidence, supporters of the natural occurrence of climate

change are not so convinced that livestock can produce so much methane to impact the climate.
 21

Rebuttals:

 Research from Borunda (2019) reveals that every time a cow burps or passes gas,

"methane wafts into the atmosphere. Each of those puffs coming from a cow, added

together, makes a big effect on the climate twenty-eight times more powerful than

carbon dioxide at warming the Earth" (para.1).

 With an estimated number of 1.4 billion cattle in the world together with other grazing

animals, they contribute about 40% of the yearly methane budget (Borunda, 2019).

Strategies: Counter-claim, Rebuttals, Statistics

Conclusion

As I conclude, climate change remains one of the most important challenges facing

humanity. It affects every country and disrupts national economies and affects our present living

and will affect the future lives of others significantly. Tens of thousands of scientists in more

than a hundred nations have amassed an overwhelming amount of evidence pointing to a clear

conclusion: humans are the main cause. We are the ones who burn fossil fuel and other gases, cut

and burn trees and produce livestock for consumption purposes which increases the amount of

heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere.

 22

First Draft of the Argumentative Essay

Climate Change is a Natural and Normal Occurrence and is not caused by Mankind

In 2003, the World Health Organisation (WHO) European Region recorded over 70 000

deaths from heat-wave from twelve European countries (WHO, 2010). From the period 2007 -

2016, the frequency of weather-related diseases has increased by 46% in developing countries

and in the Caribbean the number of "very hot" days are increasing while the number of "really

cool" days and nights are decreasing"(MHM Institute of Health Professions, 2016). Who is

responsible for all of these changes?Upon whose shoulder should these charges be laid? Over the

past few decades the world's population has grown exponentially and this growth has led to

profound adverse changes in the environment. For this reason, I strongly disagree with the

statement, 'climate change is a natural and normal occurrence and is not caused by mankind'.

The actions of man are the prime cause of climate change due to large production of carbon

dioxide gas, changes in land cover such as deforestation and increase in livestock farming which

ultimately result in increase emissions into the atmosphere.

First of all, human activities particularly the burning of fossil fuel, coal, oil and natural

gas releases huge amounts of carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere. Since the commencement

of the Industrial Revolution, over 2,000 billion tons of carbon dioxide have been emitted into the

atmosphere by human activities (Scott & Lindsey, 2016). These sources of energy, used in their

multifaceted ways, have produced carbon dioxide in quantities that greatly surpassed the ability

of the Earth's absorption rate (The Climate Reality Project, 2019). Besides these the production

of cement, deforestation and other landscape changes also contribute to the production of tons of

carbon dioxide. In contrast, there are those who believe that volcanoes produce and therefore
 23

emit more carbon than industries and others that utilize these energy sources combined. The

Literature reveals the truth that

human activities emit 60 more times the amount of carbon dioxide released by volcanoes

each year. . . . In fact, several individual states emit more carbon dioxide in a year than

all the volcanoes on the planet combined do (Scott & Lindsey, 2016, para.1).

Solomon, Qin, Manning, Chen, Marquis, Averyt, Tignor and Miller (2007) further purport that

the impact of the Industrial era on the climate has greatly exceeded known changes in natural

processes, such as volcanic eruptions.

Secondly, human-driven changes in land cover such as deforestation result in changes to

the reflectivity of the Earth's surface causing more heat in the atmosphere. Is it estimated that

25% of the world's greenhouse gases come from deforestation alone (Bennett, 2017 ). Trees help

to regulate the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When they are cut,

cleared and or burnt the carbon dioxide stored in them is released into the atmosphere. This

release creates and traps more heat resulting in changes in the Earth's ability to reflect solar

energy back into space. Simply put, deforestation decreases Earth's albedo (the measure of how

much of the Sun's energy is reflected back into space) (Wayne, 2016, para.6). On the other hand,

proponents of natural occurrence of climate change argue that the sun itself, due to its changes in

incoming energy, angle, output and the cyclic variations of Earth's orbit, is responsible for

changes in its own albedo. According to NASA Global Climate Change (2019)

the warming we've seen over the last few decades is too rapid to be linked to changes in

Earth's orbit, and too large to be caused by solar activity. . . . Greenhouse gases coming
 24

from burning of trees is over 50 times greater than the slight extra warming coming from

the Sun itself over that same time interval. (para.1 and 5).

