Sand and Lime

Republic of the Philippines
North Eastern Mindanao State University

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY-MAIN CAMPUS
Rosario, Tandag City, Surigao del Sur 8300
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A. INTRODUCTION
In the world of construction, sand and lime are the foundation of various
materials. For centuries, their combination has shaped the built environment. This
study investigates their interactions, individual qualities, and practical applications,
while also considering future innovations.
Sand is a common and versatile material, mainly composed of silica. It forms
the basis for various construction methods. On the other hand, lime has a long history,
originating from limestone. Not only does it serve as a binding agent, but it also
transforms the materials it interacts with.
The synergy between sand and lime is most evident in mortar and plaster.
When combined, these materials produce formulations with outstanding workability,
durability, and aesthetic appeal. The integration of sand and lime involves chemical
and physical processes that contribute to the overall strength and resilience of built
structures.
As the construction industry continues to grow and evolve globally, a thorough
understanding of sand and lime's interactions is crucial for advancing sustainable and
resilient building practices. By thoroughly exploring and analyzing their alliance, this
study aims to provide insights that resonate with both traditional construction methods
and modern engineering advancements.
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B. CLASSIFICATION AND SOURCES OF SAND
The sand is a crucial construction material composed of small silica (SiO2)
grains formed through the weathering of sandstones. Three primary sources are
identified: Pit sand, River sand, and Sea sand. Each source possesses unique
characteristics, impacting their suitability for various engineering purposes.
Pit Sand. Obtained by excavating soil deposits, pit sand is characterized by
sharp, angular grains free from salts. It proves to be an excellent material for mortar
or concrete work when clean, organic matter-free, and clay-free.
River Sand. Collected from river banks or beds, river sand consists of fine,
rounded grains shaped through mutual attrition under water current. With its almost
white color and general cleanliness, river sand is widely utilized for diverse
construction purposes.
Sea Sand. Derived from seashores, sea sand shares similarities with river sand
but bears a light brown color. It contains salts that attract moisture, leading to issues
like dampness, efflorescence, and work disintegration. The use of sea sand in
engineering is generally discouraged, except for specific applications like basement
filling, following thorough washing to remove salts.
Classification of Sand
Based on grain size, sand is categorized into fine, coarse, and gravelly types.
Fine Sand. Passes through a screen with clear openings of 1.5875 mm, making
it suitable for plastering applications.
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Coarse Sand. Passes through a screen with clear openings of 3.175 mm and
is commonly employed in masonry work.
Gravelly Sand. Passes through a screen with clear openings of 7.62 mm,
primarily used in concrete work.
Understanding the distinct characteristics of these natural sand sources and
their appropriate classification is essential for making informed decisions in
construction projects, ensuring optimal material selection for specific applications.
C. BULKING OF SAND
Bulking in sand is a phenomenon that occurs when dry sand comes into contact
with atmospheric moisture. The presence of moisture forms a thin layer around the
sand particles, creating a force that causes the particles to move apart from each
other, resulting in an increase in the volume of the sand.
An excess of moisture in the sand can compromise the durability and strength
of concrete. It is crucial to note that while an excessive presence of moisture enhances
the workability of concrete, it simultaneously diminishes its strength.
In accordance with IS 2386-3, the bulking of sand occurs when there is a
presence of 4% moisture content, causing a 25% increase in its volume. The degree
of sand bulking is influenced by the grading of the sand; finer sand exhibits more
bulking than medium and coarse sand. Consequently, fine sand has a higher bulking
factor, whereas coarse sand has a lower one. The elevated bulking in sand
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significantly affects the behavior of the concrete mix during placement, leading to a
harsher consistency.
For construction purposes, it is advisable to maintain a moisture content of less
than 5%. To calculate the bulking of sand or determine the percentage of moisture
content, additional water is introduced to the sand, causing the particles to pack
closely together and gradually reducing the bulking effect. This process aids in
determining the actual volume of dry sand. In essence, dry sand and fully saturated
sand have the same volume.
% OF MOISTURE CONTENT PERCENTAGE OF BULKING WITH
RESPECT TO VOLUME
2% 15%
3% 20%
4% 25%
5% 30%
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Test Procedure:
A. Take a simple container and add 2/3 part of sand in it.
