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Module 4: Content Depth

Logical fallacies

Logical fallacies are rather common in academic writing. They are

basically errors of reasoning, which cause your argumentation to fall apart
due to faulty connection making.

Logical fallacies comprise a large spectrum of fallacies that can be

grouped into three categories:
- fallacies of evidence (when the evidence provided does not correlate
with the conclusion that the argument is trying to lead to);
- fallacies of weak induction (when the evidence and claims do not
actually provide enough strength to lead to the conclusions);
- fallacies of ambiguity (using concepts and logical moves that are
unclear but not obviously wrong to justify the conclusion).

Let us look at some of the most common examples of logical fallacies

when we craft evidence:

Circular reasoning occurs when part of a claim is slightly rephrased to

further be used to support that same claim.

Example: Special education students should not be required to take

standardized tests because such tests are meant for non-special
education students.
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Hasty generalization occurs when the writer jumps to a conclusion

based on limited or unreliable data (such as too small sample size).

Example: Two out of three patients who were given green tea before
bedtime reported sleeping more soundly. Therefore, green tea may be
used to treat insomnia.

In this example, a sample size of three is way too small to generalize

about the effectiveness of green tea—not to mention that patients'
self-reports do not always make the most reliable data!

Sweeping generalization assumes that a particular conclusion drawn

from a particular situation and context applies to all situations and
contexts.

For example, if you research a particular problem at a private

performing arts high school in a rural community, you need to be
careful not to assume that your findings will be generalizable to all
high schools, including public high schools in an inner city setting.

Non sequitur is a Latin term that means "does not follow," and the
fallacy occurs when no true logical (especially cause-effect)
relationship exists between two notions.

Example: Professor Berger has published numerous articles in

immunology. Therefore, she is an expert in complementary medicine.
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In this example there is no necessary relationship between knowledge

of immunology on the one hand and expertise in complementary
medicine on the other. It does not follow that Dr. Berger will be an
expert in both areas.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc, another Latin term, means "after this;
therefore, because of this." This fallacy results from assuming that because
something chronologically follows something else, then the two things
must be related by a cause-effect connection. Just because x follows y in
time, it does not mean that y caused x.

Example: Drop-out rates increased the year after NCLB policy was
passed. Therefore, NCLB policy is causing kids to drop out.

Although it may be true that NCLB contributed to drop outs, this cannot be
concluded from the chronology of events alone. Correlation is not
causation, so the cause-effect connection would have to be proven.

False dilemma, also known as black and white fallacy, results when a
writer falsely constructs an “either-or” situation.

Example: Japanese carmakers must implement green production

practices, or else Japan‘s carbon footprint will hit crisis proportions
by 2025.
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The writer of this claim of policy assumes that there are only two
options—green car production on the one hand or a catastrophic carbon
footprint on the other. However, it is likely that car production is only one
of many factors contributing to Japan‘s carbon emissions problem. It is
unreasonable to focus on this one factor solely.

Try avoiding fallacies in your writing by doing the following:

1) clearly identify the conclusion you are trying to reach and the
premises you are using to arrive at the conclusion;
2) make sure your premises properly relate to the argument you are
making and connect to each other;
3) ensure your premises actually lead to the conclusion in the right
ways to support it.
There is no need to memorize all the types of fallacies; it is simply enough
to be aware of them, be attentive to the argumentation one makes, and
avoid faulty connection making in your own writing.
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Transitioning Between Ideas

Transitions within and between paragraphs are a tool for guiding the reader
through your ideas and arguments. Skillful transitioning is always
effortless, subtle, and almost invisible. It is there for the reader, not for the
sake of transitioning per se. When the reader is guided through your ideas,
they take the most out of your argument and that makes your argument
stronger and more effective.

Transitions can be global (between the paragraphs) and local (within the
paragraph).

When we talk about global transitioning we mean the flow of big ideas in
your paper and how they support your main argument. Since each
paragraph is a unit that represents one idea, and you have multiple
paragraphs in your paper, you need to help the reader understand how one
idea follows another and how they are related.

