Aircraft Performance

Lecture 1: Introduction

2023
 Aerodynamics Structures
Aeronautical
Engineering

Flight Mechanics Propulsion

 Flight Mechanics: Introduction
It’s all about: How do planes y?

Aircraft
Performance
range, endurance, rate of climb,
takeoff and landing distance,
ight path optimization

Stability & Control Aeroelasticity

internally or externally generated
interactions between inertial,
disturbances, stability and control
elastic, and aerodynamic forces
capabilities, equations of motion
with six degrees of freedom
fl
fl
Objectives of this course
• Study of how airplanes lift themselves and perform at ight
• This course covers basic understanding of:
Standard atmosphere

Aerodynamics fundamental

Shapes of airplanes

Airplane performance

Stability and control

Propulsion
fl
Learning Outcomes

• Be able to relate the aerodynamic characteristics of an aircraft to

the performance

• Be able to analyze aircraft performance at di erent stages

• Be able to di erentiate between static and dynamic stability
• Be able to describe fundamental aircraft control
• Be able to relate propulsion to aircraft performance
ff
ff
 Learning Plan
• Week 1: Introduction to ight mechanics and aircraft
performance. Review of fundamental aerodynamics

• Week 2: Forces and Moments Acting on an Aircraft

• Week 3: Forces and Moments Equilibrium Equations
• Week 4: Performance curves in terms of thrust
• Week 5: Performance curves in terms of power
• Week 6: Range and Endurance. Take-o , landing and turning
ight

• Week 7: Performance and aircraft design

• Week 8: Introduction to Stability and Control
fl
fl
ff
Books to Read

• John D. Anderson Jr. “Introduction to Flight”. 8th ed. McGraw

Hill, 2016

• Nelson, Robert C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”. 2nd

ed. McGraw Hill, 1998
Preliminaries
Basic Definitions
 Aerodynamics Forces and Moments
• Forces: Lift, Drag, Thrust, Weight
• Moments: Pitch, Roll, Yaw
• A ected factors: pressure, temperature, viscosity, Mach number,
atmosphere, etc.
ff
Pressure
• Pressure is the normal force per unit
area exerted on a surface.

dF F
p= or p=
dA A
• Pressure is usually de ned at a point in
the gas or a point on a surface and can
vary from one point to another.

• Static pressure in the atmosphere:

weight per unit of area of the air above
the elevation being considered
p
δ=
p0 Unit of pressure:
p0: static pressure at sea level N/m2; lb/ft2, atm
1 atm = 2116 lb/ft2 = 1.01 × 105 N/m2
fi
Temperature
• In aeronautics the temperature of air is an extremely important
parameter

• Temperature a ects the properties of air: density and viscosity

• A measure of the motion of molecular particles within a substance
• Heat energy will ow from the higher temperature object to that at
lower temperature

• The ratio of the ambient temperature at an altitude, T, to a sea-

level standard value, To:

T
<latexit sha1_base64="WQsca/b6Ln5xwHNmBd3dTsK9Ljs=">AAACAHicbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/oh48eFksgqeSSFEvQtGLxwqtLTShbLabdukmG3YnQgm5+Fe8eFDEqz/Dm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcg+N8W6WV1bX1jfJmZWt7Z3fP3j940DJVlLWpFFJ1A6KZ4DFrAwfBuoliJAoE6wTj26nfeWRKcxm3YJIwPyLDmIecEjBS3z7yYMSA4GvshYrQrJXjrNWXed+uOjVnBrxM3IJUUYFm3/7yBpKmEYuBCqJ1z3US8DOigFPB8oqXapYQOiZD1jM0JhHTfjZ7IMenRhngUCpTMeCZ+nsiI5HWkygwnRGBkV70puJ/Xi+F8MrPeJykwGI6XxSmAoPE0zTwgCtGQUwMIVRxcyumI2KCAJNZxYTgLr68TB7Oa+5FrX5frzZuijjK6BidoDPkokvUQHeoidqIohw9o1f0Zj1ZL9a79TFvLVnFzCH6A+vzB/nblgc=</latexit>

✓=
To
T is measure in Kelvin (K) or Rankin (R) scale
ff
fl
Density
• Density: mass per unit volume
Mass
<latexit sha1_base64="cDMmpWzdkwU5FDc81foH8b7O/nI=">AAACGXicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vqks3wSK4KjMi6kYounEjVLCt0Cklk2ZsaCYZkjvFMsxvuPFX3LhQxKWu/BvTdhbaeiFwcs49N7kniAU34LrfTmFhcWl5pbhaWlvf2Nwqb+80jUo0ZQ2qhNJ3ATFMcMkawEGwu1gzEgWCtYLB5VhvDZk2XMlbGMWsE5F7yUNOCViqW3Z93Vf4HPuhJjT1gT1Aek2MybL80pAcsArxUIkkYlnWLVfcqjspPA+8HFRQXvVu+dPvKWq9Eqiwk9ueG0MnJRo4FSwr+YlhMaEDcs/aFkoSMdNJJ5tl+MAyPRwqbY8EPGF/O1ISGTOKAtsZEeibWW1M/qe1EwjPOimXcQJM0ulDYSIwKDyOCfe4ZhTEyAJCNbd/xbRPbEZgwyzZELzZledB86jqnVSPb44rtYs8jiLaQ/voEHnoFNXQFaqjBqLoET2jV/TmPDkvzrvzMW0tOLlnF/0p5+sHK46hsQ==</latexit>