B. Measure the exact height of sand using the scale and note it down (H 1).
C. Now fill the container up to 2/3 part with water. (Same height of sand).
D. Now add the measured sand to the container and wait for some time to
settle down.
E. Now calculate the height of sand in water (H2).
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Bulking of Sand Significance
In straightforward terms, sand bulking refers to the inherent looseness of soil
without compaction. Typically, the presence of water reduces the pores in sand,
causing compaction. Sand is a vital component in concrete, serving to diminish
segregation and fill the gaps between cement and coarse aggregates.
For instance, when aiming for 1 m3 of sand in concrete, understanding the
approximate sand bulkage value becomes crucial. If a given sample exhibits a bulkage
of 25%, it implies that 1.25 times the amount of sand is required during volume
batching to achieve the desired 1 m3 of sand for concrete. Neglecting this additional
sand quantity based on the bulkage value would result in a reduction of the total
volume to 75% after water is added.
The quality of concrete is highly dependent on the accurate proportioning of its
constituents. Generally, the wet volume of concrete is considered to be 1.5 times the
volume of dry concrete. In practice, this involves accounting for approximately 30% of
sand bulkage and 20% for wastage. Ignoring the bulking factor of sand could lead to
a reduced total quantity, negatively impacting the overall quality of the concrete.
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Finding the Silt Content of Sand
Apparatus: A measuring cylinder (250mL), Water, and Sand
Test Procedure:
A. Firstly, a 50 mL solution of 1 salt and water is prepared in the measuring
cylinder. The addition of salt increases the settlement time of silt.
B. The sample of sand to be tested is then added to the cylinder until the level
reaches 100mL.
C. 50mL of the solution of salt and water is again added to the measuring
cylinder.
D. Close the open end of the measuring cylinder and shake it well.
E. After a period of 3-4 hours, you will notice a layer of silt settled over the sand
Now note down the volume V1 of the silt layer settled over.
F. Note down the volume V2 of the settled sand.
G. Repeat the procedure a couple more times to get the average.
H. The permissible value of silt content in and is 8 hence the sand sample is
ok and can be used for construction purposes.
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D. PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND
It is important to know the properties of good quality sand for the construction,
since sand is used for many kinds of construction. Here are some of the common good
quality sand properties.
• There should be a sharpness to the grains and a coarseness to them.
• In order to ensure that the sand is of high quality, it must be free of clay, organic
matter, and be a proper sand. There should be no organic matter mixed with
the sands.
• It is important that the grains are made from minerals that are durable.
• The sand should not contain any sea salts as it should be free from them.
• It is important to grade the grain size in such a way that the voids are as small
as possible.
• There should be no organic matter present in it and it must be clean and free
from any type of clay or silt.
• A sand is a coarse material made up of loose pieces of hard broken rock, grains
that come from disintegrating rock.
• In the construction industry, the shape, size, and density of sands are all very
important
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E. LIME
Lime is produced by heating limestone which is more or less pure calcium
carbonate. During heating, carbon dioxide is driven off and non-volatile impurities
such as Oxides of Silicon, Magnesium, Aluminum, Iron and Manganese are left
behind in the lime. Pure calcium oxide is a white solid which melts at 2570°C. When
the molten material is cooled, it solidifies in cubic crystals, but as ordinarily prepared
it is non-crystalline, easily powdered and has a specific gravity varying from 3.08 to
3.30.The specific gravity of lime depends on the temperature to which it has been
heated, higher temperatures giving a denser product.
Lime, prized for its unique qualities, has served as a building material for
millennia. Its strength, durability, and flexibility enable it to withstand construction
loads, while its breathable nature aids in moisture evaporation, mitigating dampness
and mold risks. It was discovered that limestone, when burnt and combined with
water, produced a material that would harden with age. The earliest documented use
of lime as a construction material was approximately 4000 B.C. when it was used in
Egypt for plastering the pyramids. The beginning of the use of lime in mortars is not
clear. It is well documented, however, that the Roman Empire used lime-based
mortars extensively. Vitruvius, a Roman architect, provided basic guidelines for lime
mortar mixes.
When it [the lime] is slaked, let it be mingled with the sand in such a way that
if it is pit sand three of sand and one of lime is poured in; but if the same is from the
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river or sea, two of sand and one of lime is thrown together. For in this way there will
be the right proportion of the mixture and blending."
