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What is This?
Research Article
Counteracting Loneliness
On the Restorative Function of Nostalgia
Xinyue Zhou,1 Constantine Sedikides,2 Tim Wildschut,2 and Ding-Guo Gao1
1
Sun Yat-Sen University and 2University of Southampton
ABSTRACT—Four studies tested whether nostalgia can protagonist in nostalgic narratives and is almost always sur-
counteract reductions in perceived social support caused rounded by close others. Along with close others (family mem-
by loneliness. Loneliness reduced perceptions of social bers, friends, partners), the most common objects of nostalgic
support but increased nostalgia. Nostalgia, in turn, in- reverie are momentous events (birthdays, vacations) and set-
creased perceptions of social support. Thus, loneliness tings (sunsets, lakes; Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge,
affected perceived social support in two distinct ways. 2006, Studies 1 and 2). Although nostalgia reflects some am-
Whereas the direct effect of loneliness was to reduce per- bivalence, it is a predominantly positive emotion. On the one
ceived social support, the indirect effect of loneliness was hand, the simultaneous expression of happiness and sadness is
to increase perceived social support via nostalgia. This more commonly found in recollections of nostalgic events,
restorative function of nostalgia was particularly appar- compared with ordinary events, and the coactivation of happi-
ent among resilient persons. Nostalgia is a psychological ness and sadness occurs more frequently as a result of reflection
resource that protects and fosters mental health. about nostalgic events than as a result of reflection about ordi-
nary or positive events (Wildschut, Stephan, Sedikides, Rout-
ledge, & Arndt, 2008). On the other hand, recollections of
Loneliness is a psychological state characterized by a set of nostalgic events include more frequent expressions of happi-
discomforting emotions and cognitions, such as unhappiness, ness, and induce higher levels of happiness, than of sadness
pessimism, self-blame, and depression (Anderson, Miller, Ri- (Wildschut et al., 2006, 2008). Moreover, positive and negative
ger, Dill, & Sedikides, 1994; Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2005). elements are often juxtaposed in the form of redemption, a
Loneliness is associated with perceived lack of social support narrative pattern that progresses from a dismal to a triumphant
(Cacioppo et al., 2006), and with having fewer and less satisfying life scene (McAdams, 2001).
relationships than desired (Archibald, Bartholomew, & Marx, Wildschut et al. (2006, Studies 5–7) tested the idea that
1995). Loneliness is a universal experience, as revealed by nostalgic reverie can reignite meaningful relational bonds and
studies with diverse cultural samples including Chinese Cana- reestablish a symbolic connection with significant others
dians (Goodwin, Cook, & Yung, 2001), Turks and Argentines (Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006; Sedikides,
(Rokach & Bacanli, 2001), Americans and Canadians (Rokach Wildschut, & Baden, 2004). Participants brought to mind either
& Neto, 2000), Portuguese (Neto & Barrios, 2001), and British a nostalgic or an ordinary event and then wrote about it. Nos-
Asians (Shams, 2001). Loneliness is alleviated by seeking talgic participants scored higher on measures of social bonding,
support from social networks (Asher & Paquette, 2003; Bell, evinced a more secure attachment style, and reported greater
1991), but frequently the solicitation of social support is im- interpersonal competence. Nostalgia, then, may increase the
peded by individual (e.g., shyness, poor social skills) and situ- accessibility of past relationships (Kumashiro & Sedikides,
ational (e.g., relocation, immigration) factors. We propose that 2005; Sedikides & Skowronski, 1991) and thus counteract
an alternative strategy for coping with loneliness is to augment loneliness by magnifying perceived social support.
subjective perceptions of social support by drawing on nostalgic But does loneliness trigger nostalgia? Wildschut et al. (2006,
memories. Study 4) addressed this question. In a laboratory experi-
Nostalgia, a sentimental longing for the past, is a self-relevant ment, they induced high versus low loneliness and then measured
and social emotion: The self almost invariably figures as the nostalgia. High-loneliness participants reported being more
nostalgic than low-loneliness participants. Thus, there is pre-
liminary support for the idea that loneliness instigates nostalgia.
Address correspondence to Ding-Guo Gao, Department of Psychol-
ogy, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China, e-mail: To summarize, evidence suggests that (a) loneliness leads to
edsgao@mail.sysu.edu.cn. reduced perceptions of social support (Cacioppo et al., 2006);
(b) loneliness increases nostalgia (Wildschut et al., 2006, Study China. The children had migrated to this city with their parents
4); and (c) nostalgia fosters social connectedness (Wildschut et from rural areas. They had lived in Guangzhou for an average of
al., 2006, Studies 5–7), thus likely magnifying perceived social 4 years (SD 5 33.71 months). Participants were seated at sep-
support. These findings raise the interesting possibility that arate desks in their classrooms and completed the materials
loneliness affects perceived social support in two distinct ways. anonymously and at their own pace.