⇢=
Unit of volume
• From the equation of state: the density of a gas is directly
proportional to the pressure and inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature

• The ratio of ambient air density ρ to standard sea-level air

density ρo:
ρ
σ=
ρo
 Equation of State
Phương trình trạng thái

• A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are negligible.

• A gas in nature in which the particles are widely separated (low
densities) approaches the de nition of a perfect gas.

• Air at standard conditions can be readily approximated by a

perfect gas.

• The ow of air about ordinary ight vehicles at subsonic and

supersonic speeds can also be approximated by a perfect gas.

• For a perfect gas, the relationship between pressure p, density ρ,

and temperature T is:

p = ρRT
fl
fi
fl
 Viscosity
• Viscosity can be thought of as the internal friction of a
uid.

• Liquids are much more viscous than gases.

• Example of the moving plate. Newton’s law of friction:
du
<latexit sha1_base64="09MDkNKYeCUJOOxTKWSI/6XwKuM=">AAACD3icbZC7SgNBFIZn4z3eopY2g6LYGHZFNI0oWmipYDSQXcLsZDYZMnth5oxkWfYNbHwVGwtFbC21s/JVnCQimvjDwMd/zuHM+f1EcAW2/WEVxsYnJqemZ4qzc/MLi6Wl5SsVa0lZlcYiljWfKCZ4xKrAQbBaIhkJfcGu/c5Jr359w6TicXQJacK8kLQiHnBKwFiN0qYLROMD7IYau4EkNHOBdSFr5jr/wTRvlNbtst0XHgXnG9aPDj/futuV0/NG6d1txlSHLAIqiFJ1x07Ay4gETgXLi65WLCG0Q1qsbjAiIVNe1r8nxxvGaeIgluZFgPvu74mMhEqloW86QwJtNVzrmf/V6hqCipfxKNHAIjpYFGiBIca9cHCTS0ZBpAYIldz8FdM2MamAibBoQnCGTx6Fq52ys1fevTBpHKOBptEqWkNbyEH76AidoXNURRTdonv0iJ6sO+vBerZeBq0F63tmBf2R9foFwICg0A==</latexit>

⌧ =µ
dy
• is the coe cient of absolute viscosity

• For gases, the absolute viscosity depends only on the

temperature

• With increasing temperature causing an increase in

viscosity
𝜇
fl
ffi
 Viscosity
Độ nhớt

• Kinematic viscosity: ratio of absolute viscosity to density of the uid.

µ
<latexit sha1_base64="PXwzy5Lg/H/OutTIlXcytze5lcM=">AAAB/3icbVDLSsNAFJ34rPUVFdy4GSyCG0siot2IRRe6rGAf0IQymU7aoZNJmIdYYhb+ihsXirj1M3Tnyl9x+lho64ELh3Pu5d57goRRqRzny5qZnZtfWMwt5ZdXVtfW7Y3Nmoy1wKSKYxaLRoAkYZSTqqKKkUYiCIoCRupB72Lg12+JkDTmN6qfED9CHU5DipEyUsve9riGp9ALBcKpF+ks9UQ3zlp2wSk6Q8Bp4o5JoXz2/XF3ULqstOxPrx1jHRGuMENSNl0nUX6KhKKYkSzvaUkShHuoQ5qGchQR6afD+zO4Z5Q2DGNhiis4VH9PpCiSsh8FpjNCqisnvYH4n9fUKiz5KeWJVoTj0aJQM6hiOAgDtqkgWLG+IQgLam6FuItMFMpEljchuJMvT5PaYdE9Lh5dmzTOwQg5sAN2wT5wwQkogytQAVWAwT14BM/gxXqwnqxX623UOmONZ7bAH1jvP23UmWY=</latexit>

⌫=
⇢
• An important dimensionless quantity, known as the Reynolds number,
is de ned as
ρVl Vl
Re = =
μ ν

where l is a characteristic length and V is the uid velocity

• The Reynolds number can be thought of as the ratio of the inertial to

viscous forces of the uid
fi
fl
fl
fl
 Flow Velocity and Streamlines
Vận tốc dòng và Đường dòng

• Velocity connotes direction and speed

• The velocity at any xed point B in a owing gas is the velocity
of an in nitesimally small uid element as it sweeps through B.