In 1756, James Smeaton developed perhaps the first hydraulic lime product
by calcining Blue Lias limestone containing clay. An Italian pozzolanic earth from
Civita Vecchia was also added to provide additional strength. This mortar mixture
was used to build the Eddystone Lighthouse.The production of lime involves heating
limestone in a kiln to yield quicklime (calcium oxide). Subsequent slaking with water
yields hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), applicable in various construction roles.
Lime finds application in mortar, plaster, rendering, and as a soil stabilizer and
concrete binder. Notably, its popularity as a sustainable building material has risen
due to its natural sourcing and lower energy consumption compared to alternative
materials.
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F. SOURCES OF LIME
The lime is not generally found in nature in the free state but it is obtained by
burning one of the following materials:
• Limestone found in limestone hills
• Limestone builders found in the beds of old rivers
• Kankar found below ground
• Shells of sea animals.
Constituents of Limestones
Following are the constituents of limestone (Main source of getting lime):
• Clay
A. It is responsible for producing hydraulicity in lime.
B. It retards slaking when present in small quantity, arrests slaking. When it is
in excess.
C. It makes lime insoluble in water.
D. To make a good lime it is desirable to have 8 to 30% of clay.
• Soluble silica. To develop hydraulicity it is imperative to have silica and
alumina present in chemical combination with limestone. Hydraulicity is caused
due to silicates of calcium, magnesium and aluminum. These silicates are
inserted at low temperatures but they become active and combine with lime at
high temperatures.
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• Magnesium carbonate
A. It increases the setting process but reduces slaking.
B. Lime containing not more than 5% of magnesium carbonate gives better
results and imparts hydraulics properties to the lime. But limes containing
large proportions of magnesium carbonate are liable to crack (which ultimately
disintegrate).
C. When the content of magnesium carbonate is about 30%, the hydraulicity is
rendered to the lime even in absence of clay.
• Alkalies and metallic oxides. They tend to become soluble silicates at low
temperatures only and thus cause hydraulicity.
• Sulphates. They tend to reduce slaking but increase setting action only when
they are not in excess.
• Iron Compounds. The iron compounds if present, lower the temperature of
calcination of limestone.
• Carbonaceous matter. The presence of carbonaceous matter is harmful; it
produces a very poor-quality lime.
G. CLASSIFICATION OF LIMES
The limes which are obtained by calcination of lime stones are broadly
classified into the following three categories:
A. Fat lime
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B. Hydraulic lime
C. Poor lime
• Fat Lime. This lime is also known as the high calcium lime, pure lime, rich lime
or white lime. It is popularly known as the fat lime as it slakes vigorously and its
volume is increased to about 2 to 2½ times the volume that of quick lime. It is
prepared by calcining comparatively pure carbonate of lime which is composed
of about 95 per cent of calcium oxide. The percentage of impurities in such
limestone is less than 5 per cent.
Following are the properties of fat lime:
1. It hardens very slowly.
2. It has a high degree of plasticity.
3. It is soluble in water which is changed frequently.
4. Its color is perfectly white.
5. It sets slowly in presence of air.
6. It slakes vigorously.
Following are the uses of fat lime:
1. It is used in whitewashing and plastering walls.
2. With sand, it forms lime mortar which sets in thin joints. Such mortar can be
used for thin joints of brickwork and stonework.
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3. With surkhi, it forms lime mortar which possesses good setting and
hydraulic properties. Such mortar can be used for thick masonry walls, foundations,
etc. The surkhi is the powder obtained by grinding of the burnt bricks.
• Hydraulic Lime. This lime is also known as the water lime as it sets under
water. It contains clay and some amount of ferrous oxide. Depending upon the
percentage of clay, the hydraulic lime is divided into the following three types:
1. Feebly hydraulic lime
2. Moderately hydraulic lime
3. Eminently hydraulic lime.
Facts to be considered
1. The increase in percentage of clay makes the slaking difficult and increases
the hydraulic property.
2. With about 30 per cent of clay, the hydraulic lime resembles natural
cement.
3. The hydraulic lime can set under water and in thick walls where there is no
free circulation of air.
4. The color of hydraulic lime is not perfectly white. It therefore appears less
sanitary than the fat lime.
5. It forms a thin paste with water. It does not dissolve in water though it is
frequently changed.
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6. If hydraulic lime is to be used for plaster work, it is to be ground in fine
powder and then it is mixed with sand. The mortar thus prepared is kept as heap for
one week or so and it is then ground again. Such mortar can then be used for plaster
work.
No Item Feebly Hydraulic Moderately Eminently

