UNIT- I

INTRODUCTION

Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to land by artificial means for the purpose of
cultivation. In other words, Irrigation is defined as the process of artificial supply of water to soil for raising crops.
Ordinally water is supplied to land by nature through rain but generally it is not enough for the proper growth of
the plant as such the basic objective of irrigation is to supplement the natural supply of water to land so as to
obtain and optimum yield from the crop growth on the land. It is a science of planning and designing an efficient,
low-cost, economic irrigation system. It is the engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources
of water, by constructing dams and reservoirs, canals and head works, and finally distributing the water to the
agricultural fields.

Irrigation engineering includes the study and design of works in connection with river control, drainage of
waterlogged areas and generation of hydroelectric power. India is basically an agricultural country and all its
resources depend on the agriculture.

Necessity of Irrigation System

If rainfall is less than the demand of plants, irrigation is necessary to fulfill the water requirement of plants. The
difference in water holding capacity of the soil plays important role in the Necessity of Irrigation supply. For
example, sandy soil requires frequent irrigation than clay soil. If rainfall is sufficient but spatial distribution is not as
per requirement, irrigation becomes necessary. If rainfall is sufficient, spatial distribution is also good but temporal
distribution is not as per requirement, irrigation water is necessary for plants. An advanced scientific development
like High Yielding Varieties Seeds (HYV) demands irrigation. Actually, irrigation is the most important input for HYV.

BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Saves Time:

An automatic irrigation system will save you plenty of time that you in the past would have spent watering your
lawns, gardens and flowers. You can now have your timers set, so that watering will take place at the times that
best suits your landscape and the climate where you live. You can go on that holiday knowing that your lawns and
flowers will be maintained and flourishing when you return.

Saves Money:

With an automatic irrigation system there is no money or water wasted, for everything is timed, programmed and
these systems all have rain sensors, so every drop of water is used only when it is needed.

Saves Water:

Whatever type of irrigation system you install, there will definitely be a greater saving on water. You can help
conserve water with automatic systems, for there is no wasting of water, every drop is used not wasted away. You
can save between 30 and 50 percent of the water that you would normally use with other more conventional
watering methods.

Improves Growth:
 When plants, crops, lawns or flowers are watered with smaller amounts of water over a longer period of time,
they grow faster, for it is the ideal condition for growth. You will enjoy greener and more luscious gardens and
lawns.

Weed Reduction

You will notice a reduction in the amount of weeds appearing, this is due to the fact that those areas that need
water are the only areas receiving water, with the implementation of a specifically designed irrigation system.

There are many direct and indirect benefits or advantages of irrigation which can be listed as follows.

1. Increase in food production: Crops need optimum quantity of water at required intervals assured and timely
supply of water helps in achieving good yield and also superior crops can be grown and thus, the value of the crops
increases.

2. Protection from famine: Irrigation works can be constructed during famine (drought).

This helps in employment generation and people also get protection from famine. After completion of such works,
continuous water supply may be available for crops and people.

3. Cultivation of Cash crops: With the availability of continuous water supply, cash crops such as sugarcane, indigo,
tobacco, cotton etc. can be grown.

4. Increase in prosperity of people: Due to assured water supply people can get good yield and returned for their
crops. Land value increases and this raises the standard of living of the people and hence prosperity takes place.

5. Generation of hydroelectric power: Major river valley projects are designed to provide power generation
facilities also apart from irrigation needs.

6. Domestic and Industrial water supply: Water stored in reservoirs can also be used to serve other purposes like
domestic water supply to towns and cities and also for industrial use. Canals can also be effectively used to serve
these purposes.

7. Inland Navigation: In some cases, the canals are very large enough to be used as channels for inland navigation
as water ways are the cheapest means of transportation.

8. Improvement in communication: Main canals in large irrigation projects are provided with inspection roads all
along the sides. These roads can be asphalted and used as a means of communication.

9. Canal plantation: Due to continuous flow of water adjoining areas of a canal are always saturated with water. In
such places, trees can be planted which increases the timber wealth of the country.

10. Improvement in ground water storage: Due to constant percolation and seepage of irrigation water, ground
water table rises. The ground water may percolate and may be beneficial to other areas.

11. Aid in civilization: Due to introduction of river valley projects, tribal people can adopt agriculture as their
profession which helps in improving the standards of living.
12. General development of a country: By assured water supply, farmers can expect good yield. By exporting
surplus goods, Government can get revenue. The government can then come forward to improve communications
facilities such as roads and railways and also social development by providing schools, hospitals etc.,

Ill-effects of Irrigation

If water is used in a controlled and careful manner, there would be no ill effects of irrigation.

Excess and unscientific use of irrigation of water, raise to the following ill effects.