• Velocity is a point property and can vary from point to point in

the ow.
fl
fi
fi
fl
fl
Flow Velocity and Streamlines
• In a steady ow (does not uctuate with time), a moving uid
element is seen to trace out a xed path in space.

• This path taken by a moving uid element is called a streamline

of the ow.

• In the wind tunnel, the streamlines can be made visible by

injection of laments of smoke upstream of the model.
fl
fi
fl
fl
fl
fi
fl
Mach number
• Mach number (named after Austrian physicist Ernst Mach): ratio
of an airplane's speed V to the local speed of sound a

V
<latexit sha1_base64="unz/c9Ctqz5jDIJs+UqSDfTZpQ8=">AAAB/3icbVC7SgNBFJ31GeNrVVDEZjAIVmFXRNMIQRsbIYJ5QLKE2clsMmT2wcxdMaxb+Cs2ForY+hdip42tn+HkUWjigQuHc+7l3nvcSHAFlvVhTE3PzM7NZxayi0vLK6vm2npFhbGkrExDEcqaSxQTPGBl4CBYLZKM+K5gVbd71ver10wqHgZX0IuY45N2wD1OCWipaW42gN1AcpHiE9zwJKFJJU1I2jRzVt4aAE8Se0RyxcLX29bn93apab43WiGNfRYAFUSpum1F4CREAqeCpdlGrFhEaJe0WV3TgPhMOcng/hTvaaWFvVDqCgAP1N8TCfGV6vmu7vQJdNS41xf/8+oxeAUn4UEUAwvocJEXCwwh7oeBW1wyCqKnCaGS61sx7RCdAujIsjoEe/zlSVI5yNtH+cNLncYpGiKDdtAu2kc2OkZFdI5KqIwoukX36BE9GXfGg/FsvAxbp4zRzAb6A+P1B3OAmic=</latexit>

M=
a
• As an airplane moves through the air, it creates pressure
disturbances that propagate away from the airplane in all
directions with the speed of sound

• M < 1: The pressure disturbances travel faster than the airplane

and in uence the air ahead of the airplane. Ex: the upwash eld
created in front of a wing

• M > 1: the pressure disturbances move more slowly than the

airplane and, therefore, the ow ahead of the airplane has no
warning of the oncoming aircraft
fl
fl
fi
Mach number
<latexit sha1_base64="etURS6Vz1HayezhPmnNGZBS4gpg=">AAADUXicdVJNb9NAEF07fBQXaApHLiMiECfLjlrIsaKXckAqomkrxVG03oyTVde71u4aiKz8RQ5w4n9w4QBi7RjUJs1IKz3PzHueebtpIbixUfTD8zt37t67v/Mg2H346PFed//JuVGlZjhkSih9mVKDgkscWm4FXhYaaZ4KvEivjuv6xSfUhit5ZhcFjnM6kzzjjFqXmux7syTFGZeVpWkpqF5WAsQySOa1YPBOMpU7PWO4EwRTpkZJziAT6jPAS4BkbgrKsDos7DKCxOIXN4ExAO+vfUThoetMguPtWk6q7toqMGgEzjSVK9It7ME2dhz2G/bHsnBG3GDVpS2s1cgniw3Ov5UP3MqwNnLDab1LUE7/uxoEk24vCqMmYBPELeiRNk4n3W/JVLEyR2mZoMaM4qiw44pqy5lAd0WlQTfIFZ3hyEFJczTjqnkRS3jhMlPIlHZHWmiy1xkVzY1Z5KnrzKmdm/VanbytNiptNhhXXBalRclWP8pKAVZB/bxgyjUyKxYOUKa5mxXYnGrKrPOxNiFeX3kTnPfD+HV48KHfO3rb2rFDnpHn5BWJyRtyRE7IKRkS5n31fnq/vT/+d/9Xh3T8VavvtZyn5EZ0dv8CKpkH0w==</latexit>

Incompressible subsonic flow 0 <M <0.5

Compressible subsonic flow 0.5 <M <0.8
Transonic subsonic flow 0.8 <M <1.2
Supersonic flow 1.2 <M <5
Hypersonic flow 5 <M

• M > 0.5: compressibility e ects must be included to have

accurate aerodynamic predictions

• Local speed of sound:

<latexit sha1_base64="C7UCya0AfejYjf/A0iecU0Ab7n8=">AAAB/nicbVDLSgNBEJyNrxhfq+LJy2AQPIVdCepFCHrxGCUvSJbQO5kkQ2Z215lZISwBf0UQD4oInrz5D7mJP+PkcdDEgoaiqpvuLj/iTGnH+bJSC4tLyyvp1cza+sbmlr29U1FhLAktk5CHsuaDopwFtKyZ5rQWSQrC57Tq9y5HfvWOSsXCoKT7EfUEdALWZgS0kZr2HuBz3FC3UieNDggB+AaXBk076+ScMfA8cackW8jmH4fvn9/Fpj1stEISCxpowkGpuutE2ktAakY4HWQasaIRkB50aN3QAARVXjI+f4APjdLC7VCaCjQeq78nEhBK9YVvOgXorpr1RuJ/Xj3W7TMvYUEUaxqQyaJ2zLEO8SgL3GKSEs37hgCRzNyKSRckEG0Sy5gQ3NmX50nlOOee5PLXJo0LNEEa7aMDdIRcdIoK6AoVURkRlKAH9IxerHvryXq13iatKWs6s4v+wPr4AaoBmRw=</latexit>

p
a= RT

is the ratio of speci c heat (1.4 for air); and R is the gas constant
<latexit sha1_base64="KDT8iR4TxcCif+8eylTXFuMCgeU=">AAAB7XicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY+KDAbBU9gVUY9BLx4TMA9IljA7mU3GzOwsM7NCWHL07sWDIl79hXyHN7/Bn3DyOGhiQUNR1U13VxBzpo3rfjmZpeWV1bXsem5jc2t7J7+7V9MyUYRWieRSNQKsKWcRrRpmOG3EimIRcFoP+jdjv/5AlWYyujODmPoCdyMWMoKNlWqtLhYCt/MFt+hOgBaJNyOF0uGo8v14NCq385+tjiSJoJEhHGvd9NzY+ClWhhFOh7lWommMSR93adPSCAuq/XRy7RCdWKWDQqlsRQZN1N8TKRZaD0RgOwU2PT3vjcX/vGZiwis/ZVGcGBqR6aIw4chINH4ddZiixPCBJZgoZm9FpIcVJsYGlLMhePMvL5LaWdG7KJ5XbBrXMEUWDuAYTsGDSyjBLZShCgTu4Qle4NWRzrPz5rxPWzPObGYf/sD5+AF22JLF</latexit>
fi
ff
Discussion of Units
• Much of the past engineering literature generated in the United
States and Britain used engineering units,

• Much of the current work uses SI units.

• Morden engineering students must be familiar with engineering
units so that they can read, understand, and use the vast bulk of
existing literature quoted in such units.

• At the same time, they must be intimately familiar with SI units for
present and future work.

1 knot = 0.514 m/s = 1.85 km/h

The Atmosphere
 The Atmosphere
• The performance
characteristics of an airplane
depend on the properties of
the atmosphere through which
it ies: temperature, pressure,
density, gust wind, etc.

• The atmosphere can be

thought of as composed of
various layers: distinct
characteristics

• Aircraft ying range:

Troposphere (Tầng đối lưu) and
Stratosphere (Tầng bình lưu)
fl
fl
Standard Atmosphere

• The properties of the atmosphere change with time and

location on the Earth.

• To compare the ight performance characteristics of airplanes

and ight instruments, a standard atmosphere was needed

• A standard atmosphere is a mathematical model which, on the

average, approximates the real atmosphere

It provides a basis for performance comparisons

It allows experimental data to be generalized

• “Standardization” is accomplished using an assumed

temperature variation
fl
fl
 Standard Atmosphere

• Temperature variations are of

two types

Constant gradient

Isothermal

• Equations are based upon

Hydrostatic equation

De nition of Geopotential
Altitude

Equation of state

De ned temperature
variation
fi
fi
International Standard Atmosphere
• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) publishes
the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) as an international
standard, ISO 2533:1975.

• The (ISA) is a static atmospheric model of how

the pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth’s
atmosphere change over a wide range of altitudes or elevations.

• Other standards organizations, such as the International Civil

Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the United States Government,
publish extensions or subsets of the same atmospheric model
under their own standards-making authority.
Standard Atmosphere
Altitude
Hydrostatic Equation
• The force balance in the vertical
direction gives:

dP = ⇢g dh
<latexit sha1_base64="sTIpbaTy+yREh9+tXeAtn7sucqE=">AAACE3icbVDLSgNBEJz1bXxFPSoyGAQRDLsi6kUIevEYwWggG8LspJMdMvtgplcMS47evfgrEvCgiFcv3vwGf8JJoqCJBQNFVTU9XV4shUbb/rDGxicmp6ZnZjNz8wuLS9nllUsdJYpDiUcyUmWPaZAihBIKlFCOFbDAk3DltU57/tU1KC2i8ALbMVQD1gxFQ3CGRqpld1yEG0zrnSI9prvUVX5Em9T1dcw4pHsxdn4Cfi2bs/N2H3SUON8kV1jvnn/ebnSLtey7W494EkCIXDKtK44dYzVlCgWX0Mm4iQazpsWaUDE0ZAHoatq/qUO3jFKnjUiZFyLtq78nUhZo3Q48kwwY+nrY64n/eZUEG0fVVIRxghDywaJGIilGtFcQrQsFHGXbEMaVMH+l3GeKcTQ1ZkwJzvDJo+RyL+8c5PfPTRsnZIAZskY2yTZxyCEpkDNSJCXCyR15IE/k2bq3Hq0X63UQHbO+Z1bJH1hvX3WloaU=</latexit>

