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Table of Contents
GENERAL CALCULUS IDEAS.....................................................................................................................6
RATES OF CHANGE.......................................................................................................................................6
Speeds.....................................................................................................................................................6
Tangent Lines..........................................................................................................................................6
Examples.................................................................................................................................................6
LIMITS..........................................................................................................................................................6
Properties of Limits.................................................................................................................................6
Examples.................................................................................................................................................7
One-sided and Two-sided Limits............................................................................................................7
Sandwich Theorem..................................................................................................................................7
Examples.................................................................................................................................................7
Limits Involving Infinity..........................................................................................................................8
Examples.................................................................................................................................................8
CONTINUITY.................................................................................................................................................8
Continuity at a Point...............................................................................................................................8
Types of discontinuity.............................................................................................................................8
Properties of Continuous Functions.......................................................................................................8
Composite of Continuous Functions.......................................................................................................9
The Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions.................................................................9
DERIVATIVES..............................................................................................................................................9
INTRO TO DERIVATIVES...............................................................................................................................9
Examples.................................................................................................................................................9
NOTATION....................................................................................................................................................9
DIFFERENTIABILITY....................................................................................................................................10
Examples...............................................................................................................................................10
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION....................................................................................................................10
Rule 1: Derivative of a Constant Function...........................................................................................10
Rule 2: Power Rule for Positive Integer Powers of x...........................................................................10
Rule 3: The Constant Multiple Rule......................................................................................................10
Rule 4: The Sum and Difference Rule...................................................................................................11
Rule 5: The Product Rule......................................................................................................................11
Rule 6: The Quotient Rule.....................................................................................................................11
Rule 7: Power Rule for Negative Integer Powers of x..........................................................................11
Rule 8: Chain Rule:..............................................................................................................................11
Rule 9: Power Rule for Rational Powers of x.......................................................................................11
Rule 10: Power Rule for Arbitrary Real Powers..................................................................................11
Examples...............................................................................................................................................11
PARAMETRIC CURVES................................................................................................................................12
Examples...............................................................................................................................................12
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION.......................................................................................................................12
Examples...............................................................................................................................................12
SECOND AND HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES.............................................................................................13
Examples...............................................................................................................................................13
VELOCITY AND OTHER RATES OF CHANGE...............................................................................................13
Free-fall Constants (Earth)...................................................................................................................13
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION.......................................................................................................................13
DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS..............................................................14
Derivative of ex......................................................................................................................................14
Derivative of ax.....................................................................................................................................14
i
Derivative of ln x...................................................................................................................................14
Derivative of logax................................................................................................................................14
Examples...............................................................................................................................................14
APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES.......................................................................................................15
THEOREMS..................................................................................................................................................15
Theorem 1: The Extreme Value Theorem.............................................................................................15
Theorem 2: Local Extreme Values........................................................................................................15
Theorem 3: Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives...............................................................................15
Theorem 4: First Derivative Test for Local Extrema...........................................................................15
Theorem 5: Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema........................................................................15
Theorem 6: Maximum Profit.................................................................................................................15
Theorem 7: Minimizing Average Cost..................................................................................................16
EXTREME VALUES OF FUNCTIONS.............................................................................................................16
Absolute Extreme Values......................................................................................................................16
Local (Relative) Extreme Values..........................................................................................................16
Critical Point........................................................................................................................................16
Examples...............................................................................................................................................16
MEAN VALUE THEOREM............................................................................................................................16
Increasing Function, Decreasing Function..........................................................................................16
Antiderivative........................................................................................................................................16
Corollary 1: Increasing and Decreasing Functions.............................................................................16
Corollary 2: Functions with f’ = 0 are Constant..................................................................................17
Corollary 3: Functions with the Same Derivative Differ by a Constant..............................................17
Examples...............................................................................................................................................17
CONNECTING F’ AND F’’ WITH THE GRAPH OF F........................................................................................17
Concavity..............................................................................................................................................17
Concavity Test.......................................................................................................................................17
Point of Inflection.................................................................................................................................17
Examples...............................................................................................................................................17
MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION.................................................................................................................18
