MODULE 2A

FOUR BASIC
CONCEPTS
Four Basic concepts
Language of Sets:
All of mathematics can be seen as the study of relations between
collections of objects by rigorous rational arguments. More often than not the
patterns in those collections and their relations are more important than the
nature of the objects themselves. The power of mathematics has a lot to do
with bringing patterns to the forefront and abstracting from the “real” nature if
the objects. In Mathematics, the collections are usually called sets and the
objects are called the elements of the set.
Sets is an unordered collection of distinct objects, which we call its elements.
The symbols ∈ is used to denote that an object is an element of a set and ∉ is
not an element of the sets.
A.1: Three ways/representation of Sets:
1. Statement form method
2. Roster or tabular form method
3. Rule or Set – builder form method
1. Statement form method
In this, well – defined description of the elements of the set is given and
the same are enclosed in curly brackets.
Example:
• The set of odd numbers less than 7 is written as: 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 7
• A set of football players with ages between 22 years to 30 years
• A set of number greater than 30 and smaller than 55
• A set of students in Class VII whose weighs are more than your weight.

2. Roster/ Tabular Method

A roster method is defined as a way to show the list of elements, separated
by commas inside of brackets.
Example:
• An example of the roster method is to write the set of numbers from 1 to 10
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
• Seasons as 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
 3. Rule method/ Set – builder method
In this, a rule, or the formula or the statement is written within the pair of
brackets so that the set is well defined. In the set builder form, all the elements of
the set, must possess a single property to become the member of that set.
In this form of representation of a set, the element of the set is described by
using a symbol "𝒙" or any other variable followed by a colon. The symbol: 𝒐𝒓"ȁ"
is used to denote such that and then we write the property possessed by the
elements of the set and enclose the whole description in braces. In this, the
colon stands for "𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕" and braces stand for "𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍".

Example:
• Let P is a set of counting numbers greater than 12;
The set P in set – builder from is written as:
𝑷 = 𝒙: 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝟏𝟐
𝑷 = 𝒙ȁ𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝟏𝟐
This will be read as , “P is the set of elements 𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒙 is a counting
number and is greater than 12;
Note: the symbol :𝑜𝑟 "ȁ" placed between 2 x’s stands for such that
• Let A denote the set of even numbers between 6 and 14. It can be written
in the set builder form as;
𝐴 = 𝑥 ȁ𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 , 6 < 𝑥 < 14 or
𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑃, 6 < 𝑥 < 14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

• If 𝑋 = 4, 5, 6, 7 . This is expressed in roster form

Let us express in set builder form.
𝑋 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 < 𝑥 < 8
• The set A of all odd natural numbers can be written as
𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ∈ 𝑊

• Given : 𝐴 = 2,4,6,8,10,12
Solution: In set A all the elements are even natural number up to 12. So, this is
the rule for the Set A
So set builder notation will be
𝐴 = 𝑥 ȁ𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 ≤ 12
 • 𝑩 = 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕 the elements are natural numbers between 3 and 8. This
Solution:
In set B all the elements are natural numbers between 3 and 8. This is rule
So set builder notation will be
𝑩 = 𝒙ȁ𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓, 𝟑 < 𝒙 < 𝟖
or 𝑩 = 𝒙ȁ𝒙 ∈ 𝑵, 𝟑 < 𝒙 < 𝟖

• Solved example using the three methods of representation of a

set:
The set of integers lying between – 2 and 3
Statement form: 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3
Roster form: 𝐼 = −1, 0, 1, 2
Set – builder form: 𝐼 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼, −2 < 𝑥 < 3
A.2: Kinds of Sets:
1. Null set or Empty set: The set which contains no element at all is called the
null set. This set is sometimes also called the empty set of the “void set”. It is
denoted by the symbol ∅ or { }
 Example:
Set 𝐴 = 18 < 𝑥 < 19 , assumed it is a whole number
So, between 18 and 19 there is no element thus,
Set A is an empty set
𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑜𝑟 ∅

2. Singleton sets: A set which contains only one element is known as Singleton
set.
Example:
• 𝐼𝑓 𝑃 = 𝑥 ȁ𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃 = 11
As we observe that there’s is only one element is set P
𝑛 𝑃 = 1, so set P is a singleton set

• 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = 𝑥 ȁ𝑥 ∉ 3 < 𝑥 < 5 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝐴 = 𝑥 ȁ𝑥 ∉ 3 < 𝑥 < 5 , 𝐴 = 4
As the set A contains only one element so set A is a singleton set
• 𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 , 𝑥 < 1
This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set.
𝐵= 0

• Let 𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝛮 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 = 4
Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2 whose square is
4
𝐴= 2
3. Finite set: A set is called a finite set if it is either void set or its elements
can be listed ( counted, labeled) by natural number 1, 2, 3, … and the
process of listing terminates at a certain natural number n (say)
Example:
• 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = 𝑥 ȁ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 , 𝑥 < 10 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐴 = 2,3,5,7 . Here then there are only 4 elements which satisfy the given
condition; thus Set A is a finite set.
• The set of all colors in the rainbow
 • 𝑃 = 2, 3,5, 7, 11, 13, 17 … 97

4. Cardinal number of a finite set: the number of distinct elements 𝑛 in the

above definition is called the cardinal number or order of a finite set A and is
denoted by 𝑛 𝑎 or 𝑂 𝐴

Example:
• 𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑥 < 5
𝐴 = 1,2,3,4
Therefore, 𝑛 𝐴 = 4

• 𝐵 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝐴𝐿𝐺𝐸𝐵𝑅𝐴

𝐵 = 𝐴, 𝐿, 𝐺, 𝐸, 𝐵, 𝑅
Therefore, 𝑛 𝐵 = 6
5. Infinite set: A set whose elements are unlimited and cannot be listed /
cannot be counted by the natural numbers 1,2,3 …,n, for any natural
number 𝑛 is called an infinite sets
Example:
• 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐶 = 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, …
As the number of elements in set C is infinity (uncountable), thus, set C is an
infinite set
• Set of all points in a plane
• 𝑨 = 𝒙: 𝒙 ∈ 𝑵, 𝒏 > 𝟏
• 𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊, 𝑥 = 2𝑛
Note: All infinite sets cannot be expresses in roster form

Example: The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not follow
any particular pattern.
 6. Universal set: A set that contains all sets in a given context is called the
universal set. The symbol for denoting a universal is ∪ 𝑜𝑟 𝜉 It should be noted
that universal set is not unique. It may be different in problem to problem.
Example:
• If 𝐴 = 1,2,3 , 𝐵 = 2.3.4 , 𝐶 = 3.5.7
Then ∪= 1.2.3.4.5.7
Here 𝐴 ⊆ ∪, 𝐵 ⊆ ∪, 𝐶 ⊆ ∪, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∪⊇ 𝐴,∪⊇ 𝐵,∪⊇ 𝐶

• If P is a set of all whole numbers and Q is a set of all negative number, then
the universal set is a set of all integers.

• If 𝐴 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝐵 = 𝑑, 𝑒 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ 𝑖
Then ∪= 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, 𝑖 can be taken as universal set.

7.Equivalent set: Two finite set A and B are equivalent if their cardinal numbers
are same i.e. 𝑛 𝐴 = 𝑛 𝐵
The symbol for denoting an equivalent set is " ↔ ".
Example:
• 𝐴 = 1,3,5,7 and 𝐵 = 10,12,14,16 are equivalent sets
𝑛 𝐴 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝐵 = 4 ,
therefore, 𝑂 𝐴 = 𝑂 𝐵 = 4 ; 𝐴 ↔ 𝐵

8. Equal set: Two set A and Set B are said to be equal if every element of A is
an element of B and every element of B is an element of A. symbolically𝐴 =
𝐵 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ↔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

Example:
• If 𝐴 = 2,3,5,6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 6,5,3,2 . Then 𝐴 = 𝐵, because each element of A is
an element of B and vice – versa

• If 𝐴 = 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑝, 𝑠, 𝑟, 𝑞 therefore, 𝐴 = 𝐵, because each element of

A is an Element of B and vice – versa

It can be noted that equal sets are equivalent sets, however, not all equivalent sets are
equal sets
 9.Power set: If S is any set, then the family of all the subsets of S is called the
power set of S
The power set of A is denoted by 𝑃 𝑆 .
Symbolically, 𝑃 𝑆 = 𝑇: 𝑇 ⊆ 𝑆
Obviously ∅ and S are both elements of 𝑃 𝑆
Example:
• Let 𝑆 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃 𝑆 = ∅, 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑎, 𝑐 , 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 .
Power set of a given set is always non- empty

10. Joint sets: Two sets are said to be joint sets when they have at least one
common element

Example:
Let 𝑋 = 1, 𝟓, 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 = 2, 𝟓, 11 , 11
2
therefore, set X and set Y are joints sets
common element is 5 y
11. Disjoint sets: Two sets are said to be disjoint when they have no common
element. If a collection has two or more sets, the condition of disjoint will be
that the intersection of the entire collection should be empty
Example:
• Let 𝐴 = 1,2,3 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐵 = 4,5,6 are disjoint.
Two sets A and set B are disjoint sets if the 1 2 4 5
intersection of two sets is a null set or an 3 6
empty set. In other words, the intersection
of a set is empty. i.e.,𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅ A B

Note: there is a difference between the intersection of two sets and the difference
of two sets. In the case of disjoint, we are talking about the only intersection.
• Considering three sets: 𝐴 = 13,11 , 𝐵 = 11,12 , 𝐶 = 12,14 have a null
intersection but they are not disjoint. In fact, there are no two disjoint set
available in this group. Also, the empty family of sets is pairwise disjoint.

13 11 11 12 12 14

A B C
 • 𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 and 𝐵 = 𝑠: 𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Clearly , A and B do not have any in common and are disjoint sets
prime
composite
numbers
numbers

A B
Definition of Subset:
If A and B are two sets, and every element of set A is also an
element of set B, then A is called a subset of B and we write it as 𝐴 ⊆
𝐵 𝑜𝑟The
𝐵 ⊇symbol
𝐴 ⊂ stands for “ is a subset of” or “is contained in”
 Every set is a subset of itself, i.e., 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐵
 Empty set is a subset of every set
 Symbol “⊆” is used to denote “ is a subset of” or “is contained in”
 The total number of subset of a finite set containing 𝑛 elements is 2𝑛
 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 means A is a subset of B or a is contained in B,𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈
𝐴⇒𝑎∈𝐵
 𝐵 ⊇ 𝐴 means B contains A
 Empty set is a subset of every set
 Symbol “⊆” is used to denote “ is a subset of” or
“is contained in”
 The total number of subset of a finite set
containing 𝒏 elements is 𝟐𝒏
 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 means A is a subset of B or a is contained
in B,𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 ⇒ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨 ⇒ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑩
 𝑩 ⊇ 𝑨 means B contains A
Example:
• Let 𝐴 = 2,4,6 , and 𝐵 = 6,4,8,2
Here A is a subset of B, 𝐴 ⊃ 𝐵
Since, all the elements of Set A are contained in set B
But B is not the subset of A,𝐵 ⊄ A ⊄ denotes ‘not a subset of’
Since, all the elements of set B are not contained in set A
Notes: If A⊂ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠
Every set is a subset of itself
• The set N of natural numbers is a subset of
the set Z of integers, and we write 𝑁 ⊂ 𝑍
• Let 𝐴 = 2,4,6 ; 𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Here 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴, Hence. We can say A = B
• Let 𝐴 = 1,2,3,4 , 𝐵 = 4,5,6,7
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵 and also 𝐵 ⊄ 𝐶
[⊄ denotes ‘not a subset of’]
• How many number of subsets containing three elements can be
formed from the set 𝑆 = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
Solution:
Number of elements in the set = 10
Number of element in the subset = 3

Therefore , the number of subsets containing 3 elements

𝑛!
= ; 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚
𝑐 − 𝑟 ! 𝑟!

10! 10! 10 ∗ 9 ∗ 8 ∗ 7! 10 ∗ 9 ∗ 8
= = = = = 5 ∗ 3 ∗ 8 = 120
10 − 3 ! 3! 7! 3! 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 1 ∗ 7! 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 1

Therefore, the umber of possible subsets containing 3 elements from the set
𝑆 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 𝑖𝑠 120
Proper Subset:
If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of B if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 but 𝐵 ⊇ 𝐴
i.e. , 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵. The symbol “⊂ "is used to denote proper subset. Symbolically, we
write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
Example:
𝐴 = 1,2,3,4 , here 𝑛 𝐴 = 4
𝐵 = 1,2,3,4,5 , ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝐵 = 5

We observe that, all the elements of A are present in B but the element “5” of
B is not present in A. So, we say that A is a proper subset of B
Symbolically, we write it as 𝑨 ⊂ 𝑩

Notes: No set is a proper subset of itself

Null set or ∅ proper subset of every set
• 𝐴 = 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 , and 𝐵 = 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡
Here a is a proper subset of B as all the elements of set A are in Set B and
𝐴≠𝐵
Notes: No set is a proper subset of itself empty set is a proper subset of every
set

Number of Subsets of a given Set:

If a set contains "𝑛" elements, then the number of subsets of the set is 2𝑛

Number of Proper Subset of the Set:

If a set contains "𝑛" elements, then the number of proper subsets of the set is
𝑛
If 𝐴−=1 𝑝, 𝑞 the proper subsets of the set is 2𝑛 − 1
2
= number of proper subsets of A are 3 = 22 − 1 = 4 − 1

In general, number of proper subsets of a given set = 2𝑛 − 1, where 𝑛 Is the

number of elements.
Example:
• If 𝐴 = 1,3,5 , then write all the possible subsets of A. find their numbers

Solution:
The subset of A containing no elements. { }
The subset of A containing one elements. 1 , 3 , 5
The subset of A containing two elements. 1,3 , 1,5 , 3.5
The subset of A containing three elements. 1,3,5
Therefore, all possible subsets of A is 8 which is equal to 23
Proper subsets are = { }, 1 , 3 , 5 1,3 , 1,5 , 3.5 , 1,3,5
Number of proper subsets are 7 = 8 − 1 = 23 − 1
• If the number of elements in a set is 2, find the number of subsets and
proper subsets.
Solution:
Number of elements is a set = 2
Then, number of subsets = 22 = 4
Also, the number of proper subsets =22 − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3

• 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,5
Then the number of proper subsets = 25 − 1 = 32 − 1 = 31
And the power set of A =25 = 32

Improper Subset:
A subset which contains all the elements of the original set is called
improper subset. Basically, the improper set includes the null set and the
original set itself. It is denoted by ⊆
Example:
• Set 𝑃 = 2,4,6 ,
Then the subsets of P are{ }, 2 , 4 , 6 , 2,4 , 4,6 , 2,6 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.4.6
Where 2 , 4 , 6 , 2,4 , 4,6 , 2,6 are the proper subsets and
{ }, 2,4,6 are the improper subsets.

Therefore, we can write { } ⊆ 𝑃 and 2,3,6 ⊆ 𝑃

Activity :
In every definition of terms, give your own examples
1. Statement form method 2. Singleton sets:
3. Rule or Set – builder form method 4. Null set or Empty
set
5. Roster or tabular form method 6. Finite set:
7. Cardinal number of a finite set: 8. Infinite set:
9. Universal set: 10. Equivalent set:
11. Equal set: 12. Power set:
13. Joint sets: 14. Disjoint sets:
15. Subset: 16. Proper Subset:
17. Improper Subset:
College is about three things: homework, fun, and
sleep...but you can only choose ONE
Andy Stern
Thank you