ME2040-Instrumentation

Lakshmana D. Chandrala
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad

2022
 Experimental methods for fluid velocity
Fluid velocity

Single point measurements Whole field measurements

 Velocity: PIV, PTV, Tomo-PIV,

 Velocity: Hotwire, pitot tube,
Stereo PIV. Holographic-PIV.
LDV
Particle Image Velocimetry.
 Applications of PIV
Flow over automobiles

https://www.seika-di.com/en/measurement/principle_of_piv.html

Rotary wing
Flow over airfoils

Ref:Chris Rogers et al
 Components of 2D PIV system

 Standard 2D PIV
t=t Lens
0
Measurement Light
Laser volume sheet

Image #1

t=t
Fluid flow seeded with
0
small tracer particles

Exposure #1
Lens system
& Camera

Single exposed recording Double exposed recording

4
 Components of 2D PIV system contd..

 Standard 2D PIV
t=t0+∆t Lens
Measurement Light
Laser volume sheet

Image #1

t=t
Fluid flow seeded with
0
small tracer particles

Image #2

Exposure #1
t=t0+∆t Lens system
& Camera Exposure #2

Single exposed recording Double exposed recording

5
 Illumination-Lasers
Lasers: Dual cavity pulsed-lasers

Laser sheet generation

Cylindrical lenses Cylindrical& spherical lenses

 Tracers for PIV
 Tracer must be small enough to follow (trace) fluid motion and
should not alter fluid or flow properties
 Uniform seeding is critical to the success of obtaining velocity field.

• Velocity lag of a particle in a continuously accelerating

fluid:
( ρ p − ρ f ) dU f
V = U p −U f = d 2

18µ
p
dt
• The particle velocity response to the fluid velocity for heavy
particles (ρp>>ρf) in a continuously accelerating flow is:
  t 
U p (t ) = U f 1 − exp − 
 τ 
  p 
ρp
• Particle response time:τ p = d p2
18µ
 Tracers for PIV cont..

• Stokes number St as the ratio

of the particle response time to
the fluid time scale: Theoretical time response
of oil particles in air after
St = τ p / τ k an instantaneous flow
deceleration
• St: the degree of coupling
between the particle phase and
the fluid.
– St→0 the particles behave like
tracers
– St→∞ the particles are
completely unresponsive to the
fluid flow.
Seeding materials for liquid and gas
Seeding materials for liquid flows

Seeding materials for gas flows

Recording devices-Cameras
Progressive scan, interline-transfer CCD layout

CMOS layout
Timing diagrams for PIV recording
Camera and laser synchronization
 Camera and laser synchronization
Timing diagram

Dual-frame PIV-synchronization with double cavity pulsed

Nd:YAG laser
 Overview of PIV processing

• Image acquisition and digitization

• Displacement estimation
--cross correlation

• Vector validation &Velocity estimation

 Digital Image
A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional image as a
finite set of digital values, called picture elements or pixels

BIT DEPTH is determined by the

number of bits used to define each
pixel. The greater the bit depth, the
Image representation matrix
greater the number of tones (grayscale
or color) that can be represented.
Digital images may be produced in
grayscale, or color.
Displacement estimation

Each pixel in the image has an intensity (I) associated

with it. If a seed particle is present in an area, that area
would look brighter in the image and hence have a
higher intensity.
 Correlation
Correlation plays a central role in the study of time series. In general,
correlation gives a quantitative estimate of the degree of similarity
between two functions.

Cross-correlation is a measure of similarity of two signals as a

function of a lag applied to one of them.