Deforestation clearly has an unfavorable effect on Earth's albedo.

Finally, large amounts of methane is produced by livestock during digestion which is

released into the atmosphere. Livestock, particularly cows, emit methane gas through their fart

and overall, livestock are responsible for approximately 14% of all greenhouse emissions from

human activities (Watts, 2019). Research done by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) posits

that although methane does not stay in the atmosphere as long as carbon dioxide, it is far more

destructive to the climate because of its ability to absorb heat and it is eighty-four times more

potent than carbon dioxide. However, many are not so convinced that livestock can produce so

much methane to impact the climate. Borunda (2019) purports that every time a cow burps or

passes gas, "methane wafts into the atmosphere. Each of those puffs coming from a cow, added

together, makes a big effect on the climate twenty-eight times more powerful than carbon

dioxide at warming the Earth" (para.1). With an estimated number of 1.4 billion cattle in the

world together with other grazing animals, they contribute about 40% of the yearly methane

budget (Borunda, 2019).

As I conclude, climate change remains one of the most important challenges facing

humanity. It affects every country and disrupts national economies and affects our present living

and will affect the future lives of others significantly. Tens of thousands of scientists in more

than a hundred nations have amassed an overwhelming amount of evidence pointing to a clear

conclusion: humans are the main cause. We are the ones who burn fossil fuel and other gases, cut
 25

and burn trees and produce livestock for consumption purposes which increases the amount of

heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere.

 26

Expository Outline

Topic: The Implications of Inclusive Education on the Vincentian classroom

Purpose - The purpose of the essay is to show the beneficial results to be gained by students,

teachers, parents and the society at large should inclusive education be incorporated into the

education system of St.Vincent and the Grenadines.

Audience - The audience to which this essay will be targeted includes all education personnel

(teachers, administrators, all education board directors, etc), students, parents, policy makers,

business owners and society at large. Business owners are financially stable so they can finance

projects geared at inclusive education.

Introduction

The provision of appropriate educational needs for children with special needs and

learning disabilities has been argued and debated for a long time. The Salamanca Statement

(UNESCO, 1994) recognizes the right of each child to an education and in its Framework for

Action suggests that education systems become inclusive by catering for diversity and special

needs within the classroom. Contrary to popular belief, research shows that inclusion has been

deemed as "the most effective means for building solidarity between children with special needs

and their peers" (The Salamanca Statement, UNESCO, 1994, p.12) . Hence, inclusive schooling

results in benefits to students and teachers in the form of combating discriminatory attitudes, an

increase in variation of resource material and specialised, trained teachers, modification of

schools' physical structure, and ultimately,a more student-oriented classroom in St.Vincent and

the Grenadines.
 27

Body

1. Combating discriminatory attitudes

Topic Sentence

Inclusive education produces a weakening of the wall of prejudiceand discrimination against

children who have special needs or some form of learning disability.

Supporting details

 Teachers, parents and nondisabled children become more accepting of special needs

children.

 Greater support from support services ( businesses, organisations, social groups etc) are

given to disabled and special needs individuals.

 The society at large becomes a society of inclusion due to changes in policy and curricula

to cater for disabled children and those with learning disabilities.

Strategies: citations, cause and effect

2. Increase in variation of resource materials

Topic Sentence

Inclusive schooling leads to an increase in the variety of materials used to enhance learning in

the classroom.

Supporting Details
 28

 Variation in learning styles and abilities will result in variation of classroom illustrative

materials to enhance learning.

 Classrooms that cater for a broader spectrum of learners must have a myriad of resources

to meet learners' needs.