• Atmospheric pressure measured by a

barometer:

Patm = ⇢gh
<latexit sha1_base64="LwrtCyZ2r6KpSwzaR1wbYwXj3KY=">AAACAHicbVDJSgNBEO1xjXEb9eBBkcYgeAozIupFCHrxmIBZIBNCT6cn06RnobtGDMNcBL/EiwdFvAU/w5vf4E/YWQ6a+KDg8V4VVfXcWHAFlvVlzM0vLC4t51byq2vrG5vm1nZNRYmkrEojEcmGSxQTPGRV4CBYI5aMBK5gdbd3PfTrd0wqHoW30I9ZKyDdkHucEtBS29wttx1g95ASCDJ8iR3pR7iL/bZZsIrWCHiW2BNSKO0PKt+PB4Ny2/x0OhFNAhYCFUSppm3F0EqJBE4Fy/JOolhMaI90WVPTkARMtdLRAxk+0koHe5HUFQIeqb8nUhIo1Q9c3RkQ8NW0NxT/85oJeBetlIdxAiyk40VeIjBEeJgG7nDJKIi+JoRKrm/F1CeSUNCZ5XUI9vTLs6R2UrTPiqcVncYVGiOH9tAhOkY2OkcldIPKqIooytATekGvxoPxbLwZ7+PWOWMys4P+wPj4AaEHmXw=</latexit>

Element of uid at rest

fl
Altitude
• Relation between absolute and
geometric altitude:
ha = hG + R o
<latexit sha1_base64="l/dTsgs5bivFaE8HVPgaHTpAyLI=">AAAB9XicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSIIQkmkqBel4EGPVewHtDFstptm6WYTdjdKCf0fXjwo4tX/4s1/47bNQVsfDDzem2Fmnp9wprRtf1sLi0vLK6uFteL6xubWdmlnt6niVBLaIDGPZdvHinImaEMzzWk7kRRHPqctf3A19luPVCoWi3s9TKgb4b5gASNYG+kh9DC6QKF3jY7vvNgrle2KPQGaJ05OypCj7pW+ur2YpBEVmnCsVMexE+1mWGpGOB0Vu6miCSYD3KcdQwWOqHKzydUjdGiUHgpiaUpoNFF/T2Q4UmoY+aYzwjpUs95Y/M/rpDo4dzMmklRTQaaLgpQjHaNxBKjHJCWaDw3BRDJzKyIhlphoE1TRhODMvjxPmicV57RSva2Wa5d5HAXYhwM4AgfOoAY3UIcGEJDwDK/wZj1ZL9a79TFtXbDymT34A+vzB2r4kSk=</latexit>

• Hydrostatic equation:
dP = ⇢g0 dh
<latexit sha1_base64="SC89AwhWeVfpEejpgxVthSBNk9s=">AAACCHicbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh49uFgEL5ZEinpRCl48VrAf0Iaw2WzbpZtN2J2IJfToxb/ixYMiXv0J3vw3btsI2vpg4PHeDDPz/FhwDbb9ZeUWFpeWV/KrhbX1jc2t4vZOQ0eJoqxOIxGplk80E1yyOnAQrBUrRkJfsKY/uBr7zTumNI/kLQxj5oakJ3mXUwJG8or7HWD3kAajGr7Axx3Vj3DPs/GP2veKJbtsT4DniZOREspQ84qfnSCiScgkUEG0bjt2DG5KFHAq2KjQSTSLCR2QHmsbKknItJtOHhnhQ6MEuBspUxLwRP09kZJQ62Hom86QQF/PemPxP6+dQPfcTbmME2CSThd1E4EhwuNUcMAVoyCGhhCquLkV0z5RhILJrmBCcGZfnieNk7JzWq7cVErVyyyOPNpDB+gIOegMVdE1qqE6ougBPaEX9Go9Ws/Wm/U+bc1Z2cwu+gPr4xuoh5kd</latexit>