I1 I2
Autocorrelation, also known as serial correlation, is the cross-
correlation of a signal with itself

I1 =I2
 Auto Correlation

I1 = I2
I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)
s=0
1 N −1 R(s)
rs = ∑ I 1( i ) I 2 ( i + s )
N i =0 R(s) =ˆ ∫ I1 ( X )I 2 ( X + s)dX
s = 0,1,2,, N − 1
Shift (a variable)
I1 = I 2
s
0
Auto-Correlation
 Auto Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
0
 Auto Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
0
 Auto Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
0
 I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
0
 Auto Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
0
 Auto Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
0
 Auto Correlation
Second correlation peak location corresponds to the
separation of the two images

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
0
Directional Ambiguity
 Cross Correlation

Illustration of cross-correlation
∆ principle
I1
(1D)
I1 ( X ) I2

I 2 ( X)
1 N −1
Shift direction rs = ∑ I 1( i ) I 2 ( i + s )
N i =0
R(s)
s = 0,1,2,, N − 1
R(s) =ˆ ∫ I1 ( X)I 2 ( X + s)dX
Shift (a variable)
s
 Cross Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)
s=0
R(s)

s
 Cross Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
 Cross Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
 Cross Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
 Cross Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
 Cross Correlation

I1 ( X )

I 2 (X + s)

R(s)

s
 Cross Correlation
Correlation peak location corresponds to the separation of the two
images ∆

I1 ( X )

I 2 ( X)
R(s)

s
∆
Cross Correlation in 2D

Cross Correlation in 2D

Location of particles in
Frame B
 Cross Correlation in 2D
Cross-correlation principle (2D)

• Discrete cross-correlation (in space domain)

N M
φ fg(m,n) = ∑∑ f(k,l)g(k + m,l + n)
k =1 l =1

N M

∑∑ f(k,l)g(k + m,l + n)
φ fg(m,n) = k =1 l =1
Normalized value N M N M

∑∑ f(k,l) ∑∑ g(k,l)
k =1 l =1
2

k =1 l =1
2
 Cross Correlation in 2D
A) B)

NOTE: Particles and

Interrogation region
are typically larger
than represented here
in this simplified
example
Frame A
 Cross Correlation in 2D
A) B)

(1*1)
(1*0) Cross Correlation Map
(1*0) Displacement (x,y) = (0,0)
(1*0) 1
+ (1*0)
1
 Cross Correlation in 2D
A) B)

(1*0)
(1*0) Cross Correlation Map
(1*0) Displacement (x,y) = (0,1)
(1*0) 1
+ (1*0)
0
Cross Correlation
A) B)

(1*1)
(1*1) Cross Correlation Map
2
(1*0) Displacement (x,y) = (0,2)
(1*0) 1
+ (1*0)
2
 Cross Correlation in 2D
A) B)

(1*0)
(1*0) Cross Correlation Map
2
(1*0) Displacement (x,y) = (1,2)
(1*0) 1
+ (1*0)
0
 Cross Correlation in 2D
A) B)

(1*1)
(1*1) Cross Correlation Map
2 5
(1*1) Displacement (x,y) = (2,2)
(1*1) 1
+ (1*1)
5
 Cross Correlation in 2D
A) B)

Cross Correlation Map

Displacement (x,y) = (2,2)

Peak in the Correlation Map

is at (+2,+2), indicating that the
particles moved in this direction
from Frame A) to Frame B).
 Cross-correlation in FFT domain
Select interrogation window
f(m,n) F(u,v)
FFT
Cross-correlation in FFT domain

f(m,n) F(u,v)
FFT
g(m,n) G(u,v)
FFT
Cross-correlation in FFT domain
Cross-correlation through FFT
f(m,n) F(u,v)
FFT FT of
Cross-correlation
g(m,n) G(u,v) Φ’(u,v)
FFT =F(u,v)*G(u,v)
Cross-correlation in FFT domain

f(m,n) F(u,v)
FFT FT of
Cross-correlation
g(m,n) G(u,v) Φ’(u,v)
FFT =F(u,v)G*(u,v)

Φ’(u,v)

FFT-1
 Cross-correlation in FFT domain
Cross-correlation through FFT
f(m,n) F(u,v)
FFT FT of
Cross-correlation
g(m,n) G(u,v) Φ’(u,v)
FFT =F(u,v)G(u,v)