When the reader gets from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the
other, they should not feel like they jump between two realities (papers).
That is why, the topic sentence of a new paragraph is the primary tool to
not only introduce the key idea of the next paragraph, but also convey the
connection of this idea with the previous paragraph (implicitly). It can be a
bit challenging, of course, to achieve it if the paragraphs are in an illogical
order. It means that if you work on transitions and it feels rather awkward
and you cannot get smoothly from one idea to the next, maybe you should
really reorganize the order of your paragraphs, instead of overusing
transitional words.
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Mind that the very fact of using a new paragraph is a way of transitioning,
as the reader knows that a new paragraph implies a new point and that
something new is happening next. That is why paragraph division is an
effective tool that you should be more conscious of.

One trick of making sure your paragraph, or big ideas, are organized well
is to see whether they can be united by one clear heading.

Things to avoid when you work on global trasitioning:

- Leading into the subsequent paragraph at the end of the current
paragraph (“In the next paragraph I will discussed” is a poor way of
transitioning)
- Using repetitive ideas (for example rephrasing the topic sentence in a
concluding sentence and use this pattern in every paragraph)
- Making transitioning too explicit. As we already said at the beginning,
skillful transitioning should be subtle. It means that starting each new
paragraph with a transitional word (“Next”, “Secondly”, “Additionally”)
is a rather poor way of transitioning.

When we talk about local transitioning, it has similar functions, however, it

has more to do with word choice. Inside the paragraph you need to connect
the evidence components with analysis components, and you do not want
them to sound abrupt.
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This marriage between evidence and analysis can be achieved through:

- our usual explicit transitional words that show relationships or

connection between ideas (“Next”, “Secondly”, “Additionally”,
“However”)
- Sentence structure and word choice as implicit means of transitioning
(coherence and cohesion).

Local transitioning should give the reader an experience of a flow.

Compare these two fragments - which one achieves this goal?
1.Consistent ideas toward the beginnings of sentences, especially in
their subjects, help readers understand what a passage is generally about.
A sense of coherence arises when a sequence of topics comprises a narrow
set of related ideas. But the context of each sentence is lost by seemingly
random shifts of topics. Unfocused, even disorganized paragraphs result
when that happens.

2.Readers understand what a passage is generally about when they

see consistent ideas toward the beginnings of sentences, especially in their
subjects. They feel a passage is coherent when they read a sequence of
topics that focuses on a narrow set of related ideas. But when topics seem
to shift randomly, readers lose the context of each sentence. When that
happens, they feel they are reading paragraphs that are unfocused and
even disorganized.

In the second fragment everything works for the reader - sentence

structures, word choices, logical order of ideas. Transitioning here is subtle
and invisible.
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Absence of space-fillers

As you start writing any paper, you need to ask yourself “what do I want to
do and for whom?”. Every element of your text should be functional and
serve this particular purpose. It means that the text should not be simply a
collection of curated quotes and facts, but a means to an end—to get your
audience on board with what you have discovered about the problem under
investigation.

We already discussed such aspects of academic writing as the audience and

crafting our arguments according to it; however, we also want to
emphasize a less evident marker of purposeful academic writing - the
absence of space-fillers.

Space-fillers are sentences, paragraphs, or even larger text fragments that

do not add any value to the topic but are included because the writer:

- needs to meet the word count (through, for example, repetitive

content);
- needs to fill in the knowledge gaps;
- adds that information unintentionally as a result of getting
side-tracked or losing the focus from the actual instruction question;
- accidentally found interesting information that was not asked for, but
they still want to add it;
- focuses too much on one of the aspects, making it longer than it was
actually presupposed by the instruction.
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Space-fillers do not necessarily mean “off-topic”. On the contrary, writers

can sometimes add information that technically refers directly to the
general topic, but does not add any value to the particular narrowed
instruction question. Adding some additional facts, definitions, comments,
and generalized statements without a purpose makes them space-fillers.

Let’s see the following examples (from real cases) of what a quality
specialist can mark as space-fillers in your papers:

1. 'Transformational leaders positively influence their followers since they

have specific qualities and personalities, allowing them to utilize the style
efficiently.' In a PhD paper on the topic “The Role of Transformational
Leadership in Promoting Organizational Creativity” such a wordy
generalized sentence carries zero value.

