CAPE COAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGIEERING

INTERNSHIP REPORT

NAME: TRACY OTWUA ARTHUR

PROGRAMME: CIVIL ENGINEERING(B-TECH), 300

COURSE CODE: BCE 302

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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................................6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................6
1.1 Brief History of Ghana Highway Authority..................................................................................6
1.2 Mission Statement of Ghana Highway Authority.........................................................................6
1.3 Vision Statement of Ghana Highway Authority............................................................................6
1.4 Introduction of Materials Division.................................................................................................7
1.4.1 Functions or Activities at Materials Division..............................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................9
2.0 SOILS AND AGGREGATE...............................................................................................................9
2.1 Grading/ Particle-Size Distribution................................................................................................9
2.2 Objective of Grading Test...............................................................................................................9
2.2.1 Sieve Analysis (Grading)............................................................................................................10
2.2.2 Apparatus for Sieve Analysis (Grading)...................................................................................10
2.2.3 Procedure to perform the test....................................................................................................10
2.4 Material Class and Typical Use....................................................................................................11
2.4.1 Material requirements for natural gravel base course (G80 and G60)...................................11
2.5 COMPACTION REQUIREMENT..............................................................................................13
2.5.1 COMPACTION OF COHESIVE SOILS AND NATURAL GRAVEL..................................13
2.5.2 OBJECTIVE COMPACTION..................................................................................................13
2.6 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) OF COHESIVE SOILS AND GRAVELS............14
2.7ATTERBERG LIMITS..................................................................................................................15
2.7.1 Liquid Limit (LL)...................................................................................................................15
2.7.2 Plastic Limit (PL)....................................................................................................................15
2.7.3 Plasticity Index (PI)................................................................................................................15
2.8 SOIL STABILIZATION...............................................................................................................16
2.9 AGGREGATE TESTS..................................................................................................................16
2.9.1 Strength Test...........................................................................................................................16
2.10.1.B.i Apparatus for the test...................................................................................................17
2.12. Shape Test...............................................................................................................................19
2.13 Water Absorption Test..................................................................................................................20
2.14.1 PRODUCTION OF TRIAL MIXES....................................................................................................21

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 2.15.1 Slump test...................................................................................................................................21
2.15.2 Density test.................................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................23
3.0 BITUMEN AND BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS...........................................................................23
3.1 TYPES OF BITUMEN..................................................................................................................23
3.1.1 Cut-Back Bitumen..................................................................................................................23
3.1.2 Bitumen Emulsion..................................................................................................................23
3.1.2.1Types of Emulsion.................................................................................................................23
3.2 TESTS ON BITUMEN..................................................................................................................24
3.2.1 Straight-run bitumen..............................................................................................................24
3.2.2 Consistency Test......................................................................................................................24
3.2.3 Softening Point........................................................................................................................26
3.2.4 Specific Gravity of Bitumen...................................................................................................26
3.2.4 Flash Point...............................................................................................................................26
3.2.5 Durability Test........................................................................................................................26
3.3 ASPHALT MIX DESIGN TESTS................................................................................................27
3.3.1 Bitumen Extraction.................................................................................................................27
3.4 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN METHOD......................................................................................27
3.4.1 Mixture Preparation...............................................................................................................27
3.4.2 Marshall Compaction Procedure...........................................................................................27
3.4.3 Density Void Analysis.............................................................................................................28
3.4.4 Interpretation of the test data................................................................................................28
3.5 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................35
3.6 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................35

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Induction Training became very successful, through first, the Divine intervention of God Almighty.
Ghana Highway Authority is hereby given a sincere gratitude for accepting me in the first place to be
part of the hard working and dedicated Staff to work together towards the key mission and vision of the
Authority.

Appreciation is also worth giving to the Chief Executive Officer and three Deputy Chief Executive most
especially the (Ing. Christian Nti), Chief Executive Officer of the GHA), the Director of Materials, the
Director of Training (Mrs. Joyce Agbeka). I would also like to express my profound gratitude to my
facilitators (Ing.Paul Bortierh and Frederick Acquah) Managers Soil and Aggregates Sector. (Ing. Edward
D. Adzimah and Daniel Ofotsu) Managers Bitumen Sector. (Ing. Curthbert K. Ategah and Samuel Egyir)
Manager Pavement Sector, for their effort, time and self-dedication offered to me during this training
period. I say may God almighty widen their territory.

My final gratitude goes to all and sundry especially my colleague Engineers in Training who contributed
in diverse ways to the realization of this goal. I say may God strengthen us through our journey in
Training and beyond.

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ABBREVIATION

GHA Ghana Highway Authority

MRH Ministry of Roads and Highways

DUR Department of Urban Road

DFR Department of Feeder Road

NRCD298 National Redemption Council Decree

AASHTO. America Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials

MC Moisture Content

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

CBR California Bearing Ratio

LL Liquid Limit

PL Plastic Limit

PI Plasticity Index

BRE Building Research Establishment

PG Performance Grade

SPT Standard Penetration Test

DCPT Dynamic cone penetrometer test

MR

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 CHAPTER ONE

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.1 Brief History of Ghana Highway Authority
Roads in Ghana form a network of varied quality and capacity. The responsibility for the road network
differs between Trunk, Urban and Feeder Road. These road networks are administered by the Ministry
of Roads and Highways (MRH) through the three Agencies namely: Ghana Highway Authority (GHA),
Department of Urban Road (DUR) and the Department of Feeder Road (DFR).