← geopotential altitude, or
dP = ⇢gdhG
<latexit sha1_base64="zou6XeeujQdBbKESqudy42K/aVc=">AAACCHicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPVVdenCwSK4sSRS1I1ScKHLCvYBTQiTyaQZOnkwcyOW0KUbf8WNC0Xc+gnu/BunD0FbD1w4nHMv997jpYIrMM0vY25+YXFpubBSXF1b39gsbW03VZJJyho0EYlse0QxwWPWAA6CtVPJSOQJ1vJ6l0O/dcek4kl8C/2UORHpxjzglICW3NKeDewecn9Qx+f4yJZhgrv4RwvdK7dUNivmCHiWWBNSRhPU3dKn7Sc0i1gMVBClOpaZgpMTCZwKNijamWIpoT3SZR1NYxIx5eSjRwb4QCs+DhKpKwY8Un9P5CRSqh95ujMiEKppbyj+53UyCM6cnMdpBiym40VBJjAkeJgK9rlkFERfE0Il17diGhJJKOjsijoEa/rlWdI8rlgnlepNtVy7mMRRQLtoHx0iC52iGrpGddRAFD2gJ/SCXo1H49l4M97HrXPGZGYH/YHx8Q3N15k0</latexit>

← geometric altitude

• Geopotential altitude does not account for changes in gravity as

altitude changes
Ro Ro
<latexit sha1_base64="EOjX1W4nQ3lencc4gZVCPj2duAk=">AAACBXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEtdDBZBEEoi4guUigtdSRX7gDaEyXTSDJ08mJkIJaQLN/6KGxeKuPUf3PkJ/oWTtgttPXCHwzn3cuceJ2JUSMP40nJT0zOzc/n5wsLi0vKKvrpWE2HMManikIW84SBBGA1IVVLJSCPiBPkOI3Wne5H59XvCBQ2DO9mLiOWjTkBdipFUkq1vevAUtlyOcHJrh2n2wF3o2ZepKlsvGiVjADhJzBEplo9P+ufX/e+KrX+22iGOfRJIzJAQTdOIpJUgLilmJC20YkEihLuoQ5qKBsgnwkoGV6RwWylt6IZcVSDhQP09kSBfiJ7vqE4fSU+Me5n4n9eMpXtkJTSIYkkCPFzkxgzKEGaRwDblBEvWUwRhTtVfIfaQikSq4AoqBHP85ElS2yuZB6X9G5XGGRgiDzbAFtgBJjgEZXAFKqAKMHgAT+AFvGqP2rP2pr0PW3PaaGYd/IH28QPRUJp/</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="IGygKelk8hvDAxaIuChOC9S395k=">AAACA3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqDvdDBbBjSUR8QVKxYWupIp9QBvCZDpphk4ezEyEElLc+CtuXCji1p9w5yf4F07aLrT1wL0czrmXmXuciFEhDeNLy01Nz8zO5ecLC4tLyyv66lpNhDHHpIpDFvKGgwRhNCBVSSUjjYgT5DuM1J3uRebX7wkXNAzuZC8ilo86AXUpRlJJtr7h2ZfwFLZcjnBya4dp1uAu9FLP1otGyRgAThJzRIrl45P++XX/u2Lrn612iGOfBBIzJETTNCJpJYhLihlJC61YkAjhLuqQpqIB8omwksENKdxWShu6IVcVSDhQf28kyBei5ztq0kfSE+NeJv7nNWPpHlkJDaJYkgAPH3JjBmUIs0Bgm3KCJespgjCn6q8Qe0jFIVVsBRWCOX7yJKntlcyD0v6NSuMMDJEHm2AL7AATHIIyuAIVUAUYPIAn8AJetUftWXvT3oejOW20sw7+QPv4AXu6mcc=</latexit>

h= hG hG = h
R o + hG or Ro h

• The di erence between the geometric and geopotential altitudes is quite

small for altitudes below 15.2 km or 50,000 ft
ff
Gradient Temperature Region
• From hydrostatic equation: dP = ⇢go dhG, and
<latexit sha1_base64="M8wjS5LYTfW4tnKD9FB7Lsxb+/A=">AAACDHicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPVVdelmsAhuLIkUdaMUXOiygn1AE8JkMmmHTjJh5kYsoR/gxl9x40IRt36AO//G6WOhrQcGDuecy517glRwDbb9bS0sLi2vrBbWiusbm1vbpZ3dppaZoqxBpZCqHRDNBE9YAzgI1k4VI3EgWCvoX4381j1TmsvkDgYp82LSTXjEKQEj+aWyC+wB8nBYxxf42FU9ibu+xBMVh0Pc869Nyq7YY+B54kxJGU1R90tfbihpFrMEqCBadxw7BS8nCjgVbFh0M81SQvukyzqGJiRm2svHxwzxoVFCHEllXgJ4rP6eyEms9SAOTDIm0NOz3kj8z+tkEJ17OU/SDFhCJ4uiTGCQeNQMDrliFMTAEEIVN3/FtEcUoWD6K5oSnNmT50nzpOKcVqq31XLtclpHAe2jA3SEHHSGaugG1VEDUfSIntErerOerBfr3fqYRBes6cwe+gPr8wcp7Jpq</latexit>