1. Water logging: Excess water applied to the fields allows water to percolate below and ground water table rise.
The ground water table may rise saturating the root zone of the crop and cutting of air supply to the roots of the
crops. Such a phenomenon is called water logging. Under such conditions fertility of land reduced and also
reduction of crop yield.

2. Breeding placed for mosquitoes: Excess application of water for irrigation leads to water logging and formation
of stagnant water pools, which become breeding places for mosquitoes, thus helping spreading of malaria.

3. Unhealthy Climate: Due to intense irrigation the climate becomes damp during summer due to humidity, the
climate is sultry and in winter it becomes excessively cold. The resistance of the body to diseases is reduced. In
addition to the above, careless use of water leads to wastage of useful irrigation water for which any government
will incurred huge amounts.

History of irrigation development in India

The history of irrigation in India can be traced back thousands of years. Ancient civilizations in the Indus Valley and
the Gangetic plains practiced sophisticated irrigation techniques to support their agricultural activities. The Indus
Valley Civilization, in particular, developed an extensive network of canals and water management systems. During
the medieval period, various kingdoms and empires, such as the Mauryas, Guptas, and Mughals, contributed to
the development of irrigation infrastructure. The construction of tanks, reservoirs, and wells became prevalent,
and water management practices were improved. The British colonial period witnessed significant developments
in irrigation. The British introduced modern irrigation methods, including canal systems and the construction of
dams. The British East India Company established the Ganges Canal, now known as the Upper Ganga Canal, in the
19th century, which played a vital role in transforming agriculture in northern India. Post-independence, the Indian
government prioritized irrigation as a means to boost agricultural productivity and ensure food security. Several
major irrigation projects were undertaken, such as the Bhakra-Nangal Dam, the Hirakud Dam, and the Sardar
Sarovar Dam. These projects aimed to harness the potential of rivers and improve water availability for irrigation.

Major Events in Sources of Irrigation in India

Indus Valley Civilization: The Indus Valley Civilization is credited with the early development of advanced irrigation
techniques, including canal systems and water storage structures.

Colonial Period: The British introduced modern irrigation systems, including the construction of canals and dams,
shaping the irrigation landscape in India.

Major Irrigation Projects: Post-independence, several major irrigation projects were initiated, resulting in the
construction of dams, reservoirs, and canal networks to augment irrigation potential.
Importance or Significance of Sources of Irrigation in India

Sources of irrigation hold immense significance for agriculture and the overall economy of India:

Agricultural Productivity: Irrigation ensures a consistent water supply for crops, leading to increased agricultural
productivity, improved crop yields, and enhanced food security.

Crop Diversification: Availability of water through irrigation allows farmers to diversify their crops and cultivate
high-value cash crops, contributing to income generation and agricultural growth.

Mitigating Drought Risks: Irrigation reduces dependence on erratic monsoons and helps mitigate the adverse
effects of droughts, ensuring stable agricultural production and farmer livelihoods.

1. Rural Development: Access to irrigation facilities promotes rural development by creating employment
opportunities, enhancing farm incomes, and improving the socio-economic conditions of rural
communities.
2. Strengthening the Economy: The agricultural sector, supported by irrigation, contributes significantly to
India's GDP, export earnings, and rural development, playing a crucial role in the country's economic
growth.

Points to Remember about Sources of Irrigation in India

Here are some key points to remember about sources of irrigation in India:

1. The major sources of irrigation in India include rivers, canals, wells, tanks, and modern techniques like
sprinkler and drip irrigation.
2. Rivers such as the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra, along with their tributaries, contribute significantly to
irrigation.
3. Canal irrigation, both major and minor, covers a substantial portion of the irrigated land.
4. Tube wells and wells provide access to groundwater for irrigation, especially in regions with limited
surface water resources.
5. Traditional methods such as tanks, step wells, and ponds have historical significance and continue to play
a role in irrigation.
Types of Irrigation systems

The various irrigation system maybe classified in different ways as indicated below.

1. Classification of irrigation system on the basis of the availability of irrigation water.

On the basis of the availability of irrigation water the irrigation system maybe classified in the following two
classes.

i. flow irrigation system

ii. lift irrigation system

Flow irrigation system is that system of irrigation in which the irrigation water is available at such a level that it is
conveyed to the land to be irrigated by gravity flow. The flow irrigation system can be further Classified on the
basis of the source from which the irrigation water is obtained as follows.

a. direct irrigation system

b. Reservoir or tank or storage irrigation system

Direct irrigation system

In this system the irrigation water is directly diverted from the river into the canal by constructing a diversion
structure like weir or barrage across the river with some pondage to take care of diurnal variations. It also effects
in raising the river water level which is then able to flow into the offtaking channel by gravity. The flow in the
channel is usually controlled by a gated structure and this in combination with the diversion structure is also
sometimes called the headworks.