. Lime Hydraulic Hydraulic
Lime Lime
1 Clay Content 5% to 10% 11% to 20% 21% to 30%
2 Slaking Slakes after few Slakes after 1 or 2 Slakes with

Action minutes hours. difficulty.
3 Setting Sets in water in 3 Sets in water in 1 Sets in water in

Action weeks or so week or so. a day or so.
4 Hydraulicity Feeble Moderate Eminent
5 Uses The mortar The mortar The mortar

produced by this produced by this produced by
lime is reasonably lime is reasonably this
strong and hence it strong and hence it lime is similar
can be used for can be used for the ordinary
ordinary masonry superior type of cement
work. masonry work. and hence it
can be used for
damp places.
• Poor Lime. This lime is also known as the impure lime or lean lime. It contains
more than 30 percent of clay. It slakes very slowly. It forms a thin paste with
water. It does not dissolve in water though it is frequently changed. It sets or
hardens very slowly. It has poor binding properties and its color is muddy white.
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This lime makes a very poor mortar. Such mortar can be used for inferior type
of work or at places where good lime is not available.
I.S. Classifications of Lime. The building limes according to BIS:712-1984 (Third
revision) are classified under six categories, namely, Class A, Class B, Class C, Class
D, Class E and Class F.
Class A. Class A lime is the eminently hydraulic lime which is used for
structural purposes and it is to be supplied in the hydrated form only. Its minimum
compressive strength with lime sand mortar of proportion (1:3) by weight at the end
of 14 days and 28 days should be respectively 1.75 N/mm2 and 2.80 N/mm2.
Class B. Class B lime is the semi-hydraulic lime which is used for mortars for
masonry work and it can be supplied either as quick lime or as hydrated lime. Its
minimum compressive strength with lime sand mortar of proportion (1:3) by weight at
the end of 14 days and 28 days should be respectively 1.25 N/mm2 and 1.75
N/mm2.
Class C. Class C lime is the fat lime which is used mainly for finishing coat in
plastering, whitewashing and with suitable admixture such as surkhi or any other
pozzolanic material to produce artificial hydraulic mortars. It is to be supplied in
hydrated or quick form.
Class D. Class D lime is the magnesium or dolomitic lime which is used for
finishing coat in plastering, whitewashing, etc. It is to be supplied in hydrated or
quick form.
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Class E. Class E lime is the kankar lime which is used for the masonry
mortars and it is to be supplied in the hydrated form only.
Class F. Class F is the siliceous dolomitic lime which is used for undercoat
and finishing coat of plaster. It is to be supplied in hydrated or quick form. It may be
noted that the applications of various categories of limes are suggestive only.
H. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD LIME
The characteristics of limestone are significant because they determine its
suitability for various applications. Some of it are:
High Purity. A good limestone should have a high calcium carbonate content,
indicating low levels of impurities such as clay, silt, and organic matter. This enhances
its suitability for various applications, including construction and agriculture.
Desirable Texture. The texture of limestone plays a crucial role in its usability.
A consistent, fine-grained texture is often preferred for construction materials,
facilitating ease of cutting and shaping. For decorative purposes, variations in texture
might be desirable.
Color. Limestone can vary in color, ranging from white to gray to beige, and
even with subtle hues of blue or yellow. The choice of color depends on aesthetic
preferences and the intended use of the limestone in construction or decorative
applications.
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Hardness. A good limestone should exhibit sufficient hardness to withstand
wear and tear in construction applications. This ensures durability and long-lasting
structural integrity, making it a reliable building material.
Resistance to Weathering. Limestone's resistance to weathering is crucial for
its longevity. A limestone that weathers slowly and retains its structural integrity over
time is preferable, especially in outdoor applications where exposure to the elements
is unavoidable.
I. USES OF LIME IN GENERAL
Humans rely on limestone as one of their most vital assets. It is a very adaptable
mineral that may be employed in a variety of sectors and applications. In virtually every
typical home, we may readily discover things made up of its many forms. A few of its
applications are given below:
Construction. Limestone has been utilized in construction and ornamental
stones since prehistoric times. The Taj Mahal, a beautiful marble monument in Agra,
illustrates limestone's use in creative endeavors. Limestone remains utilized in a
variety of construction projects. It is more appropriate for this function because of its
climate resilience and visual appeal. Flooring, window frames, stairways, and other
items are among its construction uses. Egypt's renowned pyramids are also built of
limestone.
Limestones with clay concentration are also used in the cement manufacturing
process. Low-quality limestones, mainly those containing clay, can be utilized to make
cement to utilize in the building and construction sector. Cement is an essential
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component of concrete produced in massive quantities daily for use as structures,
bases, and pillars.
When a combination of grit, pulverized rock, and moisture is put into castings