• Equation of state: P = ⇢RT

<latexit sha1_base64="chpJn/g79TSw9cOs3LngPboW2Os=">AAAB8XicbVBNSwMxEJ2tX7V+VT16CRbBU9mVUr0IRS8eq/QL26Vk02wbmk2WJCuUpf/CiwdFvPpvvPlvTNs9aOuDgcd7M8zMC2LOtHHdbye3tr6xuZXfLuzs7u0fFA+PWlomitAmkVyqToA15UzQpmGG006sKI4CTtvB+Hbmt5+o0kyKhpnE1I/wULCQEWys9Fi/7qmRRA+o0S+W3LI7B1olXkZKkKHeL371BpIkERWGcKx113Nj46dYGUY4nRZ6iaYxJmM8pF1LBY6o9tP5xVN0ZpUBCqWyJQyaq78nUhxpPYkC2xlhM9LL3kz8z+smJrzyUybixFBBFovChCMj0ex9NGCKEsMnlmCimL0VkRFWmBgbUsGG4C2/vEpaF2WvWq7cV0q1myyOPJzAKZyDB5dQgzuoQxMICHiGV3hztPPivDsfi9ack80cwx84nz8/HY//</latexit>

• We obtain the following expression:

dP go dh
<latexit sha1_base64="m3VDTYFB6ggD6ZczAzRrfG4wtrw=">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</latexit>

= (*)
P R T
• In a constant gradient temperature region,
<latexit sha1_base64="Sz2i7jmqs0l0WcTI01giDmkZZjo=">AAAB7nicbVDLSsNAFL2pr1pfVZduBovgqiQq6koLblxWsA9oQ7mZTNqhk0mYmQgl9CPcuFDErf/hH7jzb5w+Flo9cOFwzrncR5AKro3rfjmFpeWV1bXiemljc2t7p7y719RJpihr0EQkqh2gZoJL1jDcCNZOFcM4EKwVDG8mfuuBKc0TeW9GKfNj7EsecYrGSq2usNEQe+WKW3WnIH+JNyeV64/TKeq98mc3TGgWM2moQK07npsaP0dlOBVsXOpmmqVIh9hnHUslxkz7+XTdMTmySkiiRNmShkzVnx05xlqP4sAmYzQDvehNxP+8TmaiSz/nMs0Mk3Q2KMoEMQmZ3E5Crhg1YmQJUsXtroQOUCE19kMl+wRv8eS/pHlS9c6rZ3dupXYFMxThAA7hGDy4gBrcQh0aQGEIj/AML07qPDmvztssWnDmPfvwC877NzX4kbI=</latexit>

is called the lapse rate:

dT 1
<latexit sha1_base64="QAdYYhzfzSQB2VcAF0TqkOS3mgg=">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</latexit>

= or dh = dt
dh
• Carry out the integration of (*) gives:
<latexit sha1_base64="ZGCYVWHjOkTBzfmOAsqjEQEi6zk=">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</latexit>

✓ ◆ go /(R )
P T
=
P1 T1

where P1 and T1 are pressure and temperature at the start of the linear region
Gradient Temperature Region
• The density variation can be determined as follows:
P ⇢T
<latexit sha1_base64="F1Ehg8+/6hLTIAIMZ8rvf1P/RtQ=">AAACEnicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZdugkXQTZkRURGUghuXI/QFnTJk0kwbmnmQZIQyzDd0oV8g+AluXCji1pULwZ2fYjrThbYeCDk5515u7nEjRoU0jC+tMDe/sLhUXC6trK6tb+ibWw0RxhyTOg5ZyFsuEoTRgNQllYy0Ik6Q7zLSdAeXY795Q7igYVCTw4h0fNQLqEcxkkpy9APb4wgnVppYjpnCc5i/bd4PYS3NbseENeU5etmoGBngLDEnpFw9G30+3N5/W47+YXdDHPskkJghIdqmEclOgrikmJG0ZMeCRAgPUI+0FQ2QT0QnyVZK4Z5SutALuTqBhJn6uyNBvhBD31WVPpJ9Me2Nxf+8diy9005CgyiWJMD5IC9mUIZwnA/sUk6wZENFEOZU/RXiPlKZSJViSYVgTq88SxqHFfO4cnSt0rgAOYpgB+yCfWCCE1AFV8ACdYDBCDyCZ/Ci3WlP2qv2lpcWtEnPNvgD7f0HRIyhrg==</latexit>

=
P1 ⇢1 T 1

• Therefore:
<latexit sha1_base64="uwFvzhvrzZqtFd30oSmugbGserk=">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</latexit>

✓ ◆ [1+go /(R )]
⇢ T
=
⇢1 T1
Isothermal Region
• In the isothermal regions the temperature remains constant as
the altitude varies

• Carry out the integration of (*) gives:

P
<latexit sha1_base64="jhwki1qSVNzCm1c/Ym9JbimP1yU=">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</latexit>

go (h h1 )/(RT1 )
=e
P1

• The density variation:

<latexit sha1_base64="1Ey/3WI+CTJak48CgD4jEe+3gQQ=">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</latexit>