The Ghana Highway Authority was established in December 1974 under the National Redemption
Council Decree (NRCD298) to develop the trunk road network. In 1997 the Decree was re-enacted under
the Ghana Highway Authority Act, 1997(Act 540) in order to cope with the changes which had occurred
in the road sector.

The trunk roads in Ghana constitute the main highways and they are administered, developed,
managed, and maintained by the Ghana Highway Authority (GHA). The Ghana Highway Authority’s
Maintenance Department has the responsibility for the maintenance of all National, Inter-regional and
regional trunk roads network and other related facilities in Ghana.

The Authority has the Chief Executive Officer, under him, are three Departments, headed by the Deputy
Chief Executive (Administration), Deputy Chief Executive (Development) and Deputy Chief Executive
(Road Maintenance).

1.2 Mission Statement of Ghana Highway Authority

To provide road infrastructure Engineering and Management Service: project appraisal, feasibility
studies and detailed design; contract preparation and administration; maintenance and operation; civil
engineering materials prospecting and testing of roads, bridges and road safety facilities at best value –
least cost to support the socio- economic development of Ghana and beyond.

1.3 Vision Statement of Ghana Highway Authority

Its vision is to be a world class provider of safe road infrastructure.

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1.4 Introduction of Materials Division
The materials division is responsible of carrying out investigation of engineering properties behavior of
materials used in construction (mostly earth materials) using the principles of soil mechanics and
geology.

The test is performed under standard specifications. Usually these are reference to the British Standard
(BS) Code of practice, the American Standard (ASTM) and the AASHTO. The result obtained from the test
will be compared with the specification of whichever standard that is used to determine suitability of
sub-grade, sub-base and Base materials.

1.4.1 Functions or Activities at Materials Division

The division carries out geo-technical investigation for new roads, highway structures and earth
structures.

 To investigate road failure and recommend remedial measures.

 To render services to the public which include commercial material testing for in-situ and
transported materials to generate revenue for the Government of Ghana and the GHA.
 The division is responsible for locating, testing, and approving all materials used in
highway construction for both development and maintenance projects.
 It also provides technical advice and assistance to other divisions through their field and
laboratory work.
 To develop specification and lay-down inspection method s for use in construction and
maintenance.

The division is made up of Five (5) Unite or Sections, namely.

 Soils, Aggregates and Concrete

 Bituminous Products
 Foundations
 Pavements
 Research
Each Unite or Section is headed by a manager, whose responsibility is to report directly to the Director
of materials. The Managers have Engineers, Technician Engineers and Technical Officers carrying out
works within their respective Unite or Section.

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 Below is a detailed organogram of the Organizational structure of the Materials Division.

Figure 1shows The Organizational Structure of Materials Division

Director of
Materials

Soil and Aggregate Bitumen and Bitumen Foundation Manager Pavement Manager Research And
Manager Production Manager Development Manager

Pavement Research and

Soil and Soil and Bitumen and Bitumen and Pavement
Foundation Engineer Development
Aggregate Aggregate Bitumen Bitumen Engineer
Engineer (Monitoring and Engineer
Engineer Engineer Production Production
Evaluation)
Laborato Engineer Engineer
ry
Supervis Technician
Technician
Laboratory Technician Engineer
Engineer Technician
Supervisor Engineer
Engineer

Technical Laboratory Technical

Officers Supervisor Officers

Technical
Officers

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 SOILS AND AGGREGATE

Soil is resultant of physical disintegration or chemical composition of rocks brought about by wind,
water, temperature, and pressure or by plant or animal life. Soils can be classified according to
individual grain sizes as gravel, sand, silt and clay.

2.1 Grading/ Particle-Size Distribution

Soil grading is the test used to determine the grain size distribution of a coarse-grained soil, in a process
called sieve analysis.

Sieve analysis consists of sieving a soil sample through a set of sieves kept over the other, with the
smallest size at the bottom and the largest at the top. The retained on each sieve is weighed and
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the samples.

2.2 Objective of Grading Test

The objective of this test is to determine the relative proportions of different granular sizes as they pass
through certain sieve sizes. Thus, the percentage of sand, gravel, silt and clay can be obtained.

Grading is used in classification of soils, and the data obtained from grading curves is compared to the
Ministry of Road and Highway Standard Specification for Road and Bridge Works (2007) to determine

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 suitability of soil for construction. Appendix A for sieve analysis results of tests conducted in the
laboratory.

2.2.1 Sieve Analysis (Grading)

Sieve analysis is a method that is used to determine the grain size distribution of soils that are
greater than 0.075mm in diameter. It is usually performed for sand and gravel but cannot be
used as sole method for determining the grain size distribution of finer soil. This test helps in easy
identification of a soil’s mechanical properties. These mechanical properties determine whether
a given soil can support the proposed engineering structure or not. There are two types of Sieve
Analysis, being the Dry and Washed sieve analysis.