Strategies for solving Max-Min Problems............................................................................................18
Examples...............................................................................................................................................18
LINEARIZATION AND NEWTON’S METHOD................................................................................................18
Linearization.........................................................................................................................................18
Newton’s Method..................................................................................................................................18
Differentials..........................................................................................................................................18
Differential Estimate of Change...........................................................................................................18
Examples...............................................................................................................................................18
RELATED RATES.........................................................................................................................................19
Examples...............................................................................................................................................19
INTEGRALS.................................................................................................................................................19
THEOREMS..................................................................................................................................................19
Theorem 1: The Existence of Definite Integrals...................................................................................19
Theorem 2: The Integral of a Constant.................................................................................................19
Theorem 3: The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals..............................................................19
Theorem 4: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1................................................................20
Theorem 4 (continued): The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.............................................20
ESTIMATING WITH FINITE SUMS................................................................................................................20
Rectangular Approximation Method (RAM).........................................................................................20
Examples...............................................................................................................................................20
DEFINITE INTEGRALS.................................................................................................................................20
Riemann Sums.......................................................................................................................................20
The Definite Integral as a Limit of Riemann Sums...............................................................................21
The Definite Integral of a Continuous Function on [a, b]....................................................................21
ii
Notation.................................................................................................................................................21
Area Under a Curve (as a Definite Integral)........................................................................................21
Discontinuous Integrable Functions.....................................................................................................21
Examples...............................................................................................................................................21
DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND ANTIDERIVATIVES...........................................................................................22
Rules for Definite Integrals...................................................................................................................22
Average (Mean) Value..........................................................................................................................22
Differential and Integral Calculus........................................................................................................22
Examples...............................................................................................................................................22
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE...................................................................................................................................23
Trapezoidal Rule...................................................................................................................................23
Simpson’s Rule......................................................................................................................................23
Error Bounds........................................................................................................................................23
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................24
APPLICATIONS OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS......................................................................................24
INTEGRAL AS NET CHANGE.......................................................................................................................24
Strategy for Modeling with Integrals....................................................................................................24
Work......................................................................................................................................................24
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................25
AREAS IN THE PLANE.................................................................................................................................25
Area Between Curves............................................................................................................................25
Area Enclosed by Intersecting Curves..................................................................................................25
Boundaries with Changing Functions..................................................................................................25
Integrating with Respect to y................................................................................................................25
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................25
VOLUMES...................................................................................................................................................26
Volumes of a Solid................................................................................................................................26
Solids of Revolution..............................................................................................................................26
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................27
LENGTH OF CURVES...................................................................................................................................27
Arc Length: Length of a Smooth Curve................................................................................................27
Vertical Tangents, Corners, and Cusps................................................................................................28
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................28
OTHER DEFINITIONS...................................................................................................................................28
Probability Density Function (pdf).......................................................................................................28
Normal Probability Density Function..................................................................................................28
The 68-95-99.7 Rule for Normal Distributions.....................................................................................28
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND MATHEMATICAL MODELING............................................29
ANTIDERIVATIVES AND SLOPE FIELDS......................................................................................................29
Solving Initial Value Problems.............................................................................................................29
Slope Field or Direction Field..............................................................................................................29
Indefinite Integral.................................................................................................................................29
Integral Formulas.................................................................................................................................29
Properties of Indefinite Integrals..........................................................................................................30
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................30
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION................................................................................................................30
Power Rule for Integration...................................................................................................................30
Substitution in Definite Integrals..........................................................................................................30
Separable Differential Equations.........................................................................................................30
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................31
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.............................................................................................................................31
Product Rule in Integral Form.............................................................................................................31
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................32
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY........................................................................................................32
iii
Exponential Model................................................................................................................................32
Logistic Growth Rate............................................................................................................................32
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................32
NUMERICAL METHODS...............................................................................................................................33
Euler’s Method......................................................................................................................................33
Improved Euler’s Method.....................................................................................................................34
L’HÔPITAL’S RULE, IMPROPER INTEGRALS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS...........................34
L’HÔPITAL’S RULE....................................................................................................................................34
Theorem 1: L’Hôpital’s Rule (First Form)...........................................................................................34
Theorem 2: L’Hôpital’s Rule (Stronger Form)....................................................................................34
Exponential Indeterminate Forms........................................................................................................34
Indeterminate Forms.............................................................................................................................34
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................34
RELATIVE RATES OF GROWTH...................................................................................................................35
Faster, Slower, Same-rate Growth as x∞.........................................................................................35
Transitivity of Growing Rates...............................................................................................................35
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................35
IMPROPER INTEGRALS................................................................................................................................35
Improper Integrals with Infinite Integration Limits..............................................................................35
Improper Integrals with Infinite Discontinuities..................................................................................36
Direct Comparison Test........................................................................................................................36
Limit Comparison Test..........................................................................................................................36
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................36
PARTIAL FRACTIONS AND INTEGRAL TABLES...........................................................................................37
Partial Fractions...................................................................................................................................37
Trigonometric Substitutions..................................................................................................................38
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................38
INFINITE SERIES.......................................................................................................................................39
POWER SERIES............................................................................................................................................39
Infinite Series........................................................................................................................................39
Geometric Series...................................................................................................................................39
Power Series.........................................................................................................................................39
Term-by-Term Differentiation..............................................................................................................40
Term-by-Term Integration....................................................................................................................40
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................40
TAYLOR SERIES..........................................................................................................................................41
Taylor Series Generated by f at x = a...................................................................................................41
Maclaurin Series...................................................................................................................................41
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................41
Table of Maclaurin Series.....................................................................................................................42
TAYLOR’S THEOREM..................................................................................................................................42
Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder.......................................................................................................42
Remainder Estimation Theorem...........................................................................................................42
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................43
RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE........................................................................................................................43
The Convergence Theorem for Power Series.......................................................................................43
The nth-Term Test for Divergence.........................................................................................................43
The Direct Comparison Test.................................................................................................................43
Absolute Convergence..........................................................................................................................44
Absolute Convergence Implies Convergence........................................................................................44
The Ratio Test.......................................................................................................................................44
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................44
TESTING CONVERGENCE AT ENDPOINTS....................................................................................................45
The Integral Test...................................................................................................................................45
iv
Harmonic Series and p-series...............................................................................................................45
The Limit Comparison Test (LCT)........................................................................................................45
The Alternating Series Test (Leibniz’s Theorem).................................................................................45
The Alternating Series Estimation Theorem.........................................................................................46
Rearrangements of Absolutely Convergent Series................................................................................46
Rearrangement of Conditionally Convergent Series............................................................................46
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................46
PARAMETRIC, VECTOR, AND POLAR FUNCTIONS.......................................................................47
PARAMETRIC FUNCTIONS...........................................................................................................................47
Derivative at a Point.............................................................................................................................47
Length of a Smooth Parameterized Curve............................................................................................47
Surface Area..........................................................................................................................................47
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................48
VECTORS....................................................................................................................................................48
Vector, Equal Vector.............................................................................................................................48
Component Form of a Vector...............................................................................................................48
Dot Product...........................................................................................................................................48
Magnitude.............................................................................................................................................49
Angle Between Two Vectors..................................................................................................................49
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................49
Limit......................................................................................................................................................49
Continuity are a point...........................................................................................................................49
Component Test for Continuity at a Point............................................................................................49
Velocity, Speed, Acceleration, Direction of Motion.............................................................................49
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................50
MODELING PROJECTILE MOTION...............................................................................................................50
Height, Flight Times, and Range for Ideal Projectile Motion..............................................................50
Projectile Motion with Linear Drag.....................................................................................................50
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................51
POLAR CURVES..........................................................................................................................................51
Polar Coordinates.................................................................................................................................51
Equations Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates.........................................................................51
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................51
Slope of the Curve r = f(θ)....................................................................................................................51
Area in Polar Coordinates....................................................................................................................51
Area Between Polar Curves..................................................................................................................52
Length of a Polar Curve.......................................................................................................................52
Area of a Surface of Revolution............................................................................................................52
Examples:..............................................................................................................................................52
v
General Calculus Ideas
Rates of Change
Speeds
Average Speed – found by dividing the distance covered by the elapsed time
y=16t²,
Instantaneous Speed – found by calculating the speed at a specific time
Tangent Lines
The slope of the curve y = f(x) at the point P(a, f(a)) is the number
, provided the limit exists. The tangent line to the curve at P is
the line through P with this slope.
Examples:
Let f(x) = 1/x.
(a) The slope at x = a is
Limits
Limit – Let c and L be real numbers. The function f has limit l as x approaches c if,
given any positive number ε, there is a positive number δ such that for all x,
...
Properties of Limits
If L, M, c, and k are real numbers and
and then
1. Sum Rule:
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
2. Difference Rule:
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.
3. Product Rule:
The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits.
4. Constant Multiple Rule:
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The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
5. Quotient Rule:
The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided the
limit of the denominator is not zero.
6. Power Rule:
If r and s are integers, s ≠ 0, then (see above) provided that is a real number.
The limit of a rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the
function, provided the latter is a real number.
Examples:
(a) Sum & Difference Rule
Product & Multiple Rule
Product Rule
Sandwich Theorem
If g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x) for all x ≠ c in some interval about c, and
, then
Examples:
Show that
and
Because , the Sandwich Theorem gives
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The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = f(x) if either
The function g is a right end behavior model for f if and only if or a left
Continuity
Continuity at a Point
Interior Point: A function y = f(x) is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if
Types of discontinuity
Removable discontinuity: limit goes to a point, but the function does not exist there.
Jump discontinuity: the one-sided limits exist, but have different values.
Oscillating discontinuity: it oscillates too much to have a limit as x0.
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The Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions
A function y = f(x) that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] takes on every value
between f(a) and f(b). In other words, if y0 is between f(a) and f(b), then y0 = f(c) for some
c in [a, b].
Derivatives
Intro to Derivatives
The derivative of the function f with respect to the variable x is the function f’ whose
value at x is , provided the limit exists. If f’(x) exists, we say
that f is differentiable at x. A function that is differentiable at every point of its domain is
a differentiable function.
The derivative of the function f at the point x = a is the limit ,
provided the limit exists.
A function y = f(x) is differentiable on a closed interval [a, b] if it has a derivative at
every interior point of the interval, and if the limits
Notation
y’ “y prime”
“dy dx” or “the derivative of y with respect to x
“d dx of f at x” or “the derivative of f at x”
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Differentiability
1. corner: where one-sided derivatives differ. ( )
2. cusp: where the slopes of the secant lines approach ∞ from one side and -∞ from
the other side (an extreme corner). (x⅔)
3. vertical tangent: where the slopes of the secant lines approach either ∞ or -∞ from
both sides. ( )
4. discontinuity
Differentiability Implies Local Linearity
Differentiability Implies Continuity: If f has a derivative at x = a, then f is continuous at
x = a.
Intermediate Value Theorem for Derivatives: If a and b are any two points in an interval
on which f is differentiable, the f’ takes on every value between f’(a) and f’(b).
Examples:
(a) Prove that
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Rule 6: The Quotient Rule
At a point where v ≠ 0, the quotient y = u/v of two differentiable functions is
differentiable, and
Examples:
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Parametric Curves
If all three derivatives exist and dx/dt ≠ 0,
Examples:
Implicit Differentiation
Process: 1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.
2. Collect the terms with dy/dx on one side of the equation.
3. Factor out dy/dx.
4. Solve for dy/dx.
Examples:
(a) Find dy/dx for
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Instantaneous velocity is the derivative of the position function s = f(t) with respect to
time. At time t the velocity is
Metric units:
Trigonometric Function
Function Derivative
sin(x) cos(x)
cos(x) -sin(x)
tan(x) sec2(x)
csc(x) -csc(x)cot(x)
sec(x) sec(x)tan(x)
cot(x) -csc2(x)
sin-1(x)
cos-1(x)
tan-1(x)
csc-1(x)
sec-1(x)
cot-1(x)
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Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Derivative of ex
Derivative of ax
Derivative of ln x
Derivative of logax
Examples:
Applications of Derivatives
Theorems
Theorem 1: The Extreme Value Theorem
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f has both a maximum value and
a minimum value on the interval.
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Theorem 4: First Derivative Test for Local Extrema
The following tests apply to a continuous function f(x).
At critical point c:
1. If f’ changes sign from positive to negative at c, then f has a
local maximum value at c.
2. If f’ changes sign from negative to positive at c, then f has a
local minimum value at c.
3. If f’ does not change sign at c, then f has no local extreme value
at c
At a left endpoint a:
If f’ < 0 (f’ > 0) for x > a, then f has a local maximum (minimum)
value at a.
At a right endpoint b:
If f’ < 0 (f’ > 0) for x < b, then f has a local minimum (maximum)
value at b.
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Critical Point
A point in the interior of the domain of a function f at which f’ = 0 or f’ does not exist is a
critical point of f.
Examples:
(a) find all critical points on the curve on the interval [-2,3]
Antiderivative
A function F(x) is an antiderivative of a function f(x) if F’(x) = f(x) for all x in the
domain of f. The process of finding an antiderivative is antidifferentiable.
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Connecting f’ and f’’ with the Graph of f
Concavity
The graph of a differentiable function y = f(x) is
Concave up on an open interval I if y’ is increasing on I.
Concave down on an open interval I if y’ is decreasing on I.
Concavity Test
The graph of a twice-differentiable function y = f(x) is
Concave up on any interval where y’’ > 0.
Concave down on any interval where y’’ < 0.
Point of Inflection
A point where the graph of a function has a tangent line and where the concavity changes
is a point of inflection.
Examples:
(a) Find the critical points for f(x) = x3 – 12x – 5.
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f(x) = x(20 – x), f’(x) = 20 – 2x = 0 at x = 10, #’s = 10 and 10
Newton’s Method
1. Guess a first approximation to a solution of the equation f(x) = 0. A graph of y =
f(x) may help.
2. Use the first approximation to get a second, the second to get a third, and so on,
Differentials
Let y= f(x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an independent variable.
The differential dy is dy = f’(x)dx.
Related Rates
1. Draw a picture and name the variable and constants. Use t for time. Assume all
variables are differentiable functions of t.
2. Write down the numerical information
3. Write down what we are asked to find
4. Write an equation that relates the variable. You may have to combine two or
more equations to get a single equation that relates the variable whose rate you
want to the variables whose rates you know.
5. Differentiate with respect to t. Then express the rate you want in terms of the rate
and variables whose values you know.
6. Evaluate. Use known values to find the unknown rate.
Examples:
(a) Water runs into a conical tank at the rate of 9ft3/min. The tank stands point down
and has a height of 10 ft and a base radius of 5 ft. How fast is the water level
rising when the water is 6 ft deep?
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Integrals
Theorems
Theorem 1: The Existence of Definite Integrals
All continuous functions are integrable. That is, if a function f is continuous on an
interval [a, b], then its definite integral over [a, b] exists.
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Evaluate the value of the function at the right-hand point of each subinterval.
Examples:
(a) Approximate the area under the curve y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 3 with six intervals.
LRAM:
MRAM:
RRAM:
Definite Integrals
Riemann Sums
Terms become infinitely small and their number infinitely large.
no matter how P and the ck’s are chosen, then f is integrable on [a, b] and I is the
definite integral of f over [a, b].
Notation
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Area Under a Curve (as a Definite Integral)
If y = f(x) is nonnegative and integrable over a closed interval [a, b], then the area under
the curve y = f(x) from a to b is the integral of f from a to b,
If y = f(x) is negative then
If y = f(x) is both negative and nonnegative then
3. Constant Multiple:
7. Domination:
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av(f)=
This means that the integral is an antiderivative of f, a fact we can exploit in the follwing
way. If F is any antiderivative of f, then
Examples:
(a) Find the average value of f(x) = 4 – x2 on [0, 3].
(b) Find
Trapezoidal Rule
Trapezoidal Rule
To approximate , use
,
where [a, b] is partitioned into n subintervals of equal length h = (b – a)/n. Equivalently,
,
where LRAMn and RRAMn are the Riemann sums using the left and right endpoints,
respectively, for f for the partition.
Simpson’s Rule
To approximate , use
,
where [a, b] is partitioned into an even number n subintervals of equal length
h = (b – a)/n.
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Error Bounds
If T and S represent the approximations to given by the Trapezoidal Rule and
Simpson’s Rule, respectively, then the errors ET and ES satisfy
Examples:
(a) Use the Trapezoidal Rule with n = 4 to estimate .
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Work
When a body moves a distance d along a straight line as a result of the action of a force of
constant magnitude F in the direction of motion, the work done by the force is
W = Fd.
The equation W = Fd is the constant-force formula for work.
Hooke’s Law for springs says that the force it takes to stretch or compress a spring x
units from its natural length is a constant times x. In symbols, F = kx, where k, measured
in force unites per unit length, is a characteristic of the spring call the force constant.
Examples:
(a) Find the total distance traveled given the velocity .
(b) It takes a force of 10 N to stretch 2 m beyond its natural length. How much work is
done in stretching the spring 4m from its natural length?
Examples:
(a) Find the area of the region between y = sec2x and y = sin x from x = 0 to x = /4.
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(b) Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y = 2 – x2 and the line y = -x.
(c) Find the area of the region R in the first quadrant that is bounded above by and
below by the x-axis and the line y = x – 2.
(d) Find the area of the region in Example c by integrating with respect to y.
Volumes
Volumes of a Solid
The volume of a solid of known integrable cross section area A(x) from x = a to x = b is
the integral of A from a to b,
How to Find Volume by the Method of Slicing
1. Sketch the solid and a typical cross section.
2. Find a formula for A(x).
3. Find the limits of integration.
4. Integrate A(x) to find the volume.
Solids of Revolution
When a function is rotated about an axis creating circular cross sections then the solid
created is a solid of revolution. There are three different ways to find a solid by
revolution:
1. Disks: when a single function that is entirely to one side of an axis is rotated,
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3. Shells: When the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the axis of integration,
Examples:
(a) The base of a solid is the region between the curve and the interval [0,
] on the x-axis. The cross sections are perpendicular to the x-axis are squares with bases
running from the x-axis to the curve.
(b) The region between the function and the x-axis over the interval [-2,
2] is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
(c) The region in the first quadrant enclosed by the y-axis and the graphs of y = cos x and
y = sin x is revolved about the x-axis to form a solid. Find its volume.
(d) The region bounded by the curve , the x-axis, and the line x = 4 is revolved
about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Length of Curves
Arc Length: Length of a Smooth Curve
If a smooth curve begins at (a, c) and ends at (b, d), a < b, c < d, then the length of the
curve is
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Vertical Tangents, Corners, and Cusps
Sometimes a curve has a vertical tangent, corner, or cusp where the derivative we need to
work with is undefined.
Examples:
(a) Find the exact length of the curve for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Other Definitions
Probability Density Function (pdf)
A probability density function is a function f(x) with domain all reals such that
Page 27 of 53
of the problem. When we find all the functions y that satisfy the differential equation we
have solved the differential equation. When we the find the particular solution that
fulfills the initial condition, we have solved the initial value problem.
Indefinite Integral
The set of all antiderivatives of a function f(x) is
the indefinite integral of f with respect to x and is
denoted by
Integral Formulas
1. (a)
(b)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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Examples:
(a) Suppose $100 is invested in a n account that pays 5.6% interest compounded
continuously. Find a formula for the amount in the account at any time t.
(b)
(c)
Integration by Substitution
Power Rule for Integration
If u is any differentiable function of x, then
Examples:
(a) Evaluate
(b) Evaluate
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(c) Solve the differential equation
Integration by Parts
Product Rule in Integral Form
Sometimes integration by parts must be used more than once when integrating. Solving
for the unknown integral requires two integration by parts, followed by solving for the
unknown integral. If many steps are required in integration by parts, then time is saved by
using tabular integration.
Examples:
(a) Evaluate
(b) Evaluate
+
-
+
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Exponential Growth and Decay
Exponential Model
Because population consists of only whole numbers, it is commonly expressed with a
differentiable function P growing at a rate proportional to the size of the population. This,
for some constant k,
In realistic models, there is a maximum population M, the carrying capacity, that the
environment is capable of sustaining in the long run. If we assume the relative growth
rate is proportional to 1-(P/M) with positive proportionality constant k, then
The solution to this logistic differential equation is called the logistic growth model.
Examples:
(a) Find an initial value problem model for world population and use it to predict the
population in the year 2010. Let t = 0 represent 1986, therefore t = 24 will represent
2010. If k = .0178 then what is the estimated population in 2010?
(b) A national park is known to be capable of supporting no more than 100 grizzly bears.
Ten bears are in the park at present. We model the population with a logistic differential
equation with k = .01. Find a logistic growth model P(t) for the population and when will
the bear population reach 50?
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Numerical Methods
Euler’s Method
If we are given a differential equation dy/dx = f(x, y) and an initial condition y(x0) = y0, we
can approximate the solution y = y(x) by its linearization. The linearization will give a
good approzimation to the solution y(x) in a short interval about x0. The basis of Euler’s
method is to patch together a string of linearizations to approximate the curve over a
longer stretch.
(a) Find the first three approximations y1, y2, y3 using Euler’s method for the initial value
problem
y’ = 1 + y, y(0) = 1,
starting at x0 = 0 with dx = .1.
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L’Hospital’s Rule, Improper Integrals, and Partial Fractions
L’Hospital’s Rule
Theorem 1: L’Hospital’s Rule (First Form)
Suppose that f(a) = g(a) = 0, that f’(a) and g’(a) exist, and that g’(a) ≠ 0. Then
Indeterminate Forms
Examples:
(a)
b.
2. f and g grow at the same rate as x∞ if
a.
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Examples:
(a) Show that ln x grows slower than x as x∞
Improper Integrals
Improper Integrals with Infinite Integration Limits
Integrals with infinite limits of integration are improper integrals.
1. If f(x) is continuous on [a, ∞), then
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Limit Comparison Test
If the positive functions f and g are continuous on [a, ∞) and if
then
both converge or both diverge.
Examples:
(a) Does the improper integral converge or diverge?
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The degree of f(x) must be less than the degree of g(x). That is,
the fraction must be proper. If it isn’t, divide f(x) by g(x) and
work with the remainder term.
We must know the factors of g(x). In theory, any polynomial with
real coefficients can be written as a product of real linea factors
and real quadratic factors.
Method of Partial Fractions
1. Let x – r be a linear factor of g(x). Suppose (x – r)m is the highest power of x – r that
divides g(x). Then, to this factor, assign the sum of the m partial fractions:
Do this for each distinct quadratic factor of g(x) that cannot be factored into linear factors
with real coefficients.
3. Set the original fraction f(x)/g(x) equal to the sum of all these partial fractions. Clear
the resulting equation of fractions and arrange the terms in decreasing powers of x.
4. Equate the coefficients of corresponding powers of x and solve the rsulting equation
for the undetermined coefficients.
Trigonometric Substitutions
Trigonometric Substitutions enable us to replace binomials of the form
by single squared terms, and thereby transform a number of
integrals into ones we can evaluate directly or find in a table of integrals.
Common Substitutions:
1. replaces
2. replaces
3. replaces
Examples:
(a) Evaluate
(b) Evaluate
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Infinite Series
Power Series
Infinite Series
An infinite series is an expression of the form
, or
The numbers a1, a2, … are the terms of the series; an is the nth term.
The partial sums of the series form a sequence
of real numbers, each defined as a finite sum. If the sequence of partial sums has a limit S
as n∞, we say the series converges to a sum S, and we write
Geometric Series
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Power Series
An expression of the form
is a power series centered at x = a. The term is the nth term; the number a is
the center.
Term-by-Term Differentiation
If
converges for , then the series
,
obtained by differentiating the series for f term by term, converges for and
represents f’(x) on that interval. If the series for f converges for all x, then so does the
series f’.
Term-by-Term Integration
If
converges for , then the series
,
obtained by integrating the series for f term by term, converges for and
represents on that interval. If the series for f converges for all x, then so does
the series for the integral.
Examples:
(a) Does the series converge?
YES
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(d) Given that , find a power series to represent .
Taylor Series
Taylor Series Generated by f at x = a
Let f be a function with derivatives o all orders throughout some open interval containing
a. Then the Taylor series generated by f at x = a is
Maclaurin Series
A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series that is centered around x= 0.
Examples:
(a) Find the fourth order Taylor polynomial that approximates y = cos 2x near x = 0.
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Table of Maclaurin Series
Taylor’s Theorem
Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder
If f has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I containing a, then for each positive
integer n and for each x in I,
,
where
If these conditions hold for every n and all other conditions of Taylor’s Theorem are
satisfied by f, then the series converges to f(x).
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Examples:
(a) Prove that the series converges to sin x for all real x.
Radius of Convergence
The Convergence Theorem for Power Series
There are three possibilities for with respect to convergence:
1. There is a positive number R such that the series diverges for |x – a| > R but
converges for |x –a| < R. The series may or may not converge at either of the
endpoints x = a – R and x = a + R.
2. The series converges for every x (R = ∞).
3. The series converge at x = a and diverge elsewhere (R = 0).
Absolute Convergence
If the series of absolute values converge, then converges absolutely.
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Absolute Convergence Implies Convergence
If converges, then converges.
Then,
(a) the series converges if L < 1,
(b) the series diverges if L > 1,
(c) the test is inconclusive if L = 1.
Examples:
(a) Find the radius of convergence of the series .
n
If |x| ≥ 1, the terms n!x grows without bound as x∞ diverge
If 0 < |x| < 1, then
diverge
If x = 0, the series does converge. The radius of convergence is R = 0, and the
interval of convergence is {0}.
(b) Prove that
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Testing Convergence at Endpoints
The Integral Test
Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose that an = f(n), where f is a continuous,
positive, decreasing function of x for all x ≥ N (N a positive integer). Then the series
and the integral either both converge or both diverge.
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Rearrangement of Conditionally Convergent Series
If converges conditionally, then the terms can be rearranged to form a divergent
series. The terms can also be rearranged to form a series that converges to any
preassigned sum.
In some instances, the series converges for all values of x. In rare cases, the series
converges only at x = a.
2. If the interval of absolute convergence is finite, test for convergence or divergence at
each endpoint. The Ratio Test fails at these points. Use a comparison test, the Integral
test, or the Alternating Series Test.
3. If the interval of absolute convergence is , conclude that the series
diverges for |x – a| > R, because for those values of x the nth term does not approach zero.
Examples:
(a) Does converge?
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Parametric, Vector, and Polar Functions
Parametric Functions
Derivative at a Point
A parameterized curve x = f(t), y = g(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, has a derivative at t = t0 if f and g have
derivatives at t = t0.
whenever ≠ 0.
Surface Area
If a smooth curve x = f(t), y = g(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, is traversed exactly once as t increases from
a to b, then the areas of the surface generated by revolving the curve about the coordinate
axes are as follows.
1. Revolution about the x-axis (y ≥ 0):
Examples:
(a) Find d2y/dx2 as a function of t if x = t – t2, y = t – t3.
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(c) The standard parameterization of the circle of radius 1 centered at the point (0, 1) in
the xy-plane is
x = cos t, y = 1 + sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Vectors
Vector, Equal Vector
A vector in the plane is represented by a directed line segment. Two vectors are equal if
they have the same length and direction.
Dot Product
The dot product u ∙ v of vectors u = and v =
.
Magnitude
The magnitude of v is:
.
Examples:
(a) Find the angle between the vectors
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Limit
Let r(t) = f(t)i + g(t)j, then
Examples:
(a) If r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j, then .
(b) Find the velocity and acceleration vectors if
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Flight time:
Range:
Parametric form:
Where the drag coefficient k is a positive constant representing resistance due to air
density, v0 and α are the projectile’s initial speed and launch angle, and g is the
acceleration of gravity.
Examples:
(a) Find the maximum height, flight time, and range of a projectile fired from the origin
over horizontal ground at an initial speed of 500 m/sec and a launch angle of 60°.
Maximum height =
Flight Time =
Range =
Polar Curves
Polar Coordinates
P(r, θ), r is the distance from O to P and θ is the angle from initial ray to ray OP.
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Examples:
(a) Find a Cartesian equivalent for the polar equation
Examples:
(a) Find the area of the region in the plane enclosed by the cardioid .
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(b) Find the area of the region that lies inside r = 1 and outside r = 1 – cosθ
(d) Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the right-hand loop of the
lemniscate about the y-axis.
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