⇢ go (h h1 )/(RT1 )
=e
⇢1

• Note: these equations can be used to predict accurately the

pressure and density variation in the standard atmosphere up to
approximately 57 miles, or 91km.
International Standard Atmosphere
International Standard Atmosphere
Variation of pressure with altitude
International Standard Atmosphere
Variation of density with altitude
Standard Atmosphere
Sea level
Example
Ex. 1.1, p.18, Nelson’s
Problem:
The temperature from sea level to 30,000 ft is found to decrease in a linear manner.
The temperature and pressure at sea level are measured to be 40oF and 2050 lb/ft2,
respectively. If the temperature at 30,000 ft is -60oF, nd the pressure and density at
20,000 ft.

Solution:
Temperature at altitude:
• Lapse rate?
• Temperature at 20,000 ft?
Pressure:
• Pressure variation in linear region
Density:
• Equation of state or equation of density variation
Ans: pressure = 915 lb/ft2; density = 0.00123 slug/ft3
fi
Example
Ex. 3.6, p. 127, Anderson’s
Problem:
Consider an airplane ying at some real, geometric altitude. The outside
(ambient) pressure and temperature are 5.3 × 104 N/m2 and 253 K, respectively.
Calculate the pressure and density altitudes at which this airplane is ying.

Solution:
Pressure altitude:
• What can we tell from the ambient pressure? Where to lookup? What
to calculate?
• Approximate solution?
• Exact solution?
Density altitude:
• How to obtain air density?
• What is the altitude?
Ans: pressure altitude = 5146.6 m; density altitude = 5082.2 m
fl
fl
Aircraft Instruments
Aircraft Instruments
• Array of dials, gauges and gadgets located in
the cockpit of an aircraft

• Pilots rely on these instruments to understand

where the plane is, how fast it is traveling and
what it is doing, and other information

• 4 groups of instruments:
Flight instruments (Altimeter, Airspeed
Indicator, Heading Indicator, Attitude
Indicator, etc.)

Engine Instruments (temperature gauges,

fuel and oil quantity displays, and engine
pressure gauges)

Navigation Instruments (compass, GPS)

Miscellaneous Position/Condition
Instruments (cabin environment, APU, etc.)
 The Original Aviation 6 Packs
Pitot Static System

1. Altimeter

2. Airspeed Indicator

3. Vertical Speed Indicator

Gyroscopic System

4. Attitude Indicator

5. Heading Indicator

6. Turn Coordinator
Pitot-Static System
Pitot-Static Equations
Airspeed Indicator
• The ASI is a sensitive, di erential pressure gauge that measures
and promptly indicates the di erence between pitot (impact/
dynamic pressure) and static pressure.

• The ASI is the one instrument that utilizes both the pitot, as well
as the static system.

<latexit sha1_base64="5jnj8HuzhmsVwte+yrBPZKc1TwY=">AAACC3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3Q4tQF5akFHUjFN24jGAf0IQymU7aoZNMnJkIJWTvxl9x40IRt/6AO//GaZuFth64cDjnXu69x48Zlcqyvo3Cyura+kZxs7S1vbO7Z+4ftCVPBCYtzBkXXR9JwmhEWooqRrqxICj0Gen44+up33kgQlIe3alJTLwQDSMaUIyUlvpmuQ0voSvvhUrdQCCc1qtOn8NT6JxkqStGPMv6ZsWqWTPAZWLnpAJyOH3zyx1wnIQkUpghKXu2FSsvRUJRzEhWchNJYoTHaEh6mkYoJNJLZ79k8FgrAxhwoStScKb+nkhRKOUk9HVniNRILnpT8T+vl6jgwktpFCeKRHi+KEgYVBxOg4EDKghWbKIJwoLqWyEeIR2J0vGVdAj24svLpF2v2We1xm2j0rzK4yiCI1AGVWCDc9AEN8ABLYDBI3gGr+DNeDJejHfjY95aMPKZQ/AHxucPKcCZ5A==</latexit>

s
2(Po P)
V =
⇢
ff
ff
 Altimeter
• An altimeter is a device to
measure the altitude of an
airplane

• Pilots use an altimeter to

maintain adequate vertical
spacing between their aircraft
and other airplanes operating in
the same area and to establish
su cient distance between the
airplane and the ground

• The altimeter uses static

pressure as its source of
operation
ffi
 Vertical Speed Indicator
• Although the VSI operates solely
from static pressure, it is a
di erential pressure instrument

• The diaphragm receives

unrestricted air, while the case
receives the static pressure via the
metered leak.

• When the aircraft climbs or

descends, the pressure inside the
diaphragm changes immediately,
but due to the metering action of
the restricted passage, the case
pressure remains higher or lower
for a short time, causing the
diaphragm to contract or expand
ff
Next:
Fundamental Aerodynamics