Φ’(u,v)
φ’(m,n) = f(m,n) ⊗ g(m,n) FFT-1

Peak detection

Convolution theorem

Find ∆x, ∆y
then convert
to velocity
Correlation peak estimation
Sub-pixel accuracy
Vector validation
 Velocity estimation

 Velocity determination with standard 2D PIV

Image plane
Scale factor: M=L/L’
Laser light sheet
Time interval: ∆t
Objective
Lens
Velocity: V=S/∆t=M·S’/ ∆t

S’
Image plane

Objective Lens
Laser light sheet
L’

49
 Particle diameter- Mie scattering
Imaging of small particles (d>λ)
Scattering by a 1 µm oil particle in air

Particle image size

- Particle image diameter dτ

dτ = (Md )
p
2
+ d diff
2

d diff = 2.44 f # (M + 1)λ 50

dτ
( f# = f / d ) 40
Mdp

Image diameter [µm]

30

Calculation of particle image 20

diameter for 1µm particle 10

M=0.1 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Particle diameter (µm)
 Errors in PIV

Peak locking

Total particle diameter

smaller than the pixel size

Always gives integer displacement.

To avoid pixel locking particle diameter > pixel size (close to two
pixels)
 2D PIV data: Example cases
Vortex flow Flat-plate boundary layer

Blast wave
Open-ended shock/blast tube
 2D PIV on human lung epithelial cells
Health effects of aerosols on human cells
Objective: In-situ live imaging of cell cultures

Human bronchial
epithelial cells

Overview of the experimental set-up

setup Cell migration Cilia Motion

50 µm

Oblique illumination Chandrala et. al.,(2019) Nature-Scientific reports

Stereoscopic Particle Image Velocimetry.
 Stereoscopic PIV
Why Stereoscopic PIV Measurements ??
• Most flows are three-dimensional in nature
• Need simultaneous measurement of the three
orthogonal components
• 2D flow measurements using a Single camera
– Out-of-plane motion “appears” to be in-plane
motion
– Errors due to these need to be corrected
• Stereoscopic PIV eliminates these errors
 Fundamentals of Stereoscopic PIV
Displacement True
seen from left displacement

Displacement Focal plane =

seen from right Centre of
light sheet

45° 45°

Left Right
camera camera

True 3D displacement (∆X,∆Y,∆Z) is estimated from a pair of 2D displacements

(∆x,∆y) as seen from left and right camera respectively

3D-PIV is based on the same fundamental principle as human eye-sight

Our two eyes see slightly different images of the world surrounding us, and comparing these images, the
brain is able to make a 3-dimensional interpretation.
 Basis of the stereo PIV technique

 SPIV data reduction

Laser light sheet X

Z
t=t0 ∆X
∆Z
S t=t0+∆t

∆X ∆Z not sensible

Standard PIV view

57
 Basis of the stereo PIV technique

 SPIV data reduction

Laser light sheet ∆X1 X

∆X2
Z
∆X
∆Z
V
α1
α2

Stereo view

camera #1 camera #2

58

3 components from 2D projections

Basis of the stereo PIV technique
 Stereo PIV configurations

Lens Translation
systems

Angular lens displacement

with tilted back plane
(Scheimpflug condition)
 Angular displacement Arrangement

Out of Focus: behind plane of Out of Focus: in front of plane of

focus focus

• Only Particles in the light

sheet can be captured by
the camera
•The plane of focus is
parallel to the sensing
array
Point of Focus Camera Lens

•Portions of light sheet in

front of and behind the
plane of focus are out of
focus CCD Array
 Scheimpflüg Stereoscopic Arrangement

Object plane (Light sheet) Plane of Focus

Scheimpflüg
Condition

By rotating the sensing array

with respect to the lens plane
most of the objective plane can
be focused
Scheimpflüg Stereoscopic Arrangement

Object plane (Light sheet)

Combine for a 3D
Left Camera View Right Camera View
Vector
 Consequences of Scheimpflüg system