The direct effect of loneliness is to reduce perceived social We conducted a pilot study involving 43 elementary-school
support: The lonelier one feels, the less social support one children ages 8 through 10. All indicated that they understood
perceives. However, loneliness may also have an indirect effect the meaning of huaijiu and that nostalgic experiences were
by increasing perceived social support via nostalgia: The lone- common and familiar to them. In addition, the school teacher
lier one feels, the more nostalgic one becomes, and the more confirmed that huaijiu was part of the students’ vocabulary. Fi-
social support one may then perceive. This pattern of relation- nally, the children showed good comprehension of the five-item
ships would give rise to a situation of statistical suppression. Southampton Nostalgia Scale (SNS; Routledge, Arndt, Sedi-
Such situations can be described in terms of an implicit causal kides, & Wildschut, 2008) used in the main study. They rated
model involving an initial predictor (e.g., loneliness), an inter- their comprehension of the SNS items on a 7-point scale (1 5
vening variable (e.g., nostalgia), and an outcome (e.g., perceived poor comprehension, 7 5 excellent comprehension), and each
social support). Suppression occurs when the direct effect of the item received an average rating greater than 5.
initial predictor is directionally opposite to its indirect effect via
the intervening variable. When the intervening variable is Materials
controlled, the direct effect of the initial predictor is strength- We assessed loneliness with the 10-item UCLA Loneliness
ened (MacKinnon, Krull, & Lockwood, 2000; Paulhus, Robins, Scale (Russell, 1996). Items (e.g., ‘‘How often do you feel
Trzesniewski, & Tracy, 2004). completely alone?’’) were rated on a 4-point scale (1 5 never, 4
In four methodologically diverse studies, we examined the 5 always; a 5 .86).
possibility that nostalgia counteracts reductions in perceived We assessed nostalgia proneness with the SNS. Items (e.g.,
social support caused by loneliness. We drew from varied par- ‘‘How often do you experience nostalgia?’’) were rated on a 7-
ticipant populations in an Asian (i.e., Chinese) culture. In ad- point scale (1 5 very rarely, 7 5 very frequently; a 5 .70).
dition, in Study 4, we examined whether the hypothesized link We assessed social support with the 12-item Multidimen-
between loneliness and nostalgia is moderated by a variable that sional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet, Dah-
has received ample empirical attention as of late: resilience lem, Zimet, & Farley, 1988). Items (e.g., ‘‘I can count on my
(Bonanno, 2004). friends when things go wrong’’) were rated on a 7-point scale (1
In Mandarin Chinese, the word for ‘‘nostalgia’’ is huaijiu. It is 5 very strongly disagree, 7 5 very strongly agree; a 5 .93).
a compound word, consisting of huai (‘‘sentimental longing for’’)
and jiu (‘‘the past’’). Its meaning is well entrenched in the cul-
Results and Discussion
tural lexicon. Still, for purposes of internal validity, we always
Results are presented in the top panel of Figure 1. Zero-order
provided participants with a somewhat longer definition of the
correlations revealed that (a) loneliness was negatively associ-
construct before measuring or inducing nostalgia. We adminis-
ated with perceived social support, (b) loneliness was positively
tered validated (or back-translated) Chinese versions of all
associated with nostalgia, and (c) nostalgia was positively as-
scales we used. Also, we examined but did not find any gender
sociated with perceived social support. The results are consis-
differences. Finally, we debriefed participants at the end of each
tent with the possibility that whereas the direct effect of
testing session.
loneliness is to decrease perceived social support, the indirect
effect of loneliness is to increase perceived social support via
STUDY 1
nostalgia. This implies that loneliness should more strongly
predict reductions in perceived social support after nostalgia
Study 1, a preliminary correlational investigation, explored
has been statistically controlled (Paulhus et al., 2004). Indeed,
whether loneliness directly decreases perceived social support
when we regressed perceived social support onto both loneliness
and indirectly increases perceived social support via nostalgia.
and nostalgia, we found a unique negative association between
loneliness and perceived social support, and a unique positive
Method association between nostalgia and perceived social support
(Fig. 1).
Participants and Procedure
A z 0 test1 revealed that the negative association between
The participants in Study 1 were 758 migrant children (428
loneliness and perceived social support became significantly
females, 318 males, 12 of undeclared gender), ages 9 through 15
(M 5 11.45, SD 5 1.05). They were recruited from an ele- The critical value (a 5 .05) for this test is 0.97 (MacKinnon, Lockwood,
1
mentary school for migrant children in the city of Guangzhou, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002).
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X. Zhou et al.
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Counteracting Loneliness
both loneliness condition (contrast-coded) and nostalgia, we (M 5 4.87), F(1, 64) 5 8.04, p 5 .006, r 5 .33. Furthermore,
found a unique negative effect of the loneliness manipulation on participants in the nostalgia condition (M 5 8.94) listed a
perceived social support, and a unique positive association greater number of friends than those in the control condition
between nostalgia and perceived social support (see Fig. 1). A (M 5 7.58), F(1, 64) 5 2.86, p 5 .096, r 5 .21. The two mea-
z 0 test revealed that the effect of the loneliness manipulation on sures of perceived social support were positively correlated,
perceived social support became significantly more negative r 5 .55, p < .001. These results confirm that nostalgia causes
when nostalgia was controlled (.31 vs. .25), z 0 5 1.70, increases in perceptions of social support.
p < .05. In sum, lonely participants perceived little social
support, but they also felt nostalgic. In turn, nostalgic reverie STUDY 4
augmented their perceptions of social support.
