Aircraft Performance

Lecture 4: Propulsion

2023
Introduction
• Flight vehicle is a system involving aerodynamics, ight
dynamics, structures, and propulsion.

• All four of these disciplines must work successfully and

synergistically for the ight vehicle to be a success.

• Propulsion has led the way for all major advancements in ight
velocities.

• Basic principles of propellers, reciprocating engines,

turbojets, ramjets, and rockets will be examined
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Introduction
Consume
oxygen in
the air
Propeller
• Airplane wings and propellers are both made up of airfoil
sections designed to generate an aerodynamic force.

• The wing force provides lift to sustain the airplane in the air; the
propeller force provides thrust to push the airplane through the
air.
Propeller
• A propeller is twisted: the
chord line changes from
being almost parallel to
V∞ at the root to almost
perpendicular at the tip

• Pitch angle β = β(r)

• The air ow seen by a
given propeller section is
a combination of the
airplane’s forward
motion and the rotation
of the propeller itself.
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Propeller
• If the chord line of the airfoil section
is at an angle of attack α with
respect to the local relative wind V,
then lift and drag are generated

• Net thrust generated:

T = L cos ϕ − D sin ϕ
where ϕ =β−α
• Summing this thrust over the entire
length of the propeller blades yields
the net thrust available TA, which
drives the airplane forward.
Propeller

• TA is dependent on the angle of attack α (α = β − ϕ)

• ϕ depends on the magnitude of V∞ and rω
• Angular velocity ω = 2πn, where n is the number of propeller
revolutions per second

TA must be a function of β, V∞, n, and the size of the propeller

Propeller efficiency
• Power = Thrust x Velocity
• Propeller e ciency:
PA TAV∞
η= =
P P
where PA is power available by the propeller and P is the the
power delivered to the propeller by the shaft of the engine

• Normally η < 1 because of power loss:

Kinetic energy loss from the blades of the propeller
Frictional loss
Compressibility loss: shock waves occur near the tip, where
velocity is high
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Propeller
Why is propeller twisted?

• A consideration of the relative

wind also explains why a propeller
blade is twisted

• Near the root rω is small, β must

be large to have a reasonable α

• Near the tip rω is large, β must be

smaller to have a reasonable α
Reciprocating Engine
Reciprocating Engine

Elements of the four-stroke, internal combustion,

reciprocating engine cycle.
(a) Intake stroke; (b) compression stroke; (c) constant-
volume combustion. (d) Power stroke; (e) exhaust stroke.
Note that V denotes the gas volume in the cylinder.
Jet Propulsion
• The jet engine is a device that takes in air at the free-stream
velocity V∞, heats it by combustion of fuel inside the duct, and
then blasts the hot mixture of air and combustion products
out the back end at a much higher velocity Ve.

• In contrast to a propeller, the jet engine creates a change in

momentum of the gas by taking a small mass of air and giving it
a large increase in velocity (hundreds of meters per second)

• For a propeller, this change in momentum is in the form of a large

mass of air being given a small increase in velocity (about 10 m/
s).
Jet Propulsion - Thrust Equation
• Thrust created by the engine is in the x direction:

∫ ∫ ∫
T = (psdS)x + (p∞dS)x = (psdS)x + p∞(Ai − Ae)

∫
(dS)x
Jet Propulsion - Thrust Equation
• Consider the volume of gas bounded by the dashed lines
• Pressure exerted on the control volume: p∞, ps, pe
• Net force exerted on the control volume in the x direction:

∫
Fx = p∞Ai + (psdS)x − pe Ae (1)
Jet Propulsion - Thrust Equation
• Newton’s second law:
Force = the time rate of change of momentum

d(mV )
F = ma =
dt
• Net force created by the engine:
Fx = (m· air + m· fuel)Ve − m· airV∞ (2)
Jet Propulsion - Thrust Equation
• From (1) and (2):

∫
p∞Ai + (psdS)x − pe Ae = (m· air + m· fuel)Ve − m· airV∞

∫
or (psdS)x = (m· air + m· fuel)Ve − m· airV∞ + pe Ae − p∞Ai

• Substitute into equation of thrust:

T = (m· air + m· fuel)Ve − m· airV∞ + pe Ae − p∞Ai + p∞(Ai − A0)

T = (m· air + m· fuel)Ve − m· airV∞ + (pe − p∞)Ae

 Turbo Jet Engine
• Di user: increase
pressure from p1 to p2

• Compressor: alternating
rotor and stator; the ow
is compressed further
from p2 to p3

• Combustor: heating
• Turbine: rotating blades
extract work and transmit
to compressor; expansion
process pressure drop
from p4 to p5

• Nozzle: exhaust,
p6 = pe, Ve
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Turbo Jet Engine
Turbo Jet Engine - Thrust Equation
• In turbo jet engine, the mass of fuel added is usually small
compared to the mass of air: m · / m· ≈ 0.05
fuel air

• The thrust equation:

T = m· air(Ve − V∞) + (pe − p∞)Ae

• T can be increased by increasing Ve − V∞.

• Thus, the function of a jet engine is to exhaust the gas out the
back end faster than it comes in through the front end.

• At subsonic speed, T is independent of V∞

Turbo Fan Engine
• Turbofan engine: a turbojet engine
that has a large ducted fan mounted
on the shaft ahead of the compressor.

• The turbine drives both the fan and

the compressor.

• The ducted fan accelerates a large

mass of air that ows between the
inner and outer shrouds; this
unburned air then mixes with the jet
exhaust downstream of the nozzle.

• The thrust of the turbofan is a

combination of the thrust produced
by the fan blades and jet from the
exhaust nozzle.

• Consequently, the e ciency of a

turbofan engine is better than that of
a turbojet.
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 Turboprop Engine

• A turbine engine that

drive a propeller

• Turboprops are most

e cient at ight
speeds below 725 km/
h (450 mph; 390 knots)
because the jet
velocity of the
propeller (and exhaust)
is relatively low

• Higher power-to-
weight ratio compared
to piston engine,
which allows shorter
takeo
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Ramjet Engine
• No rotating parts
• Air is inducted through the inlet at velocity V∞
• Decelerated in the di user (point 1 to point 2)
• Burned in a region where fuel is injected (point 2 to point 3)
• And then blasted out the exhaust nozzle at very high velocity Ve
(point 3 to point 4).
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Rocket Engine
• The rocket engine carries both its fuel and oxidizer and is
completely independent of the atmosphere for its combustion.

• Thus the rocket can operate in the vacuum of space, where

obviously the air-breathing engines cannot.
Engine Improvement

• Engine e ciency: aerodynamic e ciency, power e ciency

• Green engine:
Reduce engine noise: from exhaust, from the fan, from the
airframe

Replace fossil fuel with bio-fuel

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