or molds and allowed to solidify or set, concrete is formed.
Industry Processes. Flux is a metallurgical term for any material added during
the extraction process of metals from ores to improve liquidity and eliminate unwanted
contaminants. Limestone is often utilized in the metallurgical industry for this function.
Limestone is used in several different industries. The powder form of limestone
is utilized in various sectors, including textiles, paints, papers, polymers, glassware,
and plastics. Most of the time, they are utilized as fillers in cement production to
increase durability and strength. Besides that, it is utilized in steel plants to eliminate
contaminants throughout the manufacturing process. In addition, medicines,
cosmetics, bicarbonate of soda, and other items contain substances present in
limestones.
Agricultural Industry. As previously stated, limestone formations are mainly
composed of calcium carbonate. As a result, this chemical can indeed be mined for
use in agriculture. Typically, this mineral is broken down into smaller pieces and
generated in a variety of qualities. Ultimately, these compounds are marketed as
"agricultural lime," which is used to counteract the soil's acidity while also liberating
soil elements such as phosphates.
It is a type of natural tonic for the soil, and it is a crucial ingredient in many
fertilizers. In addition, it is used to make acidic soils less acidic.
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Pollution Control. Limestone, in the form of a mixture with water, known as a
slurry, is used to keep SO2 from leaving through the factory's chimney. The limestone
confines the sulfur dioxide vapor in the slurry, turning the pollutant into a solid waste
that can be removed.
Miscellaneous Uses. Medical Industry: Calcium carbonate is utilized as a
stomach antacid in healthcare. It is often utilized in treating hyperphosphatemia or
increased serum phosphate by acting as a phosphate linker. It is also utilized as a
medicine's neutral filler. A filler is an inert chemical used to make it easier to quantify
the active medication.
In the cosmetic and beauty industry, it is often utilized as a filler in various
beauty products.
In visual arts - It readily combines with clay and therefore is utilized in statues
because of its white tint. It also provides them with a brilliant white hue.
J. CONCLUSION
To conclude, the connection between sand and lime in construction is crucial,
combining historical traditions with contemporary innovation. These two materials,
each with its own unique features, play a vital role in creating structures that are
durable, aesthetically pleasing, and functional.
Their enduring significance in construction can be traced back to ancient
civilizations and modern engineering practices. The partnership between sand and
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lime, especially in mortar and plaster formulations, demonstrates their vital role in
ensuring workability and structural integrity.
A notable lesson from this exploration is the adaptability of sand and lime to
different construction contexts. Their combination improves the physical properties of
building materials while adding to the architectural richness and lifespan of structures.
The interactions between sand and lime create a bond that extends beyond
functionality, resulting in resilient constructions that can withstand time and the
environment.
As the construction industry tackles sustainability and resilience challenges, the
significance of sand and lime only grows. The judicious use of these materials aligns
with eco-friendly and durable building practices. Their compatibility with green building
principles and their potential to minimize environmental impact positions sand and lime
as vital components in achieving sustainable construction.
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REFERENCES
Komanna, G. (2022). Properties and Uses of Sand. LinkedIn. Retrieved from
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/properties-uses-sand-goshant-kommana.
Mahmut, M. (2023). Limestone. GeologyScience. Retrieved from
https://geologyscience.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks/limestone/?amp.
General Services Administration (GSA). (2016). Limestone characteristics,
uses and problems. Retrieved from https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/historic-
preservation/historic-preservation-policy-tools/preservation-tools-
resources/technical-procedures/limestone-characteristics-uses-and-problem.
Critical Concrete. (n.d.). Lime: Everything You Need to Know to Get Started.
Retrieved from https://criticalconcrete.com/lime-everything-you-need-to-know-to-get-
started/.
Graymont. (n.d.). History of Lime Mortar. Retrieved from
https://www.graymont.com/en/markets/building-construction/mortar/history-lime-
mortar.
Engineeringenotes. (n.d.). Lime: Sources, Constituents, Manufacture, and
Uses - Engineering Materials. Retrieved from
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/engineering-materials-2/lime/lime-sources-
constituents-manufacture-and-uses-engineering-materials/46411.
DreamCivil. (n.d.). Sand: Sources, Classification, Properties, Test, and
Substitutes - Construction. Retrieved from https://dreamcivil.com/lime/.
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Engineeringenotes. (n.d.). Sand: Sources, Classification, Properties, Test,
and Substitutes - Construction. Retrieved from
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/engineering-materials-2/sand/sand-sources-
classification-properties-test-and-substitutes-construction/46490.
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Republic of the Philippines