 Differentiated instruction will lead to differentiated resources relating to the content,

process, product and the environment for effective learning to take place. Hence, a

greater number of students will benefit from such an instruction.

Strategies: cause and effect, citations

3. An increase in specialized, trained teachers

Topic Sentence

Inclusive schooling will give rise to appropriate and relevant training to a large number of

teachers and education personnel.

Supporting Details

 There will be more specialist teachers and teachers trained in special needs education.

 Improvement in teachers' ability to incorporate resource materials and specialized/new

teaching strategies to aid in students' learning.

 Administrators, senior education officers, head teachers etc will have a more developed

capacity to provide educational leadership, support and training to staff members who are

less experienced or inexperienced

Strategies:cause and effect, citation

4. Modification of schools' physical structure

 29

Topic Sentence

Inclusive schools will result in the modification of the schools' physical plant to facilitate ease of

access to the school itself and all of its rooms.

Supporting Details

 change in schools' building code to accommodate children who are immobile (ramps,

elevators, bathroom facilities)

 change in classroom structure and environment to assist those who are visually and

auditory impaired

 UNESCO (2000) posits that the physical environment of the learners should be one of

the highest possible standard which the country can afford and the learning environment

should be upgraded by maintenance, refurbishing and rehabilitation of the physical plant

respectively.

Strategies: illustration, citation, cause and effect

5. A more student-oriented classroom

Topic Sentence

Inclusive or special needs education will result in a move from a curriculum-oriented education

to a more student-oriented education in the Vincentian classroom.

Supporting Details
 30

 An inclusive classroom will focus more on student learning rather than simply finishing a

curriculum.Delivery of instruction will focus more on the differences among the students

(UNESCO, 2000).

 The role of the teacher also changes; he/she becomes 'a guide on the side' - assisting,

scaffolding and facilitating during the teaching and learning process.

 In such a classroom, a rich, multifaceted atmosphere is created and this will produce a

greater scope for learning and the achievement of academic success by all students

despite their mental and or physical challenges (UNESCO, 1994).

Strategies:comparison and contrast, citations

Conclusion

Today's teaching professionals are assuming considerably more responsibility for

meeting the educational needs of students from diverse backgrounds and with diverse learning

needs.This reality, according to some teachers have been their greatest challenge and also their

greatest reward (Vaughn, Bos & Schumm, 2007).Inclusive schools give rise to the diverse needs

of students by being accommodative regarding their learning difficulties, styles and rate of

learning. Although many frown on this type of schooling, several positive impacts will be

realized including: a reduction in stigma against children with special needs, an increase in the

variety of teaching materials as well as teachers that are specialized and trained, changes to

school buildings and the move towards a classroom environment that is more student - centered.
 31

First Draft of Expository Essay

The Implications of Inclusive Education on the Vincentian Classroom

The provision of appropriate educational needs for children with special needs and

learning disabilities has been argued and debated for a long time. The Salamanca Statement

(UNESCO, 1994) recognizes the right of each child to an education and in its Framework for

Action suggests that education systems become inclusive by catering for diversity and special

needs within the classroom. In light of this, the countries of the Organisation for Eastern

Caribbean States (OECS) have committed themselves to the implementation of an educational

reform strategy that centers around the theme of 'education for all' which encompasses children

with special learning needs (Armstrong, Armstrong, Lynch & Severin, 2005). Contrary to

popular belief, research shows that inclusion has been deemed as " the most effective means for

building solidarity between children with special needs and their peers" (The Salamanca

Statement, UNESCO, 1994, p.12) . Hence, inclusive schooling results in benefits to students and

teachers in the form of combating discriminatory attitudes, an increase in variation of resource

material and specialised, trained teachers, modification of schools' physical structure, and

ultimately, new development in the educational policy of St.Vincent and the Grenadines.