Indirect (Storage) Irrigation system

For this type of irrigation schemes part of the excess water of a river during monsoon which otherwise would have
passed down the river as a flood is stored in a reservoir or tank found at the upstream of a dam constructed across
a river or stream. This stored water is then used for irrigation is adopted when the flow of river or stream is in
excess of the requirements of irrigated crops during a certain part of the year but falls below requirements or is
not available at all in the river during remaining part of the year.

Lift irrigation system

Lift irrigation system is that system of irrigation in which the irrigation water is available at a level lower than that
of the land to be irrigated, and hence the water is lifted up by pump or other mechanical devices for lifting water
and then conveyed to the land to be irrigated by gravity flow. Irrigation from Wells is an example of lift irrigation
system

2. Classification of irrigation system on the basis of the duration of irrigation.

On the basis of the duration of the irrigation practiced the irrigation system maybe classified in the following two
classes.

i. Inundation irrigation system

ii. Perennial irrigation system

Inundation irrigation system

Inundation irrigation system is that system of irrigation in which a large quantity of water flowing in a river during
floods is allowed to flood or in a date the land to be cultivated, thereby causing a Thorough saturation of the land.
The inundation irrigation system is therefore basically a flow irrigation system. This method of irrigation of
inundating the land during floods, practiced in an inundation irrigation system is known as inundation irrigation or
flood irrigation. The inundation irrigation is commonly practice in Delta regions where during floods the water may
over flow the river banks and flood the adjoining land. The inundation irrigation may also be practiced by
conveying water from a river during floods, through artificially built inundation canals to the land to be inundate.

Perennial Irrigation system

Perennial irrigation system is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is supplied as per the crop
requirement at regular intervals throughout the period from sowing to harvesting of the crop. The irrigation
practiced in a perennial irrigation system is known as perennial irrigation. The water for this system of irrigation
may be obtained from river or Wells or any other perennial source of water. Perennial irrigation system may be a
flow irrigation system or lift irrigation system or a combination of both the systems. The perennial irrigation
system is the most commonly adopted irrigation system.

Methods of Irrigation

Irrigation methods are commonly designated according to the manner in which water is applied to the land or field
to be irrigated. The water may be applied to the land to be irrigated either by spreading it on the land surface or by
spring it over the land surface or by applying it beneath the land surface as such the various method of the
irrigation may be classified in the following categories.
Surface irrigation method

In this system of field water application the water is applied directly to the soil from a channel located at the upper
reach of the field. It is essential in these methods to construct designed water distribution systems to provide
adequate control of water to the fields and proper land preparation to permit uniform distribution of water over
the field.

Types of surface irrigation

Flooding irrigation

Furrow irrigation

Contour irrigation

Flooding irrigation

Flooding method has been used in India for generations without any control what so ever and is called
uncontrolled flooding. The water is made to enter the fields bordering rivers during floods. When the flood water
inundates the flood plane areas, the water distribution is quite uneven, hence not very efficient, as a lot of water is
likely to be wasted as well as soils of excessive slopes are prone to erosion. However the adaptation of this method
doesn’t cost much.

Types of Flooding irrigation

There are two types of flooding irrigation. They are:

a. Wild/Uncontrolled Flooding

b. Controlled Flooding
a. Uncontrolled Flooding
In uncontrolled flooding; the water is spread or flooded into the field without control of water and preparation of
land. It is also called wild flooding. The efficiency of this method depends upon the depth of flooding, the size of
the stream, the rate of intake of water into the soil, and the topography of the field. This method is suitable for
inundation irrigation systems, pastures & forage crops and is inexpensive. There should also be the availability of a
sufficient amount of water. Disadvantages of this method are as follows.

1. Inefficient use of water.

2. Uneven distribution of water.

3. Over-irrigation causes the rise of the groundwater table.

4. Large percolation loss.

b. Controlled flooding

In this type of flooding, water is applied to the land in a controlled manner. There is proper control of the flow as
well as the quantity of water.
Types of controlled flooding
Controlled flooding is classified into the following types:

i. Free flooding

ii. Border flooding

iii. Check for flooding

iv. Basin flooding

v. Contour laterals

vi. The ZigZag method

(i).Free flooding

This method consists of dividing the entire land to be irrigated into small strips by a number of field channels
known as laterals. These laterals may be either at right angle to the side of the field or at right angle to the contour
lines as shown in figure. When laterals are aligned at right angle to the sides of the field, irrigation is possible only
to one side to lateral (field channel). When laterals (or field channel) are aligned at right angle to the contour,
irrigation is possible on both side of lateral as shown in figure. The field channels receive water from the main
supply channel and discharge access water in the waste channel. This method is used for both flat as well as for
relatively steep land. The initial cost of land preparation is less but high labor requirement and water application
efficiency is low.
 Fig: Free Flooding