2. According to the instruction for the criminal justice paper, the writer
needs to explain the Rational Choice Theory and discuss what changes
should be made to the criminal justice system assuming that research has
established that this theory has unequivocally identified the cause of crime.
The writer adds the following section to their paper:

Introduction
Rational Choice Theory
Outdated Policies Related to Rational Choice theory
Theory-based Reforms
Conclusion
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Despite the clear instructions - to discuss the theory and propose reforms -
the writer decided to add the “Outdated Policies” section. Its content might
be really good, but it is not needed here, the instruction did not ask for that;
thus, this section is a space-filler.

3. In the answer to the question “Your diagnosis to the central company’s

issues” the writer starts with explaining the long process of the company’s
foundation.

Space-fillers are markers of poor proficiency and lack of responsible

approach. They are always visible for the audience, customers, professors,
and quality specialists. Pro writers are expected to always stay on topic and
make sure every sentence or element of their text carries value.
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Stylistics

Bias-Free and Inclusive Language

In our writing we should always be sensitive to labels. There are a lot of

labels which can result in offensive and derogatory meanings, so it is better
to memorize what to avoid and understand how to be more inclusive in
your papers.

Here are important aspects you should keep in mind:

1. Use “People-first” language.

Avoid using adjectives as nouns to label people (e.g. “the poor”, “the
disabled”) or labels that equate people with their conditions (e.g.
“schizophrenics”, “drug users”, “autists”). Instead, use nouns with
descriptive phrases (e.g. “people living in poverty”, “people with
disabilities”, “people with schizophrenia”, “people who use drugs”, “a
person with autism”).

2. Use the right terms related to age and health Status.

- Terms that we should avoid are: “seniors,” “elderly,” “the aged,”
“aging dependants.” These are stigmatizing terms. More preferred
terms are: “older persons,” “older adults,” “older individuals,”
“persons 65 years and older,” “the older population.”
- Avoid using negativistic terms that imply restrictions, such as
“wheelchair bound,” “confined to a wheelchair” (use the term
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“wheelchair user” instead). The same rule applies to persons with

certain diseases (“Persons with AIDS” instead of “AIDS victims”).
Also, avoid euphemisms when describing individuals with
disabilities (e.g. “special needs”, “physically challenged”,
“handi-capable”)
- mind also that using some labels is acceptable, but they should be
capitalized to identify a sense of community (e.g. “the Deaf”)

3. Use the right terms related to gender and sex.

Gender refers to the attitudes, feelings, and behaviours that a given
culture associates with a person’s biological sex. We should use the term
“gender” when referring to people as social groups.
Sex refers to biological sex assignment. Gender identity is distinct
from sexual orientation
Transgender is used as an adjective to refer to persons whose gender
identity or behavior does not conform to what is culturally associated with
their sex assigned at birth. Other than “transgender” there also exist the
following terms: “gender-nonconforming (TGNC),” “gender-nonbinary,”
or “agender”.
Terms such as “birth sex,” “natal sex” are considered disparaging
(showing less respect or value) and should be replaced with “assigned
sex”, “sex assigned at birth”.

4. Use the right terms to define sexual orientation.

Use the term “sexual orientation” rather than “sexual preference”,
“sexual identity”, “sexual orientation identity”. Avoid terms “homosexual”
and “homosexuality” which have been and continue to be associated with
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negative stereotypes; instead, use identity-first terms to describe people’s

sexual orientation (e.g.,bisexual people, queer people).

Let’s look at this example:

Bad: The sample consisted of 200 adolescent homosexuals.
Good: The sample consisted of 200 gay male adolescents.
Good: The sample consisted of 100 gay male adolescents and 100 lesbian
female adolescents.
Use the umbrella term “sexual and gender minorities” to refer to multiple
sexual and gender minority groups. The terms “straight” and
“heterosexual” are both acceptable to use when referring to people who are
attracted to individuals of another gender.

5. Use proper words related to socioeconomic status.

Use people-first language, namely such terms as “people who are
homeless”, “people in emergency shelter”, “people in transitional
housing”, rather than calling people “the homeless”.