 Non uniform magnification

 Perspective distortion to the images causing a
rectangle in the light sheet plane to be imaged
as a trapezoid on the image sensor.
 The velocity vectors must be transformed to
convert them from the image space to the
fluid space.
 3D evaluation requires a numerical model,
describing how objects in space are mapped
onto the CCD-chip of each camera
A B
A B
B A

B A
Left camera
A Regular grid in B Right camera
A fluid image of grid
B
image of grid

Consequences of Scheimpflüg Arrangement

 Stereo calibration
 Black calibration target
with white markers
Multi-level
 Single level and multi Target
level targets

 Centre marker acts like a

reference point or origin.

 The multi-level target

requires no traverse.

 Laser sheet is aligned to

the target
 Stereo calibration-mapping function
Mapping function
Calibration file contains a record of the (X, Y )
image pixel location and the target marker (x, y,
z) location in the object plane given for each
calibration marker.

These gradients of mapping function show the pixel displacements in the

X or Y direction in the image plane that is caused by particle motion in
the x, y or z directions in the object plane
 Stereo calibration-3D velocity estimation
After calibration, images are acquired, and an in-plane cross-correlation
algorithm computes the relevant pixel displacements for each camera.
The following set of transformation equations is used to obtain the fluid
displacements:

These system of four equations with three variables is solved using a

least squares error method
Stereo PIV-flow chart
 Example cases: SPIV

Left & Right camera images are

recorded simultaneously. Automobile wake

Conventional PIV processing

produce 2D vector maps
representing the flow field as seen
from left & right.

Using the camera model including

parameters from the calibration, the
points in the chosen interrogation
grid are now mapped from the light
sheet plane onto the left and right
image plane (CCD-chip)
respectively.

Combining left / right results, 3D

velocities are estimated.
 Example cases: SPIV
Overlap area with
interrogation grid
Resulting 3D vector map

Left 2D vector map Right 2D vector map

 Example cases: SPIV
Lobed nozzle NASA model Lobed nozzle/mixer

Copyright © by Dr. Hui Hu @ Iowa State University

Velocity field at different

axial planes of the nozzle
Tomographic PIV
 Example cases: Tomo PIV
Tomo PIV set-up-nozzle flow Corrugated and smooth nozzle

Locust flying in a wind tunnel Ref: F. Scarano and D. Violato

Time-resolved 3D turbulent
flow field of a swirling jet
flow courtesy TU-Delft

Ref: Lavision Inc Ref: Lavision Inc

 Tomography

In order to obtain the true density field ( i.e., density field in a
section parallel to the optical view path) , mathematical technique
called ‘Tomography‘ has to be implemented.
The tomography technique reconstructs the three-dimensional
information from several projections of the field data.
 The tomography algorithms can be classified into analytical and
iterative algorithms.
 Tomographic Reconstruction

Filtered Back projection and implementation

Fourier slice theorem

Inverse transform of object function f(x,y)

Polar
coordinates
 Density measurements
Deflection of Light Ray in Gas
Light ray in an inhomogeneous refractive field:

Optical length covered by deflected ray different

from that of undisturbed

The rays gets defected due to the presence of

inhomogeneous refractive field:

Shadowgraph Schlieren

• Displays a focused image

• Displays a shadow
• Shows ray refraction angle, ε
• Shows light ray displacement ∂ 2 n
• Intensity level proportional to ∂n 76
•
∂z
Intensity level proportional to 2
• Knife edge used for cutoff ∂z
 Limitations of schlieren & shadowgraphy

Open-ended Shock tube 10 mm

shock
10 mm

Shadowgraphy Schlieren
Ref: K. Kontis et.al, 2008
Limitations:
The density visualization techniques such as Schlieren, Shadowgraphy
and interferometry provide density information. However, they are
laborious to arrange, and require expensive optics.

Not portable to outdoor units

Limited to small- scale measurements.

Collimated Light source.