ii. Border Strip Method or Border Flooding or Border irrigation

Borders are usually long uniformly graded strips of land separated by earth bunds (low ridges). In Border Flooding;
the agricultural farm is divided into a series of strips. Strips are about 10-20 m wide and 100-400 m long. This
method is suitable when the area is at level with gentle slope. The land is leveled perpendicular to the flow to
prevent the concentration of water on either side of the border. It is Suitable for all close-growing crops, row crops
& orchards. This method requires less labour & time, low maintenance cost and utilizes a large volume of water
from the stream to the irrigation field safely. This method requires high initial cost, proper leveling and requires a
huge amount of water.
iii. Basin flooding or Basin Irrigation

Basins are flat areas of land surrounded by low bunds. The bunds prevent the water from flowing to the adjacent
fields. The basins are filled to desired depth and the water is retained until it infiltrates into the soil. Water may be
maintained for considerable periods of time.

Types of basin irrigation

a. check basin method

The check basin method is the most common method of irrigation used in India. In this method, the land to be
irrigated is divided into small plots or basins surrounded by checks, levees (low bunds). Check flooding is similar to
ordinary flooding or free flooding except that water is controlled by surrounding the check area with flat &
low levees. If the ground has some initial slope, levees may follow the contour. It is suitable to irrigate food & grain
crops in heavy soil.

This method is suitable for both permeable and impermeable soil. If soil is permeable, water can be spread easily
without any percolation losses. If the soil is impermeable, water can be held for a long time. In this method high
irrigation efficiency can be achieved, unskilled labor can be employed, large numbers of laborers are required and
levees restrict the use of modern machinery.
 b. Ring Basin Method

The ring basin method which is used for growing trees in orchards. In this method, generally for each tree, a
separate basin is made which is usually circular in shape

Sometimes, basin sizes are made larger to include two more trees in one basin. Water to the basins is supplied
from a supply channel through small field channels conveyed the basins with the supply channel. It is suitable for
orchards and trees. This method Provide efficient use of water, less labor, less maintenance cost, high initial cost, a
large quantity of water is needed and requires leveling.

iv. Contour laterals

This method is best suited to steeper terrain. The field is cut by a relatively dense network of contour laterals. The
space of contour laterals depends upon the grade of land, uniformity of slope & type of soil. This method suitable
for closed-growing crops on slopy land. It can be used in all types of soils, low cost, inefficient use of water, Uneven
distribution of land, Over-irrigation, Large percolation.
v. Zigzag method

The Zigzag method is a special method of controlled flooding where water applied to the land takes a circuitous
route, starting from the field channel and reaching the dead end of each plot.

For this purpose, the whole farm is divided into several square (or rectangular) plots. Each plot is provided with
levees ( or small bunds ) such that the water takes the circulation path covering the entire plot.

The Zigzag method is quite suitable for relatively level plots. However, the method is not suitable when the farming
operations are to be done with modern farm machinery.

Furrow Irrigation

Furrows are small channels, which carry water down the land slope between the crop rows. Water infiltrates into
the soil as it moves along the slope. The crop is usually grown on ridges between the furrows.

This method is suitable for all row crops and for crops that cannot stand water for long periods, like 12 to 24 hours,
as is generally encountered in the border or basin methods of irrigation
 Fig: Furrow Irrigation

Subsurface irrigation methods

Natural sub-surface irrigation method

Artificial sub-surface irrigation method

Natural Sub-surface irrigation method

Under favorable conditions of topography and soil conditions, the water table may be close enough to the root
zone of the field of crops which gets its moisture due to the upward capillary movement of water from the water
table. The natural presence of the water table may not be able to supply the requisite water throughout the crop
growing season. It may be done artificially by constructing deep channels in the field which may be filled with
water at all times to ensure the presence of water table at a desired elevation below the root zone depth.

Artificial subsurface irrigation method

This method of irrigation will function only if the soil in the root zone has high horizontal permeability to permit
free lateral movement of water and low vertical permeability to prevent deep percolation of water.

For uniform distribution of water percolating into the soil, the pipes are required to be very closely spaced, say at
about 0.5m.

Sprinkler Irrigation System

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water which is similar to natural rainfall but spread uniformly over the
land surface just when needed and at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil so as to avoid surface runoff
from irrigation.

This is achieved by distributing water through a system of pipes usually by pumping which is then sprayed into the
air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground.
Drip Irrigation System

Drip Irrigation system is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very low
rates (2-20 litres per hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes filled with outlets called emitters or
drippers.

Water is applied close to the plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface
and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile.