Child Abuse, Society, and Individual Psychology:

What's Power Got to Do with It?

Joffrey S. Suprina and Catherine Y. Chang

Abstract
The National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect (2003) reported over
3 million referrals with approximately 903,000 children confirmed as victims of child
maltreatment in 2001. Evidence supporting that neglect and abuse affects a child's
cognitive and socioemotional development is well documented. These detriments
include impeded cognitive development, thwarted relationships, behavior problems,
and psychopathology. Using an Adierian perspective, the authors explore the societal
power paradigms that support child abuse and how an Adierian approach might help
to address those constructs and empower our youth.

The National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN;

2003) reported that in 2001 there were over 3 million referrals with approxi-
mately 903,000 children confirmed as victims of child maltreatment. More
than half (57%) suffered neglect, 19% were physically abused, 10% were
sexually abused, and 7% were psychologically maltreated. The NCCAN pre-
dicted that one in four girls and one in eight boys would be sexually abused
and that all children have a 1 in 20 chance of being physically abused. They
also reported that the risk for serious injury and death from abuse is increas-
ing. Several risk factors that increase the probability of abuse have been
identified: Children of single parents are at higher risk for physical abuse and
neglect with even greater risk when being raised by a single father; four or
more children and a low socioeconomic status also support a higher risk for
abuse and neglect (NCCAN); and children of substance-addicted parents
were more than twice as likely to be abused as compared to children with
non-addicted parents (Walsh, MacMillan, & Jamieson, 2003),
Powers (1993) argued that child abuse is just a micro-example of how
the powerful victimize the powerless in our society. There are examples of
such misuse of power in many areas of our society: between adults and chil-
dren (D'Cruz, 2004; Hanvey, 2004), between men and woman (Brace &
Davidson, 2000; "Gender in psychology," 2004; Leibold & McConnell,
2004; Peace, 2003), between socioeconomic classes (Harley, Jolivette,
McCormick, & Tice, 2002; Mahalingam, 2003; Ross, Mirowsky, & Pribesh,
2001), within and between organizations (Hallett, 2003; Peir & Meli, 2003;
Poppe, 2003; van Dijke & Poppe, 2003), among different sexual orientations
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 Abuse and Power 251

(Chesir-Teran, 2003; Henderson, 2003; Niesche, 2003; Thompson, 2003;

Willis, 2004), among races (Harley et al.; Jemmott, Jemmott, Hines, & Fong,
2001; Perry, 2002), and between "the able-bodied" and people with disabili-
ties ("Hate Crimes and Disability in America," 2004; Russell, 2002).
Power and its impact on society are recognized in a variety of theories:
Critical Theory (Pushkala & Caproni, 1997), PsychodynamicTheory (Adorno,
Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950; Hahn, 1988), the Relative
Deprivation Model (Corning, 2000; Katz, 1981;Turley, 2002), Power-Control
Theory (Blackwell & Reed, 2003; Blackwell, Sellers, & Schlaupitz, 2002;
Hagan, 1990; Hagan, Hagan, McCarthy, & Foster, 2002; Leiber & Wacker,
1997), Feminist Theory (Allen, 1998; Brace & Davidson, 2000), and Indi-
vidual Psychology (Adler, 1929; Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964). Unlike the
other theories. Individual Psychology contains a perspective of power that
includes both a dominating negative expression of power as well as an
empowering positive expression of power (Ansbacher & Ansbacher). From
this perspective, striving for power is a motivating force that can be expressed
negatively or positively as mediated by the amount of social interest. Adier's
early perceptions of power evolved into his identification of the feeling of
inferiority (powerlessness), which can lead to a striving for superiority
(power) as a (mistaken) means of achieving equality and earning a sense of
belonging (Ansbacher & Ansbacher; Ferguson, 1984). In this article, we ex-
plore those societal power paradigms, their link to child abuse, and how an
Adierian approach and promotion of social interest can help to address those
constructs, encourage a paradigm shift, and ultimately diminish child abuse.

Power and Psychology

According to John (2003), "an inclusive view of children has to address

the issues of power" (p. 45). Power as an underlying issue in a variety of
arenas linked to child abuse should be addressed within psychological
theories. But Hagan and Smail (1997), although recognizing power as an
essential ingredient in all mental distress, felt it "has been consistently over-
looked or obscured in theories of mental health" (p. 269).
As noted previously, there are theories that do consider power as an
important component of distress in our society. Critical Theory takes a posi-
tion that all reality is socially constructed and influenced by uneven power
relations within any particular culture (Pushkala & Caproni, 1997). This means
that the socially accepted disparity in power between any entities (i.e.. Whites
over Blacks, men over women, adults over children, and large corporations
over small businesses) will play out in all aspects of the society, including the
government, religions, media, education and home environments.
252 Joffrey S. Suprina and Catherine Y. Chang

Similarly, PsychodynamicTheory (Adorno etal., 1950; Hahn, 1988) and

the Relative Deprivation Model (Corning, 2000; Katz, 1981; Turley, 2002)
recognize perceptions of groups or individuals as holding less power and
status as foundations for bias and displaced aggression. Power-Conti'ol Theory
(Blackwell & Reed, 2003; Blackwell etal., 2002; Hagan, 1990; Hagan etal.,
2002; Leiber & Wacker, 1997) attempts to explain the impact of power and
control (i.e., an authoritarian patriarchal family system) on the promotion of
delinquency and despair in children. All these models perceive power as a
means for one entity or group to maintain dominance over another. One
camp of Feminist Theory supports such a domination model based on male
power (the dyadic Master/Subject Model; Brace & Davidson, 2000), while
another has developed what has been called Empowerment Theory, where
power is seen as positive, affirming, and enabling (Allen, 1998).
Expanding on Nietzsche's "will to power," Adler's Individual Psychology
(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964) contains both the potential domination as-
pect (considered a negative expression of power) as well as the empowering
aspect (a positive expression) of power. Adier saw the striving for power as a
motivating force that can be expressed negatively or positively as mediated
by the amount of social interest. Although the will to power can be motivated
by an inferiority feeling, the results can still bepositive.Adler felt that the will
to power is an indispensable form of human striving for completion as a
means to address feelings of inferiority. AdIer (as cited in Ansbacher &
Ansbacher) said, "to be human is to feel inferior" (p. 115). AdIer differentiated
between the inferiority feeling that he believed to be common to everyone
and the inferiority complex which represented neurosis: "The neurotic strives
for increased possessions, power, and influence and for the disparagement
and cheatingof other persons" (p. 112). Much has been written about Adier's
inferiority complex and inferiority feelings (AdIer, 1935/1996; AdIer, 1917/
1988; Ansbacher, 1992; Smith, Mullis, Kern, & Brack, 1999), and a thorough
exploration of that concept is beyond the scope of this article. But suffice to
say that the primary differences between the inferiority feeling and inferiority
complex are a matter of intensity and outcome: "The greater the feeling
of inferiority that has been experienced, the more powerful is the urge to
conquest and the more violent the emotional agitation" (AdIer as cited in
Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964, p. 116). It is the individual's strategy to ad-
dress those feelings of inferiority that will result in a negative or positive
expression of power. In the neurotic, the intense feelings of inferiority pro-
mote a striving for superiority and thus encourage a negative expression of
power. A negative expression of power is motivated by gratification of the self
at the expense of the needs of others, the society or the common good.
 Abuse and Power 253

Child Abuse

According to section 110 of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment

Act (Legal Information Institute, 2003), child abuse and neglect is defined
as "any act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results
in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation
or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm"
(Title 42, Chapter 67, Subchapter I, Section 5106g, Definition 2), Abuse can
take many forms and result in a myriad of outcomes. From a mild neglect
where the parent or guardian ignores some of the needs of the child, to
verbal abuse, to more severe physical, mental and emotional abuse that sup-
ports development of dissociative identity disorder, the injurious impact of
abuse on children has been well documented (Cash & Snow, 2001; Kurtz,
Gaudin, Wodarski, & Howing, 1993; Shonk & Cicchetti, 2001; Trickett &
McBride-Chang, 1995;Veltman & Browne, 2001; Wodarski, Kurtz, Gaudin,
& Howing, 1990),
The impact of child abuse and neglect has been researched for over
four decades (Leventhal, 2003), Research has linked child abuse with im-
paired cognitive development (Kurtz et al,, 1993; Trickett & McBride-Chang,
1995; Veltman & Browne, 2001; Wodarski et al,, 1990) and lower levels of
social competencies, ego resiliency, and ego control (Shonk & Cicchetti,
2001), Additionally, research shows that victims of childhood abuse have an
increased likelihood and severity of substance abuse (Moes & Ohiund, 2003;
Westermeyer, Wahmanholm, & Thuras, 2001), are more likely to develop
liver disease, due in part to the toxicity promoted by substance addictions
(Dong, Dube, Felitti, Giles, & Anda, 2003) and are more prone to chronic
pain conditions likefibromyalgia (Goldberg, Pachas, & Keith, 1999),
From an Adierian perspectfve, Hitchcock (1987) suggested that children
who are abused are likely to develop an abusive lifestyle. This abusive
lifestyle includes low self-esteem, inability to empathize with others, vio-
lence as an acceptable family value that expresses caring, increased feelings
of inferiority, striving for superiority, lack of social interest, and a lack of a
sense of belonging.
Child abuse may also lead to death. The NCCAN (2003) reported that
1,300 children died in 2001 (an increase from previous years) as a conse-
quence of abuse. Of those child fatalities, 85% were children younger than
6 years of age. In addition to infancy, the risk of maltreatment injury death is
increased for children living in households with one or more male adults
who are not related to them (Stiffman, Schnitzer, Adam, Kruse, & Ewigman,
2002),
254 Joffrey S. Suprina and Catherine Y. Chang

Child Abuse and Power

The statistics and research support the continued existence of child

abuse in the United States. There is evidence that power (striving for superior-
ity) and feelings of powerlessness (feelings of inferiority) play an important
role in the fortitude of that child abuse. Bilsky (1997) argued that child abuse
is a social problem akin to slavery because both exemplify "power relations"
of dominance. From an Adierian perspective, slave owners could be seen
as expressing the second mistaken goal for belonging: the goal of power
(Ferguson, 1984). Similar power dynamics were found by Hagan and Smail
(1997) as "the most essential ingredient of distress" (p. 269) for victims of
child abuse.
Margolin (1992) contended that women's lack of authority in the family
as well as their potential anger over being given unequal share of child-care
responsibility contributes to their expression of abuse and neglect on their
subordinate children. Similarly, Bugental and Happaney (2004) identified
low perceived parental power as related to an increased risk of child abuse.
In fact, they found the highest risk from their study was the combination of a
mother with low perceived power and an infant with poor neonatal status.
Bugental and Shennum (2002) found that mothers attribute to their children
more intentionality, control, and blame (power) than they attribute to them-
selves. Because child abuse involves an unequal relationship between an
adult and a child, "an inclusive view of children has to address the issues
of power" (John, 2003, p. 45). Individual Psychology successfully addresses
issues of power through the constructs of encouragement, inferiority feeling,
striving for superiority, and the importance of belonging and social interest
(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964; Ferguson, 1984).

Societal Power Paradigms

As noted previously. Powers (1993) believed the power paradigms that

support child abuse are just a micro-example of how the powerful victimize
the powerless in our society. Angelides (2004) reported that all human rela-
tionships are power-based while Schaef (1987) suggested that U.S. society is
one based on an "addictive system" that centers around powerlessness.
Adler recognized those uneven power dynamics as a reciprocal cause
and result of an unfulfilled need to belong. As a result of discouraging expe-
riences in childhood, a child will develop feelings of inferiority and thus feel
the need to compensate by striving for superiority to bolster his or her status
on the vertical plane that he or she mistakenly equates with achieving the
equality he or she needs to belong Adler (as cited in Ansbacher & Ansbacher,
 Abuse and Power 255

1964; Ferguson, 1984). As long as there is a vertical perception that includes

a dichotomous superior vs. inferior relationship, a povi'er differential will be
perpetuated throughout societal relationships. Those power paradigms play
out in many facets of U.S. society. None may have a greater impact on chil-
dren than the educational system.

Power and Education

There is probably no better example of how governmental and societal

power paradigms affect child abuse than the educational system. Apple-
baum (2003) stated it all too clearly: "Our classrooms and schools represent
a 'culture of power' to the extent that they mirror unjust social relations exist-
ing in the larger society" (p. 151). Those societal power paradigms affect
our educational system on two fronts: exacerbating the powerlessness of
children who are abused and perpetuating the unequal power paradigms
currently in effect.
The first challenge is proper reporting of children who are being abused.
Despite laws mandating that teachers report any suspected child abuse, Egu
and Weiss (2003) found most teachers were only willing to report severe
abuse. Even when the teachers self-identified moderate abuse, they admitted
to be unlikely to report it to the authorities. But problems with reporting are
not the end of the negative influence in schools.
De Valenzuela, Connery and Musanti (2000) discovered power and sta-
tus to influence the questions, answers and assessments of children for the
Council for Exceptional Children's Individual Education Program. This same
prejudice in attitudes results in abused children being more likely to be
placed in special education and to be held back to repeat a grade (Kinard,
1999; Leiter & Johnson, 1997).
Riscalla (1976) argued that special education programs, which are de-
signed to help those in need, can actually hurt when they neglect to consider
the individual needs of students. She shared a comparison of schools to
prisons with both using authoritarian rule to maintain control thereby dis-
empowering the students as well as the parents. As a result, an abused child
feeling powerless is involved with an educational system that can exacerbate
that powerlessness.
Adler (as cited in Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964) believed that the school
occupied a valuable place between the family and life in society. In that
place, the school could correct mistaken lifestyles learned within a dysfunc-
tional family upbringing and encourage a more harmonious adjustment into
society. Through encouragement and a promotion of social interest, the school
can counter mistaken lessons learned at home, thereby empowering children.
256 joffrey S. Suprina and Catherine Y. Chang

In addition to intensifying the powerlessness of abused children, the

current educational system may covertly maintain the status quo of power
relations in our society. Couthro (2000) outlined the influence of business on
education as "a linear, marketplace-oriented approach that focuses on profit"
(p. 72). This system is often fragmented and secretive in an effort to main-
tain current power structures. Gouthro further identified cultural, linguistic,
geographic, socioeconomic, and disability statuses as potential triggers for
stereotypical assumptions about a student's potential for academic perfor-
mance. These assumptions become self-fulfilling prophecies promoting those
perceived differences in power, status, and privilege in the students.
Societal power paradigms can even thwart efforts at attempts to balance
power. Community meetings are often espoused as a means to promote
community involvement, but Powers (1993) asserted that the average com-
munity meeting sustains an unequal power differential by placing teachers as
the powerful experts and parents as the powerless, ignorant observers. This
power differential makes parents feel uncomfortable and incapable, leading
to a lack of participation in the educational process. In turn, that lack of
participation in their child's education is positively correlated with low aca-
demic achievement (Smalley & Reyes-Blanes, 2001). A detrimental cycle
ensues. Even with the best preparation and intentions, perceptions of un-
equal power can have a negative effect. Knupfer (1995) conducted research
in which she went into the classroom and tried to conduct classes that might
counter the power paradigms currently in existence. She found that her af-
filiation with a University carried assumed fears of power, authority and
privilege. The foundational power paradigms of the U.S. education system
may actually be sabotaging any well-intentioned desires to promote growth
and equality for all students.

The Power of Social Interest

From an Individual Psychology perspective, it is vital to explore not only

how to intervene with victims of child abuse but how to prevent or diminish
the frequency of child abuse. AdIer is recognized as a visionary leader in
prevention and empowerment as exemplified in his promotion of such con-
cepts as encouragement, advancing equality and nurturing the sense of
belonging (Ansbacher, 1992; Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964). The same pro-
cesses that can empower victims of child abuse can also help empower
children in general and set the stage for a paradigm shift in the perceptions of
societal power structures. Adler saw the striving for superiority (a negative
expression of power) and the lack of social interest as two sides of the same
coin (Ansbacher, 1992). Those two components are believed to underlay all
 Abuse and Power 257

neurosis (Adler, 1935/1996). To advance the positive aspects of power.

Hartley (1995) suggested that Adierians encourage a gradual movement from
manipulative or exploitative power to competitive power (sometimes ad-
vantageous in business, but detrimental in interpersonal relationships) to
nutrient power (which still can be negative in a codependent type relation-
ship) to integrative power (a positive power relation based on respectful
personal power). Similarly, Chandler (1991) advocated encouraging creative
personal power as the foundation of positive change. Advocates of Individual
Psychology believe such movement to more positive expressions of power
can be brought about by encouraging greater and greater Gemeinschafts-
gefuhl or social interest.
Hillman (1988) translated GemeinschaftsgefCihl as "common." Unfortu-
nately, like common sense, Gemeinschaftsgefiihl seems to be less and less
common. Adler (as cited in Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964) wrote, "social
interest is not inborn, but it is an innate potentiality which has to be con-
sciously developed" (p. 134). Adier's social interest is a broad concept that
incorporates a myriad of philosophical foundations that drive one's actions
in life. These include but are not limited to empathy (placing yourself in the
other's experience), other-directedness (being concerned for the welfare of
others), and involvement in a universal community (awareness of the impact
of your actions on others now and in the future; Ansbacher & Ansbacher,
1964). Adler (1929) stated, "[Social interest] is the most important part of our
education, of our treatment and of our cure. . . . The individuals who lack
social interest are those who make up the groups of problem children, crimi-
nals (abusers), insane persons and drunkards" (pp. 39-40).
Social interest and social support (what might be thought of as received
social interest) have been positively linked with health benefits ("Altruistic
actions may result in better mental health," 2003; Amerikaner & Monks, 1994;
Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, & Skoner, 2003; Zarski, Bubenzer, & West,
1986), vocational satisfaction (Amerikaner, Elliot, & Swank, 1988), happi-
ness and well-being (Rodd, 1994), and a mother's adaptability in parenting
(Turner & Avison, 1985). Another aspect worth considering in today's world
economy is the demand that our children be prepared to live in a global
society. Griffith (1996) included "socially active" (expressed social interest)
as a necessary characteristic of the ideal global citizen.

Promoting Social Interest

Child abuse, like most human problems, is quite complex. Most effective
treatments integrate a combination of interventions such as parent educa-
tion, social support, counseling, physical health referrals and educational and
258 Joffrey S. Suprina and Catherine Y. Chang

vocational support (Malik, Lederman, Crowson, & Osofsky, 2002; Reynolds,

Temple, & Suh-Ruu, 2003; Wilson & Ryan, 2001). In their longitudinal study
of the effectiveness of school-based early intervention, Reynolds et al. found
that childhood early intervention programs are more effective when they
include comprehensive family services, such as parent education, social sup-
port, home visitation, physical and mental health referrals, and educational
and vocational support. Adierians might consider that encouraging empow-
erment. Reynolds et al. found the children who participated in their program
from ages 3 to 7 showed a significantly lower rate of petitions to the juvenile
court, higher ratings of parent involvement, lower rates of substantiated re-
ports of child maltreatment, and greater educational attainment by age 21.
Although there is not sufficient space to address fully all potential interven-
tions, we focus here on interventions with victims of child abuse, parents and
educators that encourage empowerment and promotion of social interest

Victims of Child Abuse

When working with victims of child abuse, the therapist must match the
intervention to the psychological and cognitive development of the client.
Although play therapy is espoused as the treatment of choice for young mal-
treated children, the research is inconclusive with discrepancies in findings
(Beezley, Martin, & Kempe, 1976; Reams & Eriedrich, 1994). However, be-
cause ofthe challenges of cognitive and language abilities, it may be the only
option for young children. Play is also an excellent opportunity to begin to
develop effective social interaction and social interest.
When working with older children or adult victims of child abuse,
an effective Adierian treatment should encourage competence, focus on
strengths, and strive to empower the victim of child abuse (Slavik, Carlson, &
Sperry, 1993; Watkins, 1984). To empower and promote confidence, it is
helpful for the therapist to use "therapist stupidity" by asking many questions
that encourage the client to come up with options (Slavik et al.). Eocusing on
strengths with people who have been abused can be particularly tricky. It
often requires reframing what the client sees as a weakness to uncover the
strength within it (Slavik et al.). That combination of therapist stupidity and
promotion ofthe client's strengths helps to equalize the therapeutic relation-
ship and empower the client.
Power-mapping may be an effective way to provide a visual framework
from which to work with feelings of powerlessness (Hagan & Smail, 1997).
Additionally, Adierian counselors can assist victims to recognize that all
power is not negative but rather to identify appropriate and inappropriate
uses of power while promoting social interest.
 Abuse and Power 259

Parents

In addition to working directly with victims of child abuse, counselors

working from an Adierian perspective can work with parents. Counselors
can help parents to recognize purposeful behavior in victims of child abuse
and thus remove the pathology assigned to them (Cash & Snow, 2001),
When working with parents, Adierian counselors should promote consistent
parental encouragement and social interest between the parent and child as
well as the parents.
Cerezo and D'Ocon (1995) found maternal inconsistency in regards to
response to prosocial behavior was significantly higher in abusive dyads
while disruptive behavior was followed by highly differentiated and consis-
tent attention. They concluded that such an interaction promoted the child's
disruptive behavior and increased the abusive interactions. Educating par-
ents to encourage prosocial behavior (social interest) consistently should
result in diminished disruptive behavior.
Because intimate partner violence is significantly associated with child
behavioral problems (Kernic, Wolf, Holt, McKnight, Huebner, & Rivara,
2003), it is helpful to promote social interest between significant caregivers
as well. Moschetta and Moschetta (1993) equated marriage partners' social
interest to caring and suggested encouragement of three different types of
caring to promote healthy social interest between partners: (1) sustenance
caring, which involves affection, understanding and acceptance; (2) inten-
tional caring, actions to help one's partner grow; and (3) reverential caring,
respect for the uniqueness and dignity of others. The Systematic Training for
Effective Parenting (STEP) program (Dinkmeyer & McKay, 1976) also has
been used as an effective Adierian-based intervention with abusive parents
as it reframes child behavior, provides beneficial communication and disci-
pline options, and decreases their sense of isolation (Hitchcock, 1987).

Educators

From an Adierian perspective, counselors can also work with educators

to help them understand the power of encouragement and social interest.
Shonk and Cicchetti (2001) discovered that academic maladjustment
experienced by maltreated children is partially mediated by academic en-
gagement and support of teachers. Adler (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964)
would call that kind of student engagement and support, "encouragement."
But the system rarely encourages the kind of individualized, supportive, and
empowering environment necessary for such positive engagement. Adler
recognized that "an educator's most important task . . . is to see to it that no
260 Joffrey S. Suprina and Catherine Y. Chang

child is discouraged at school, and that a child who enters school already
discouraged regains his self-confidence through his school and teacher"
(Ansbacher, 1992, p, 399),
Edwards and Kern's (1995) findings suggest that a socially interested
teacher encourages students who are more cooperative and who are less
competitive, aggressive, and disruptive. Teachers can promote social interest
and a sense of belonging through school-wide projects, community projects,
peer tutoring, class meetings, role-plays, and teaching active listening and
assertiveness skills to their pupils (Edwards & Gfroerer, 2001), Any attempts
to empower children must address the power relations between the teacher
and pupil (Griffith, 1996), School counselors can encourage such a "harmo-
nious adjustment,"

Research as Advocacy

In 1998, Loretta Bradley began her presidency of the American Counsel-

ing Association with the theme "Advocacy: A Voice for Our Clients and
Communities" exemplified by a counselor advocating for abused and ne-
glected children. As advocates, counselors need to be diligent, adding to
their research on parenting, teaching and other programs that will encourage
and empower youth by promoting a strong sense of belonging.
As cited previously, there is a lack of quality research that explores
power paradigms and children and how those dynamics can be changed.
Although research literature recognizes the power differentials that exist be-
tween races, genders, and groups of different socioeconomic statuses, there
are no clear findings for how those power struggles affect child abuse. The
research that does exist may actually be a cover-up for protecting White,
male accountability and maintaining the current power paradigms, Foster
(1999) found that most published research on gender and race issues is writ-
ten by White men and suggested a need for more research conducted by
White women and men and women who are members of ethnic minorities,
Margolin (1992) pointed to the lack of research that addresses gender issues
as another example of societal White male power paradigms. In the majority
of child abuse research, Margolin argued that men are usually overbenefited
and women underbenefited as a result of the discrepancy in child-care re-
sponsibilities. By analyzing the data and weighting it for the number of hours
with the children, Margolin observed that men had a higher degree of perpe-
trating child abuse. More research is needed to explore these power issues in
relation to child abuse.
Finally, John (2003) suggested that the first step to empowering children
is to "find ways of incorporating children's experiences into studies, to
engage them as co-researchers, and to enter their worlds" (p, 64), Giving
 Abuse and Power 261

children a legitimate voice within research literature may go a long way to

encourage new perspectives of child issues.

Summary

There is substantial evidence of the injurious impact of neglect and

abuse on a child's cognitive and socioemotional development. These detri-
ments include impeded cognitive development, obstructed relationships,
behavior problems, and psychopathology. If Adierians promote a positive
expression of power as the abi lity to act for one's self (personal power), rather
than the negative sense of control over others (domination), they can em-
power each individual to greater potential. This internal locus of control has
been shown to diminish the repercussions of abuse (Porter & Long, 1999).
Encouraging a feeling of positive personal power interdependent with
healthy social interest may help to moderate the negative consequences of
child abuse while promoting greater Gemeinshaftsgefuhl in all children and
in society. Such a societal shift could not only reduce the incidence of child
abuse but could likely have a positive impact on many societal expressions
of violence. As John (2003) wrote, "There is perhaps no more powerful way
of transforming human society than changing how adults of today relate to
children, the adults of tomorrow" (p. xvii). By respecting and empowering
each citizen, everyone wins. But success demands cooperation of adults
from healthcare, social services and the education system to advocate for the
children (Stevenson, 1998).

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