North Eastern Mindanao State University

study investigates their interactions, individual qualities, and practical applications,

while also considering future innovations.

Sand is a common and versatile material, mainly composed of silica. It forms

transforms the materials it interacts with.

When combined, these materials produce formulations with outstanding workability,

As the construction industry continues to grow and evolve globally, a thorough

and modern engineering advancements.

B. CLASSIFICATION AND SOURCES OF SAND

The sand is a crucial construction material composed of small silica (SiO2)

characteristics, impacting their suitability for various engineering purposes.

Pit Sand. Obtained by excavating soil deposits, pit sand is characterized by

or concrete work when clean, organic matter-free, and clay-free.

engineering is generally discouraged, except for specific applications like basement

filling, following thorough washing to remove salts.

it suitable for plastering applications.

is commonly employed in masonry work.

primarily used in concrete work.

Understanding the distinct characteristics of these natural sand sources and

their appropriate classification is essential for making informed decisions in

construction projects, ensuring optimal material selection for specific applications.

other, resulting in an increase in the volume of the sand.

of concrete. It is crucial to note that while an excessive presence of moisture enhances

the workability of concrete, it simultaneously diminishes its strength.

In accordance with IS 2386-3, the bulking of sand occurs when there is a

For construction purposes, it is advisable to maintain a moisture content of less

sand have the same volume.

% OF MOISTURE CONTENT PERCENTAGE OF BULKING WITH

A. Take a simple container and add 2/3 part of sand in it.

E. Now calculate the height of sand in water (H2).

Bulking of Sand Significance

In straightforward terms, sand bulking refers to the inherent looseness of soil

causing compaction. Sand is a vital component in concrete, serving to diminish

For instance, when aiming for 1 m3 of sand in concrete, understanding the

volume to 75% after water is added.

The quality of concrete is highly dependent on the accurate proportioning of its

Finding the Silt Content of Sand

Apparatus: A measuring cylinder (250mL), Water, and Sand

A. Firstly, a 50 mL solution of 1 salt and water is prepared in the measuring

cylinder. The addition of salt increases the settlement time of silt.

F. Note down the volume V2 of the settled sand.

G. Repeat the procedure a couple more times to get the average.

ok and can be used for construction purposes.

D. PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND

quality sand properties.

• There should be a sharpness to the grains and a coarseness to them.

from any type of clay or silt.

that come from disintegrating rock.

Lime is produced by heating limestone which is more or less pure calcium

heated, higher temperatures giving a denser product.

millennia. Its strength, durability, and flexibility enable it to withstand construction

be the right proportion of the mixture and blending."

yields hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), applicable in various construction roles.

burning one of the following materials:

• Limestone found in limestone hills

• Limestone builders found in the beds of old rivers

• Kankar found below ground

• Shells of sea animals.

Following are the constituents of limestone (Main source of getting lime):

A. It is responsible for producing hydraulicity in lime.

B. It retards slaking when present in small quantity, arrests slaking. When it is