Inclusive education produces a weakening of the wall of prejudiceand discrimination

against children who have special needs or some form of learning disability. Historically, people

with learning disabilities have been segregated from mainstream school practices as well as

social and economic activities. This separation had its origin in the belief that 'human bodies

must conform to certain standard or norm' (Rabinow, 1984). Today, new light has been shown

on the issue and every child with special needs has the opportunity to enter a classroom. In so

doing, teachers, parents and children (normal) become more accepting of special needs children.
 32

Attitudes once engulfed in scorn and disdain will vanish both among children and teachers alike.

Schools do not operate in a vacuum, consequently this positive change in attitude will lead to an

increase in community acceptance of people with disabilities (Wang & Hua, 2009). Hence, a

change in attitude at the school level will create a greater support from support services

(businesses, organisations, social groups etc) to disabled and special needs individuals. The final

result will be a society of inclusion - both school and community become a child-friendly

environment which caters for the needs of all children.

Additionally, inclusive schooling leads to an increase in the variety of materials used to

enhance learning in the classroom. Variation in learning styles and abilities will result in

variation of classroom illustrative materials to enhance learning. In other words, classrooms that

cater for a broader spectrum of learners must have a myriad of resources to meet learners' needs.

According to The Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), several things will result regarding

this variation in resources. Firstly, the distribution of resources to schools will provide

appropriate education for all children relevant to their needs and circumstances. Secondly,

resources will also be tailored to match teachers' training and their mode of delivery in the

classroom. Finally, appropriate technical aids will be provided to ensure the successful

integration of inclusive education. Differentiated instruction will lead to differentiated resources

relating to the content, process, product and the environment for effective learning to take place.

This provides a richness and depth to the learning environment. Thus, a greater number of

students will benefit from any instruction given in such a classroom.

In view of the preceding point, a large number of teachers and education personnel will

possess appropriate training that will enable them to effectively manage the varying levels of

diversity in the classroom. This will lead to improvement in teachers' ability to incorporate
 33

resource materials alongside new teaching strategies to aid in students' learning. Moreover, the

implementation of programmes to teach special needs children will be done to both pre-service

and in service teachers. This will have further implications for teachers as "the skills required to

respond to special needs should be taken into account during assessment of studies and teacher

certification" ( The Salamanca Statement, UNESCO, 1994, p. 28). UNESCO (2000) further

purports that inclusive schooling depends a lot on what teachers do in their classroom and

considers the matching of instruction with the special needs of children. As a result

the role of the teacher will be different; the emphasis in their delivery of education will be

more on the differences between the students. . . Consequently, the role of the special

education teacher and other professionals working in the special education schools will

will change . . . The main message in this change should be that a regular teacher . . .

feels competent and equipped enough to provide education to students with special needs,

making maximum use of the resources that are available. (p.17)

Administrators, senior education officers, head teachers etc will have a more developed capacity

to provide educational leadership, support and training to staff members who are less or

inexperienced. On the other hand, more specialist teachers and thus teachers trained in special

needs education will result. Students' varying educational needs demand varying teaching needs.

Speech and behavioral therapists, audiologists are just a few to be added to the list of

specialists. All in all, there will be a significant increase in the population of trained, specialised

teachers.
 34

Besides the work done for the teachers and students, inclusive schools will result in the

modification of the schools' physical plant to facilitate ease of access to the school itself and all

of its rooms. Based on research from Hincapie, Duryea and Hincapie (2019), access to inclusive

education facilities is an obstacle in the pursuit of full inclusion of students with disabilities.

Presently, in St.Vincent and the Grenadines very few school buildings have one or more physical

signs of adaptation to the needs of special needs children. These are indicative of a ramp and a

toilet that facilitates an immobile child. Unfortunately, the ramp, although present is not

extended to all the floors of the building so the lame is unable to access all the rooms in the

school. Having trained teachers and resources will prove futile if students are unable to be

present for instruction. In commenting on 'The Green Paper' (Jamaica) and 'The White Paper'

(Trinidad and Tobago), UNESCO (2000) posits that the physical environment of the learners

should be one of the highest possible standard which the country can afford and the learning

environment should be upgraded by maintenance, refurbishing and rehabilitation of the physical

plant respectively. For these reasons, there will be a more strict compliance of schools' building

code to accommodate children who are immobile (ramps, elevators, bathroom facilities), blind

and or deaf. This will also ensure that everyone gains access to all of the rooms in the school.

The use of rails and signs giving clear messages regarding entrance, exit and basic directions

must be employed. In addition, changes will occur within in the classroom itself. The possibility

of automatic doors, modification in chair and desk shape and size will also be evident.

Classroom size will increase to accommodate: the variations in chairs and desks, increase in

seating capacity and finally, the establishment of learning centers in the classroom for which

differentiated instruction will be necessary. In other words, the structure and environment of the
 35

classroom will utilise specialised technological devices to assist those who are visually, auditory

and otherwise impaired.

Ultimately, inclusive schooling will result in state recognition of the need for equal

educational opportunities for children with disabilities by developing policies that will

necessitate an integrated environment within schools. According to Hasan, Halder and Debnath

(2018) in some countries policies exist that negate the government's responsibility for certain

groups of children. Hence, all government policies will ensure that the government is fully

responsible for the education of all of its citizens no matter their physical or mental capabilities.

Additionally, new adoptions in existing policies will render changes in the curriculum. The once

rigid curricula will become flexible, catering for the needs of all learners. According to

Hincapie, Duryea and Hincapie (2019) early detection and diagnosis of disabilities among

children from as early as preschool age will be implemented. Early diagnosis of a disability

rather than later in life is crucial when promoting inclusiveness and preventing the potential of

severe developmental issues in children. A clear, comprehensive, and conclusive policy

statement will guide all stakeholders in education: policymakers, principals, teachers,

parents, unions, non-government organizations, referring agencies, and other professionals.

Inclusive schools give rise to the diverse needs of students by being accommodative

regarding their learning difficulties, styles and rate of learning. Although many frown on this

type of schooling, several positive impacts can be realised including: a reduction in stigma

against children with special needs, an increase in the variety of teaching materials as well as

teachers that are specialised and trained, changes to school buildings and the introduction of new

policies within the education system. History is filled with examples of those who have
 36

overcome extraordinary disabilities to achieve greatness. Hence, we must all do our part to help

every child to achieve the best of his/her ability.

 37

Rubrics for Portfolio- The Outline (20%)

Outline for Expository Essay Marks Student

Allotted Score
Identification of - 2
Purpose
Audience

Introduction- 3
Contains background information pertinent to the essay
Contains the thesis
Is five sentences (125-150 words) in length
Body- 3
Five main points or topic sentences are included
Three supporting details for each topic sentence are included.
Strategies used to develop each main idea is included
Is 120-200 words in length
Conclusion- 2
Wraps up the essay
Does not include any new points
Contains a restatement of the thesis
Is five sentences (125-150 words) in length.

Outline for Argument Essay Marks Student

 38

Allotted Score
Identification of - 2
Purpose
Audience

Introduction- 3
Contains background information pertinent to the essay
Contains the thesis
Is five sentences (125-150 words) in length
Body- 3
Three main points or topic sentences are included
Three supporting details for each topic sentence are included.
Strategies used to develop each main idea is included
Is 120-200 words in length
Conclusion- 2
Wraps up the essay
Does not include any new points
Contains a restatement of the thesis
Is five sentences (125-150 words) in length.

Rubric for Portfolio- The Critiques (20%)

 39

Rubric for argumentative and expository analysis Marks Student

Allotted Score

Criteria Marks Student

Allotted Score

Content/Analysis 15

 Is in-depth and examines the absence or presence of

elements associated with expository writing.

 Is in-depth and examines the absence or presence of

elements associated with argumentative writing.

Organization &Structure 5

 Is organized into coherent and cohesive paragraphs

 Contains introduction, body and conclusion.

Grammar & Expression 5

 Contains no grammatical, spelling or punctuation

errors

Citation 5

 List of sources accurately formatted and punctuated

 In text sources correctly cited

 Latest version of APA used

Total /30

% /20