6. Be careful with words related to racial and ethnic identity:

- Capitalize racial identity. We should use “Black” and “White”
instead of “black” and “white” (the same for “Native American,”
“Hispanic,” “Indigenous,” “Aboriginal”). Whenever we refer to a
specific group, each word should be capitalized (e.g., the
Indigeneous Peoples of Canada)
- When we talk about American people of African ancestry, both
terms “Black” and “African American” are acceptable; The same
principle is applicable for “Asian” and “Asian-American”;
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- Terms “Negro” and “Afro-American” are considered disparaging

and inappropriate. The use of “Caucassian” as an alternative to
“White” or “European” is discouraged. The use of the term Eskimo
(for Alaska Natives) is discouraged.
- The following is the list of other acceptable terms: Asian Canadian,
East Asian, European, European-American, Southern European,
Scandinavian, Native North American, Hawaiian Native, Alaska
Natives, Latinx.

7. Avoid generalization bias.

While remembering that populations are made up of individuals we
need to avoid biased generalizations when we speak about them. Writing
something like “students from multilingual backgrounds struggle with
literacy in writing” is technically a biased statement. It is only partially
true as there are multilingual students that actually excel in writing. To
avoid unintentional bias in such cases, saying “some” or “may” clarifies
that we do not mean the whole group.

This list is rather comprehensive, but not exhaustive. Our key point here is
that, as writers, we should be intuitively sensitive to any form of bias in
your writing. Be careful with descriptors, use terms that the groups use to
describe themselves and remember to acknowledge their humanity, do not
use descriptors that are not necessary, and use singular ‘they’ whenever the
gender of a person you speak about is unknown or irrelevant.
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Language of ambiguity and vagueness

Being as clear as possible in your writing is another marker of
professionalism. That is why you should avoid any cases of ambiguous
language or vagueness in your argumentation not to leave space for your
reader for multiple interpretations or misinterpretations.

The most evident manifestation of ambiguity is the use of words and

phrases that convey generalization (“things”, “since recently”, “today’s
society”, “staff”, “for a while”, “many”, “always”, “never”, “obviously”
etc). However, ambiguity and vagueness may become evident in the
context. Let’s look at the examples from real papers:

“It becomes difficult to argue the fundamental position of housing in

human life."
Why “becomes”? Since when? In comparison with what period?

“Social work is a sensitive profession as it involves dealing with

individuals’ stressors, as well as intervening using various solutions to
facilitate better outcomes”
What solutions? What are better outcomes?

“While interpreting emotions follows a standard procedure, we cannot

ignore the role of one's background in how some people perceive others.”
What role? Perceive in terms of what? What is that “standard procedure”?

“They did not demonstrate the qualities of skilled employees”

What are these “qualities”?
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"The fraud scheme is interesting because some techniques adopted are not
detectable through audits”.
Instead of “interesting” a more precise word should be used. Also, what
“techniques”?

“We mean technology developers, some of whom have bad intentions that
could affect accountability and trust in technology”
What bad intentions?

The point is, you should not make the reader guess what you mean. Be as
precise as possible. Use concrete words and articulate exactly what you
mean.
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Circumlocutions
According to Webster’s Dictionary of Synonyms, a circumlocution is “a
roundabout or indirect way of saying a thing.” In practice, it involves using
simple words to describe a concept or a process in a “roundabout” way,
rather than using the right term or expression. It creates an impression that
the writer lacks some background knowledge about the subject.

Examples of circumlocutions:

- “Because these foods are not rich in calories, individuals had to eat
a lot of food to get the necessary energy.”

The variant with the right term:

“Because this is a low-calorie food, it should be complemented with
high-calorie products to compensate for the shortage of nutritional
value."

- “The intention of online marketers is to ensure that as many people

as possible are capable of seeing the product promotion ads
displayed on social media.''

The variant with the right term:

“The intention of online marketers is to ensure the desired coverage of
product promotion ads displayed on social media” OR “The intention of
online marketers is to ensure that product promotion ads displayed on
social media reach the broader targeted audience.”
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Another vivid example of circumlocution is:

“With respect to verbiage, the excessively loquacious individual almost
always encounters some lack of cognition on the part of the members of his
audience, with the result that their attention falters and his message is
often largely unattended to.”

Here we see how circumlocutions create unnecessary sophistication and

prevent the reader from understanding a simple idea - that the fewer the
speaker’s or writer’s words, the better is the listener’s or reader’s
concentration.

Mind that it does not mean that the above examples are totally incorrect.
But when the whole paper is written that way it significantly decreases the
readability. So, make sure you find the right topical terminology to
demonstrate understanding of the subject.