2.2.2 Apparatus for Sieve Analysis (Grading)

1. sieves in grades

Brush

2. kidney bowl
3. Sieve Shaker
4. Pan.

2.2.3 Procedure to perform the test

1. First air-dry the sample to be used till it obtains a
uniform and considerable moisture content.

2. Sample preparation (using the sampling splitter also

called the Refilling gauge OR the quartering method).
By the sampling splitter method, we refill our
specimen into the refill gauge by using the equality
gauge. This results in uniformity of the sample
distribution which is required. We then take a
workable amount from one division and proceed.

3. Prepare sieves by arranging them in the ascending

order of the mesh size, with the smallest or finest sieve at the bottom which is normally 75um
or 0.075mm sieve and also, the biggest Sieve mesh on top. Note, a pan is placed beneath the
smallest sieve to collect the final passing or the finest particles.

4. Mix the sample material thoroughly to ensure a homogenous sample is achieved.

5. Weigh an empty pan and after, scoop a portion of the sample taken into the pan and recorded
the weight of the pan containing the sample material.

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 6. Pour the weighed sample into the arranged sieves and shake thoroughly either by a shaker or
manually for proper grading of each particle of the sample.

7. Weigh the retained material on each sieve and record the weight. Note, the weight scale is to
be tarred before weighing to eliminate the weight of the pan.

8. Determine the cumulative mass fraction by dividing the weight of material retained on each
sieve by the initial weight of the sample.

9. Plot the particle size distribution curve using the cumulative mass fraction data on the graph
showing the sieve size. This will provide a virtual representation of the particle size
distribution.

10. Analyze the resulting particle size distribution curve to understand the characteristics of the
materials being tested. This information is often used to determine the soil type and grade as
well as determining its suitable use.

2.4 Material Class and Typical Use

G80 Base course

G60 Base course for low traffic roads

G40 Base course for sealed rural access roads

G30 Sub-base

2.4.1 Material requirements for natural gravel base course (G80 and G60)
Materials for base course layers of Class G80 as specified on the Drawings shall comply with the
requirements of Table1. Where specified on the Drawings, the base course for low traffic roads shall
comply with the requirements for Class G60 or G45 materials as specified in Table 1

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 Table 1 Shows Material Requiremens For Natural Gravel

Material Class
Material properties
G80 G60 G40 G30
CBR (%) 80 60 40 30
CBR Swell (%) 0.25 0.5 0.5 1.0
Grading
% Passing Sieve Size (mm) 100 100
75 80 - 100 80 - 100
37.5 60 - 85 75 - 100
20 45 - 70 45 - 90
1.25
10 30 - 55 30 - 75 1.5
2/3rd layer
5.0 20 - 45 20 - 50 75.0
thickness
2.0 8 - 26 8 - 33
0.425 5 – 15 5 – 22
0.075 2.15 1.95
Grading Modulus (min) 53.0 63.0
Maximum size (mm)
Atterberg Limits
25 30 30 35
Liquid Limit (%) (max)
10 12 14 16
Plasticity Index (%) (max)
5 6 7 8
Linear Shrinkage (%) (max)
200 250 250 250
Plasticity modulus (max)
Other properties 10% Fines
80 50
(KN) (min)
- -
Ratio dry/soaked 10% Fines
0.6 0.6
(min)

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2.5 COMPACTION REQUIREMENT
The requirement for natural gravel Base, Sub-base and Selected Backfill material is shows below:

Table 2 Shows Compaction Requirements

Layer and typical material Average dry density Minimum dry density (%MDD)
class specified (% MDD) (GHA S1) (GHA S1)
Base course (G80,
98 97
G60 or G40)
Sub-base (G40 or
95 94
G30)

2.5.1 COMPACTION OF COHESIVE SOILS AND NATURAL GRAVEL

Soil compaction is the process of increasing the density of soil by the application of energy to pack the
soil particles together, causing a reduction in volume of air. The process does not involve removal of
water. The process primarily results in the increase of soil unit weight (density of the

Soil.), and therefore increases load-bearing capacity. The reduction of the air content results in the
reduction of pores which act as conduits of water and consequently reduce the permeability.

2.5.2 OBJECTIVE COMPACTION

The objective of densification is to improve the engineering properties of the soil mass. For example:

1. Reduction of void ratio and thus the permeability of the soil.

2. Increase in soil shear strength and the bearing capacity of the soil.

3. To make the soil less susceptible to volume changes, and therefore the tendency for settlement under
load or the influence of vibration reduced.

Compaction is carried out to determine the Maximum Dry Density and the Optimum Moisture

Content of a soil sample. The Maximum Dry Density is used as reference against which the

Field Dry Density is compared to determine Relative Field Compaction.

Therefore, mathematically Relative Compaction (%) = Field Density/Laboratory Density) *100

The following expression shows how Dry density are calculated.

Dry density = [(wet density) / (100+MC)] x100

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 Graphs are plotted with MC along the abscissa and dry density along the ordinate. The MC at which the
dry density is maximum is known as the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC).