Through correlational and experimental methods, and in sam-
STUDY 3 ples of children and undergraduate students, we had established
the restorative function of nostalgia in relation to loneliness. In
Study 2 provided compelling evidence for directionally opposite particular, Studies 1 through 3 revealed that (a) loneliness de-
causal effects of loneliness on nostalgia and perceived social creases perceptions of social support, (b) loneliness increases
support. It was still unclear, however, whether nostalgia exerts a nostalgia, and (c) nostalgia, in turn, increases perceptions of
causal effect on perceived social support. The key objective of social support. This pattern of relationships is tantamount to
Study 3 was to clarify whether nostalgia increases perceived statistical suppression: Whereas loneliness directly decreases
social support. perceived social support, it indirectly increases perceived social
support via nostalgia. The objective of Study 4 was to test the
Method generality of these findings. Would they be replicated in a
sample of community-drawn adults and with a more compre-
Participants hensive assessment of nostalgia? More important, are the effects
Participants were 66 Fudan University undergraduates (36 of loneliness moderated by personality variables? We focused,
males, 30 females), ages 18 through 24 (M 5 21.02, SD 5 1.27). in particular, on resilience.
They were randomly assigned to conditions (nostalgia vs. con- Resilience is defined as the ability to recover from (or to resist
trol). being affected by) shock, insult, or disturbance (Garmezy,
1991). Resilient individuals exposed to traumatic events or
Materials and Procedures unfavorable life circumstances (ranging from a terrorist attack to
We induced nostalgia using a manipulation introduced by divorce, death of a spouse, and poverty) are characterized, after
Wildschut et al. (2006, Study 5). Participants in the nostalgia an initial period of distress, by a ‘‘stable trajectory of healthy
condition were instructed to ‘‘bring to mind a nostalgic event in functioning across time’’ (Bonanno, 2005, p. 136). Such indi-
your life. Specifically, try to think of a past event that makes you viduals are then able to carry out effectively their personal and
feel most nostalgic.’’ Participants in the control condition social responsibilities, to experience positive emotions, and to
brought to mind ‘‘an ordinary event.’’ Participants then listed engage in creative activities (Bonanno, 2004). Resilient indi-
four event-relevant keywords and reflected briefly about the viduals capitalize on available personal and social resources to
event and how it made them feel. Next, they completed a two- self-regulate effectively.
item manipulation check (‘‘Right now, I am feeling quite nos- Study 4 assessed loneliness, resilience, nostalgia, and per-
talgic’’ and ‘‘Right now, I am having nostalgic feelings’’; 1 5 ceived social support in a sample of factory workers. We ex-
strongly disagree, 7 5 strongly agree). We combined responses pected to replicate previous findings. Specifically, we expected
to the items (r 5 .74, p < .001) to form a single index. As in- the association between loneliness and perceived social support
tended, participants in the nostalgia condition (M 5 4.89) re- to become significantly more negative when nostalgia was sta-
ported feeling more nostalgic than those in the control condition tistically controlled. We also expected resilience to moderate
(M 5 4.22), F(1, 64) 5 4.52, p 5 .037, r 5 .26. this suppression pattern. Given their resourcefulness, resilient
Subsequently, participants completed two measures of per- individuals should be particularly apt to recruit nostalgia in
ceived social support. One was the MSPSS (a 5 .86). The other response to loneliness.
involved estimating the number of friends who would volunteer
in an experiment to help participants receive additional credit.
Method
Results and Discussion Participants and Procedure
Nostalgia increased perceived social support. On the MSPSS, Participants were 193 factory workers (121 females, 53 males,
participants in the nostalgia condition reported more perceived 19 of undeclared gender) in a luggage factory in the city of
social support (M 5 5.39) than those in the control condition Dongguan, China. Their mean age was 25.44 (SD 5 6.84).
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X. Zhou et al.
Nostalgia
Perceived
Loneliness Social 1
–.15 (–.26***) Support Low High
Loneliness Loneliness
Fig. 2. Associations among loneliness, nostalgia, and perceived social
support in Study 4 (N 5 193). Coefficients in boldface are zero-order Fig. 3. Level of nostalgia as a function of loneliness and resilience.
correlations. Coefficients in parentheses are standardized regression Plotted values are predicted means calculated at 1 standard deviation
coefficients. Asterisks indicate values significantly different from zero, above and below the mean of loneliness, and at 1 standard deviation
nn
p < .01, nnnp < .001. above and below the mean of resilience.
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Counteracting Loneliness
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