See Appendix A for soil results tests conducted in the laboratory.

2.6 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) OF COHESIVE SOILS AND GRAVELS

This is a penetration test developed in California division of highways of U.S.A. The test may be
conducted on specimen prepared in a mold or in-situ, thus in the field.

The soil test specimen is filled in the mold under specified conditions of moisture content and
compaction. Surcharge weight is placed on top of the soil sample in the mold to prevent heaving up of
the soil while plunger is being penetrated in the soil sample. Now the plunger is brought in contact with
the soil sample and readings on proving ring dial and other dials are set to zero. A cylindrical piston with
a cross sectional area of 1935mm2 to penetrate the surface of a compacted material at a rate of 1.27mm
(0.05in.) per minute to the depths of 2.54mm (0.1in.) and 5.08mm (0.2in.). The California standard
values for these depths are 13.334kN and 20.016kN respectively.

This test method is used to evaluate the stress bearing capacity of cohesive soils and gravels for use as
selected subgrade, subbase, and base course materials. It is an extension of the compaction test.

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2.7ATTERBERG LIMITS
The physical properties of fine-grained soil get very much affected with changing water content. Mr.
Atterberg brought about these tests which are used to determine the consistency and plastic limit
behavior of fine soils. Atterberg suggested four states of consistency. The fig below indicates the various
state

Fluid Soil-water
Mixture
Increasing water content Liquid Limit LL

Liquid State

Plastic State Plastic Limit, PL

Semi‐solid State

Solid StateShrinkage Limit, SL

Dry Soil

2.7.1 Liquid Limit (LL)

The minimum water content at which the soil behaves as a viscous liquid or the minimum water
content at which 25 blows of the liquid limit machine closes a standard groove cut in the soil.

2.7.2 Plastic Limit (PL)

The water content below which the soil no longer behaves as a plastic material. The plastic limit is
arbitrarily defined as the water content at which a thread of soil when rolled down to a diameter of
3mm will just crumble. It is the boundary between semi-solid and plastic states of consistency.

2.7.3 Plasticity Index (PI)

Is the numerical difference between liquid limit and plastic limit of the soil?

Pl =LL - PL

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2.8 SOIL STABILIZATION
Soil stabilization is the process of changing soil properties to improve strength and durability. The soil
properties are stabilized by mechanical and chemical processes.

The mechanical stabilization improving soil properties by mixing other soil materials with the target soil
to change the gradation and therefore change the engineering properties.

Chemical stabilization the addition of cement or pozzolanic materials to improve the soil properties.

2.9 AGGREGATE TESTS

The following are the test conducted on aggregate at the laboratory. These tests are basically group into
two namely; strength test and shape test

2.9.1 Strength Test

Is performed to determine aggregate resistance to surface wear and tear. These tests are discussed
below:

2.9.2Aggregate impact value

It is a relative measure of the resistance of aggregate to sudden impact.

2.9.2.1 procedure to perform Aggregate impact value

1) We prepare our aggregate sample by air-drying or by heating. With a temperature of
100110°c for a period of 4 hours and waiting till cooled. This is done to take out the moisture
contained in the aggregate particles.

2) We sieve the sample through a 14.0mm and 10.0mm I.S sieves. The aggregates passing
through the 14.0mm but retained on 10.0mm is needed for the test.

3) The aggregates are filled into the measuring cylinder for 3 layers of which each layer is given
gentle blows of 25 compaction with end of the rod in the cylinder 4) We level the surface to ensure
uniformity.

5) We determine the net weight of the aggregates to the

nearest gram (W1).

6 By the help of the impact machine, we apply 15 blows of

compaction using the hammer. This is done at an interval of not
less than one second.

7) We remove the crushed aggregates from the cup and sieve

it through a sieve size of 2.36mm and check for the retaining
and passing particles. Note sum of both should not differ from
the total weight by 1g.

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 7) We weigh the retained samples and record the weight (W2).
8) To get our passing values, we take the retaining value out from the initial or total sample weight
recorded earlier.

(9) After recording, we fill the value column of our table sheet based on the expression give

Value = (Retained / Total Mass) x 100%

10) We then find the average of each of the recorded values.

2.10Los Angeles Abrasion Test

A measure of the resistance of aggregates to surface wear by abrasion.

Los Angeles Abrasion Test (LAA)

In this test, our main aim, is measure aggregate toughness and abrasion resistance such as
crushing, degradation and disintegration. The aggregate used in surface course of the highway
pavement, are subjected to wearing due to movement of traffic.

When vehicles move off on the road, the soil particles present between the pneumatic tires and
road surface cause abrasion of road aggregates. The steel rimmed wheels of animal driven
vehicles for example also cause considerable abrasion of the road surface. Therefore, the road
aggregates should be hard enough to resist abrasion. Resistance to abrasions of aggregate is
determined in laboratory by Los Angeles test machine.

The principle of Los Angeles Abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by use of standard steel
balls, which when mixed with aggregate and rotated in a drum for specific number of revolutions,

17
 cause impact on aggregate. The percentage wear of the aggregate due to rubbing with steel balls
is determined and is known as Los Angeles Abrasion Value.

This test on aggregates is done for the following purpose.

1) To determine the Los Angeles Abrasion Value

(2) To find the suitability of aggregates for use in road construction.

2.10.1.B.i Apparatus for the test

1. Los Angeles Machine

2) Abrasion Charge: Cast iron ball bearings. Approximately

48mm in diameter and each weighing between 390g to
445g; Twelve balls required.

3) Sieve size of 1.18mm

4) Balance (Scale) of capacity 5kg or 10kg
(5) Drying oven

6) Miscellaneous like tray.

2.10.2 Procedure for performing Abrasion test

1) Preparation of sample. Which is we make it ready for use by drying it in an oven
of about 105°c - 110°c. or by air-drying till moisture is considerable.

2) We weigh 5000g of our sample.

3) Make abrasion machine ready and dump the sample into it.

(4) we Arrange the 12 abrasion ball bearings on our sample in the machine and
give it a timer of 17:34s and start up the machine.

(5) We wait till the time is up and turn it off and pour out our sample.
(6) Sieve the crushed samples through a sieve size of 1.18mm to separate the
coarse particles from the finer particles.

(7) Weigh and record the weight of retained particles value and subtract from the
initial weight or mass to get the mass of particles passing.

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2.10.3 Calculations
The difference between the original weight and the final weight of the of the sample is expressed
as a percentage of the original weight of the sample. This value is reported as the percentage of
wear.

Aggregate Abrasion Valve [(A-B)/A] X100 where A = weight in gm of oven-dried sample.

B = weight in gm of fraction retained on 1.18 mm sieve after washing and oven-dried up to

constant a weight.

2.11Aggregate Crushing value

Aggregate crushing value indicates the ability of an aggregate to resist crushing under a gradually
applied compressive load.

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 2.12. Shape Test
2.12.1 Elongation index
Measures the percentage by mass of the aggregate particles whose larger dimension is greater than
their mean dimension. Thus, the mean dimension is the average of two adjacent sieve sizes between
which the aggregate particles being measured are retained.

2.12.2 Flakiness index

To determine the percentage of aggregates that are flat and hence flaky within the aggregate sample
under test with respect to their length or width. Appendix B Shows aggregate results tests conducted in
the laboratory

2.13 Water Absorption Test

2.13.1 Apparent Density

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2.13.1.1 Bulk Density test
Bulk Density is carried out from the same sample after apparent density is determine.

This is done by:

(1) Cleaning the surface of the sample with a duster to dry it, leaving the moisture contained in it.
(2) We weigh the surface dried sample and record.
(3) Afterwards, place the sample in an oven to take out the moisture contained in the sample.
(4) After oven-dried, the sample is weighed again and deducted from the surface dried weight.
This determines or shows the absorption ability of the sample or tells the amount of moisture
the sample could have absorb. And that defines bulk density.

This test is to determine the volume of water permeable void by measuring the weight of
aggregate dry and in a saturated surface dry condition and the difference is the amount of water
absorbed by the aggregate

2.14 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

This consists of selecting the correct proportions of cement, fine and coarse aggregates, and
water to produce concrete having the specified properties (which includes compressive strength
at a specified age, workability (slump) and durability). Sometimes additives like pulverized fuel
ash or admixtures are used and their proportions are also determined.

Concrete mix design was carried out for C25/30 and C30/37 with a slump of 10mm-30mm and
30mm-60mm respectively. This was done purposely to gain practical knowledge on how concrete
mix design is carried out. The design included mixing and compaction of concrete, carrying out a
slump test and making cubes for compressive strength tests. During the design, the Building
Research Establishment (BRE) manual for Design of Normal Concrete Mixes was used as guide to
proper mixing and testing procedure. Compressive Strengths of cubes were obtained by crashing
the prepared cubes cured for 7 days and 28 days for each classis of strength in a crashing device.
Appendix C Shows the Example of the concrete mix design calculation.

The mix design process is divided into five stages.

• Stage 1: Deals with strength leading to the free water/ cement ratio.
• Stage 2: Deals with workability leading to the free water/ cement ratio.
• Stage 3: Uses the results of Stages 1 and 2 to give the cement content.
• Stage 4: Deals with the determination of the total
• Stage 5: Deals with the selection of the fine and coarse aggregate contents.

2.14.1 PRODUCTION OF TRIAL MIXES

The output of the design process is the mass of the different constituents to produce one cubic
meter of concrete. The trial mixes are prepared in accordance with the requirements of BS

21
 1881: Part 125. Typically, six cubes of 150mm side are made. Three cubes are tested for 7 days
strength and the last three for 28 days strength.

2.15 TESTS ON TRIAL MIX

2.15.1 Slump test

This is performed to determine if the fresh concrete, after mixing of the trial mix, has met the
workability specification.

2.15.2 Density test

This is performed to determine the density of the fresh concrete. This density is then compared
to the density valued used during design. If there is a significant difference, the initial design
values are corrected by the ratio of the measured density to the assumed density so as to
determine the actual masses per cubic meter in the trial mix.

2.16 Compression testing of cubes

Curing: Curing is the act of strengthening a concrete by introducing it to water for some period of
time. This is actually done in several ways, either by spraying, dipping or covering with wet materials.

Cube Compression Test, is a strength test. This test is conducted to ascertain if the target mean
strength of the concrete mix design has been met. This is literally casting concrete cubs using a
specified design ratio and after, cured for a specific time rage based on the strength required such
as 7 days, 21 days and 28 days. These specific periods of time actually tell the strength capacity the
concrete can gain. Based on practice and researches, 28 days is classified as the day of which a
concrete reaches its maximum strength of about 98 to 99%.

After the concrete is cured, it is set to drain for some time and then afterwards, placed under a
loading machine to exert a vertical force on the concrete. The force under which the concrete
cacks or crushes, actually tells the resisting strength of the concrete. It also tells whether the mix
design ratio is appropriate for a particular project or not.

22
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 BITUMEN AND BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS

Bitumen is obtained from crude oil, which is employed in the construction of roads worldwide. It is
obtained by fractional distillation process, in which the simpler components of petroleum such as white
spirit, kerosene, fuel oil which have low boiling points evaporate, leaving behind bitumen.

3.1 TYPES OF BITUMEN

The following are the type of bitumen used for pavement construction.

 Cut-back Bitumen
 Bitumen Emulsion
 Straight- Run Bitumen

3.1.1 Cut-Back Bitumen

Cut – back is defined as bitumen whose viscosity has been reduced by addition of volatile diluents such
as gasoline, kerosene and light oils. It is used when it is important to have a fluid binder which can be
poured or sprayed at relatively low temperature.

It is used for road construction like surface dressing.

Three types of cuts – backs are manufactured commercially. The three types are Rapid Curing (RC),
Medium Curing (MC) and Slow Curing (SC). The RC types are manufactured using a high volatile solvent
whilst SC type has either low volatile solvent or not at all.

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 3.1.2 Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which a substantial amount of very finely divided bitumen is
suspended in water by means of one or more emulsifying and stabilizing agents.

3.1.2.1Types of Emulsion
The nature and type of emulsifying agents control the type of the bitumen emulsion that is produced.
The most used types of bitumen emulsion are:

(a) Anionic – Anionic emulsion is one in which the suspended bitumen particles are negatively charged.
Adhere better to aggregate particles with positive surface charges (e.g., limestone)

(b) Cationic – Cationic emulsion is one in which the suspended bitumen particles are positively charged.
Adhere better to aggregate particles with negative surface charges (e.g., sandstone, quartz, siliceous
gravel).

Cationic rather than anionic emulsions are commonly used in Ghana because they are compatible with
the chippings which generally have a negative surface charge.

3.2 TESTS ON BITUMEN

Bitumen is available in various types and grades. A variety of tests have been specified in order to
determine its behavior and stability. The following test are performed on bitumen laboratory.

3.2.1 Straight-run bitumen

Asphalt cement is the primary asphalt products produced by the distillation of crude oil. At ambient
temperatures asphalt cement is a black, sticky, semisolid and a highly viscous material.

It is strong and durable cement with excellent adhesive and waterproofing characteristics. It is also
highly resistant to the action of most acids, alkalis and salts. The largest use of asphalt cement is in the
production of asphalt concrete, which is primarily used in the construction of flexible pavements
throughout the world. The asphalt cement can readily be liquefied by applying heat for mixing with
mineral aggregates to produce asphalt concrete Asphalt Cement can be classified into 3 grades

 Viscosity Grade – Viscosity-graded specifications covers bitumen (asphalt) graded by

Viscosity at 60 C (140 °F). For example, AC-20.
 Penetration Grade – Penetration test is a commonly adopted test on bitumen to grade the
material in terms of its hardness. For example, 40/60.

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  Performance Grade – Performance Grade (PG) bitumen is bitumen which is graded based
on its performance at different temperatures. An example is PG 64-22. The first number
(64) indicates that the binder meets high temperature physical properties up to 64 degrees
Celsius. The last number (-22) indicates the binder meets low temperature physical
properties down to -22 degrees Celsius.

3.2.2 Consistency Test

Consistency describes the hardness or degree of fluidity of an asphalt cement sample at a particular
temperature. The consistency of asphalt cement can be measured in terms of;
a. Viscosity – both Absolute and kinematic
b. Penetration
c. Softening Point

3.2.2.1 Viscosity – Both Absolute and Kinematic

Viscosity is a measure of the bitumen’s resistance to flow. Viscosity decreases (i.e., materials become
more fluid) as temperature increases. A very viscous fluid is very thick. It is measured with a viscometer
at a temperature of 60°C (Absolute viscosity) and 135°C (Kinematic viscosity).

3.2.2.2 Penetration test

The penetration test measured the consistency of the bitumen sample. Thus, the depth in 0.1mm
that a standard needle loaded to 100g will penetrate an asphalt sample for a standard duration of
5seconds at a temperature of 25 oC. Therefore, the harder an asphalt cement the lower its
penetration and vice-versa.

25
3.2.3 Softening Point
This is to determine the temperature at which an asphalt cement or binder changers from a solid to
liquid state. Therefore, the harder the asphalt cement, the higher the softening point and vice-versa.

3.2.4 Specific Gravity of Bitumen

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of substance in consideration to the mass of an equal volume of
water at a specified temperature. It measures how much lighter or heavier bitumen is, compared with
the same volume of water. Specific gravity can be calculated using two methods either Pycnometer or
Balance method

3.2.4 Flash Point

This is done to determine the temperature at which the bitumen can be heated safely without
burning or being destroyed in the presence of open flame.

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 3.2.5 Durability Test
a. Thin Film Oven Test

This test measures the effect of heat and air on a moving film of hot mix asphalt binder, stimulating
short term aging that occurs during production and paving operations.

Aging or hardening is the process under which asphalt becomes harder and brittle due to increase in the
viscosity of asphalt. The bitumen sample is heated for 5hrs under a temperature of 163°C.

3.3 ASPHALT MIX DESIGN TESTS

3.3.1 Bitumen Extraction
This is done to remove the asphalt binder from the mix aggregate by using chemical solvent
(trichloroethylene or in the absence petrol can be used). Typically, a loose Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA) is
weighed and then a solvent is added to disintegrate the sample. The asphalt binder and are then
separated using a centrifuge and aggregate is weighed.

The final and initial weights are then compared, and the difference is assumed to be the asphalt sample
weight.

3.4 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN METHOD

This is the most used asphalt mix design. The Marshall Mix design method consist of the following steps:

1. Mixture preparation
2. Compaction of the mixture
3. Test on compacted specimens
4. Density void analysis
5. Interpretation of the test data

3.4.1 Mixture Preparation

A well graded and a specified aggregate is required of about 1150-1200g that meet the specification are
mix with the bitumen in the mixing bowl. The required quantity of materials is determined by the
compacted specimen height of 63±1.27mm. Three Sample are prepared at 4.5, 5.0, 5.5 and 6.5 percent
asphalt content (0.5% increment) by dry weight for a total of 5 samples.

3.4.2 Marshall Compaction Procedure

 Placing or pouring the mix into the mould for compaction.

27
 i. A filter whose diameter is equal to the diameter of the mould is placed at the bottom of
the mould.
ii. Place the entire mix in the mould with the collar. (Clean the spoon used to fill the mould
with the mixture, Spade the perimeter of the mould to remove the mixture that attaches to
the perimeter of the mould.
iii. Check the temperature of the mixture before compaction.

Compaction of the Mixture.

 Apply seventy-five (75) blows on each face of the mixture.
 The height of the fall of the hammer is 457mm and the weight is 4.5kg.
 After completing the required blows on both sides, remove the base plate collar and filter.
 The compacted mixture is allowed to cool before demoulding.
 Remove the specimen from the mould using the jacking device.

3.4.2 Marshall Stability Test

Marshall Stability is the peak resistance load obtained during a constant rate of deformation loading
sequence. Thus, this also measures the determination (elastic plus plastic) of the asphalt mix to
determine the stability.

Marshall Stability and flow values with density are include air void in the total mix, void in the

Mineral aggregate, or void filled with asphalt are used for laboratory mix design and evaluation of
asphalt mixtures. In addition, Marshall Stability and flow can be used to monitor the plant process of
producing asphalt mixture.

3.4.3 Density Void Analysis

There are three different analysis that should be consider.

1. Void in total mix or Air Void (VTM)

2. Void filled with Asphalt (VFA)
3. Volume in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

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 3.4.4 Interpretation of the test data
The following graphs are plotted:

1. Asphalt binder content vs Density

2. Asphalt binder content vs Marshall Stability
3. Asphalt content vs Flow
4. Asphalt binder content vs void in Total mix (VTM)
5. Asphalt binder content vs Void filled with Asphalt (VFA)
6. Asphalt binder content vs Volume in Mineral Aggregate (VMA

This is done to determine the optimum asphalt binder content by reference with the graphs. These
values are compared against the design requirements and if all are complied with the design
requirements, then selected optimum asphalt binder content is acceptable. Otherwise, the mixture
should be

PICTURES DURING WORK

29
30
 FORM S1/2. DATE: 27/09/2021
CENTRALS MATERIALS LABORATORY MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIP
ACCRA MINUS 19mm FRACTION OPERATOR:

SAMPLE NUMBER:
MASS MINUS 19mm: MASS PLUS 19mm: TOTAL MASS: % OVERSIZE:
ROW PARAMETER SPECIMEN 1 SPECIMEN 2 SPECIMEN 3 SPECIMEN 4 SPECIMEN 5 SPECIMEN 6 SPECIMEN 7 SPECIMEN 8
1 CONTAINER NO.
2 MASS AIR-DRY SAMPLE(g) 7000 7000 7000 7000 0 0 0 0
3 MASS WATER ADDED (g) 210 280 350 420 0 0 0 0
4 PERCENT WATER ADDED (%) 3 4 5 6 4.3 4.3 4.3
5 ESTIMATED AIR-DRY MC(%) 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0
6 EST. COMPACTION MC. (%)(4) + (5) 3 4 5 6 4.3 4.3 4.3
7 MOULD NUMBER DOH DOH DOH DOH DOH AMA KUMASI
8 MOULD FACTOR 0.4727 0.4727 0.4727 0.4727 0.4727 0.4727 0.4727
9 MASS OF MOULD(g) 4112 4112 4112 4112 4112 4110 4137
10 MASS MOULD + WET SOIL. (g) 9012 9187 9187 9090 9231 9085 8653
11 MASS WET SOIL. (g). (10) - (9) 4900 5075 5075 4978 5119 4975 4516
12 WET DENSITY. Kg/cu. M. (11) * (8) 2316 2399 2399 2353 2496 2352 2135
13 APPROX. DRY DENSITY. 100 *(12)/(100+(6)) 2249 2307 2285 2220 2393 2255 2047
MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION
14 OVEN- PAN NUMBER ANDD KKB ETC DAH NK KH4 SOLID
15 MASS OVEN-PAN. (g) 913.00 988.00 904.00 934.00 962.00 910.50 963.50
16 MASS OVEN-PAN + WET SOIL. (g) 1553.00 1558.00 1558.00 1569.00 1852.00 2425.50 2463.50
17 MASS OVEN-PAN + DRY SOIL. (g) 1507.00 1513.00 1500.00 1509.00 1709.00 2333.00 2360.00
18 MASS OF WATER. (g) (16) - (17) 46.00 45.00 58.00 60.00 143.00 92.50 103.50
19 MASS DRY SOIL. (g). (17) - (15) 594.00 525.00 596.00 575.00 747.00 1422.50 1396.50
20 MOISTURE CONTENT(%). (18)/(19)*100 7.74 8.57 9.73 10.43 7.41 7.41 7.41
21 BACK CALC. AIR-DRY MC. (%) (20) - (4) 4.7 4.57 4.73 4.43 3.11 3.11 3.11
22 DRY DENSITY. 100 * (12) / (100 + (20)) 2150 2210 2186 2131 2324 2189 1987
23 RELATIVE COMPACTION. 100(22/MDD) 105.14 99.07 89.93
NOTE: THE TEST RESULTS DO NOT CONSTITUTE APPROVAL BY GHA.
kg/m

2320
2307
APPROXIMATE DRY DENSITY.

2310
OMC = 4
3

2300 MDD = 2307

2290 2285

2280

2270

2260
2249
2250

2240

2230
2220
2220

2210
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

ESTIMATED MOISTURE CONTENT. %

2220
2210
2210
OMC = 8.75
MDD = 2210
2200
kg/m

2190 2186
3
DRY DENSITY

2180

2170

2160
2150
2150

2140
2131
2130

2120
7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00

COMPACTION MOISTURE CONTENT%

31
GHANA HIGWAY AUTHORITY FORM S2/S DATE COMPACTED:
REGIONAL MATERIALS LABORATORY CBR LOAD - PENETRATION
DATA RECORD
DATE PENETRATED:
SAMPLE NUMBER

CBR LOAD RING NUMBER: LOAD RING FACTOR: (kN/Div.);

STANDARD LOAD @ 0.1 in. Pen. 13.344KN STANDARD LOAD @ 0.2 in. Pen. 20.016 KN

PLUNGER SPECIMEN 6 SPECIMEN 7 SPECIMEN 7

PENETRATI MOULD NO. : 25 BLOWS MOULD NO. : 56 BLOWS MOULD NO. : 10 BLOWS
ON CORRECTE CORRECT CORRECTE
LOAD RING LOAD RING LOAD RING
(INCHES) D DIAL CBR% ED DIAL CBR% D DIAL CBR%
DIAL DIVS DIAL DIVS DIAL DIVS
DIVS DIVS DIVS
0.00 0 0 0
0.02 20 24 26
0.04 44 57 45
0.06 72 106 51
0.08 97 155 59
0.100 129 19 194 29 67 10
0.12 144 236 75
0.14 167 287 81
0.16 203 334 86
0.18 241 368 91
0.200 271 27 398 40 95 10
0.22 290 433 101
0.24 312 481 106
0.26 345 516 110
0.28 378 539 115
0.30 415 558 117
CBR 27 40 10

600
10 BLOWS
500
LOAD-RING DIAL (Division)

56 BLOWS

400 25 BLOWS

300

200

100

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32
PLUNGER PENETRATION (inch)

32
3.5 CONCLUSION
Having my attachment done at the Ghana Highway Authority, Accra, was a very
great experience I had and was so fascinating being on the attachment field. I learnt
so many useful skills which has helped me broaden my horizon. I would say my
objectives for going to the organization to have my industrial attachment is boldly
attained.

3.6 REFERENCES
(Ing. Paul Bortierh and Frederick Acquah) Managers Soil and Aggregates
Sector
(Ing. Edward D. Adzimah and Daniel Ofotsu) Managers Bitumen Sector
(Ing. Cuthbert K. Ategah and Samuel Egyir) Managers Pavement Sector
(Mrs. Joyce Agbeka) The Director of Training
Industrial Liaison CCTU, student’s log book.

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