CO QAH + MELC LW

HANDOUT No. 1
Course Outline & Quality Assured Handouts paired with
MELC- Based Learner’s Worksheet in GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

MELC:
1. Explain the postulates of the cell theory (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-1)
2. Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-2)
Semester: 1 Week No.1 Day: 1 - 5

LESSON 1: THE CELL THEORY

The CELL THEORY, or cell doctrine, states that all organisms are composed of similar units of organization,
called cells. The concept was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden & Schwann and has remained as the
foundation of modern biology. The idea predates other great paradigms of biology including Darwin's theory of
evolution (1859), Mendel's laws of inheritance (1865), and the establishment of comparative
biochemistry (1940).
By the late 1830s, botanist and a professor at the University of Jena, Germany, Matthias Schleiden and
zoologist and also a professor at the University of Louvain, Belguim, Theodor Schwann were studying tissues
and proposed the first postulates of the cell theory (unified cell theory). The unified cell theory states that: all
living things are composed of one or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from existing
cells. Rudolf Virchow later made important contributions to this theory. With further advanced studies, the unified
cell theory has been presented.
Schleiden and Schwann proposed spontaneous generation as the method for cell origination, but
spontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven.
The last postulate was eventually proven by Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow in 1858. Virchow, upon studying
how cells played a role in body diseases at the time, noticed that the existence of disease in the organs and
tissues come from affected cells. From this, he stated “Omnis cellula e cellula”. “All cells only arise from pre-
existing cells.” The parts of the theory that did not have to do with the origin of cells, however, held up to scientific
scrutiny and are widely agreed upon by the scientific community today.
The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell Theory are as follows:
1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.

Figure 1a Figure 1b Figure 1c

Figure 1: (a)Theodor Schwann, (b) Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow, and (c) Matthias Schleiden
retrieved from https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/matthias-schleiden
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theodor_Schwann_Wellcome_L0025817.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow on Dec 9, 2020
 LESSON 2: CELL ORGANELLE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
All cells share four common components. These are the plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates
the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in
which other cellular components are found; the DNA, the genetic materials of the cells; and the ribosomes, which
synthesize protein. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane (figure 2) functions as a
selective barrier that allows passage of enough oxygen,
nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell.
The plasma membrane and the membranes of
organelles consist of a double layer (bilayer) of
phospholipids with various proteins attached to or
embedded in it. The hydrophobic parts of phospholipids
and membrane proteins are found in the interior of the
membrane, while the hydrophilic parts are in contact with
aqueous solutions on either side. Carbohydrate side
chains may be attached to proteins or lipids on the outer
surface of the plasma membrane.
CYTOPLASM
The interior of either type of cell is called the
cytoplasm (figure 2); in eukaryotic cells, this term refers
only to the region between the nucleus and the plasma
membrane. Within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell,
suspended in cytosol, are a variety of organelles of
Figure 2: Illustration of Plasma Membrane and Cytoplasm.
specialized form and function. Retrived from https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/structure-
Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70% to plasma-membrane-97190063 on Dec 10, 2020
80%watre, it has semi-solid consistency due to the
proteins within it. However, proteins are not the only
organic molecules found in the cytoplasm. Many
metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, takes
place in the cytoplasm.

THE NUCLEUS (Figure 3)

Typically, the most prominent organelle in a cell.
It is generally the most conspicuous organelle
The nucleus (plural = nuclei) houses the cell’s DNA and
contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cells.
It also directs the synthesis of ribosome subunits and
proteins.
Within the nucleus, the DNA is organized into discrete
units called chromosomes, structures that carry the
genetic information
Each chromosome contains one long DNA molecule
associated with many proteins. Some of the proteins help
coil the DNA molecule of each chromosome, reducing its
length and allowing it to fit into the nucleus. The complex
of DNA and proteins making up chromosomes is called
chromatin
THE NUCLEOLUS (Figure 3)
A prominent structure within the nondividing nucleus is
the nucleolus (plural, nucleoli), which appears through the
electron microscope as a mass of densely stained
granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin.
Here a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is
synthesized from instructions in the DNA
THE NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (Figure 3)
The nuclear envelop is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus.
Both inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers.
The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that controls the passage of ions, molecules and RNA
between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
RIBOSOMES
Which are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein, are the cellular components that carry out
protein synthesis
Considered the protein factories of the cell.
When viewed under microscope, ribosomes appear either as clusters (polyribosomes) or single, tiny dots
that float freely in the cytoplasm
They may be attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or the cytoplasm side of the
endoplasmic reticulum and the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
Consist of two subunits, aptly called large subunit and small subunits
Ribosomes receive their “orders” for protein synthesis from the nucleus where the DNA is transcribed into
messenger RNA (mRNA)

Figure 4: Illustration of Ribosomes under microscope, diagram of ribosomes and computer model of ribosomes Retrieved from Campbell Biology

MITOCHONDRIA (figure 4) (singular = Mitochondrion)

It is called the “powerhouse” or the “energy Factories” of the cell because they are responsible for making
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy carrying molecule
it is a n oval-shaped, double-membrane organelle that have their own ribosomes and DNA.
Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The inner layer has folds called cristae.
The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix.

Figure 5: Illustration of mitochondrion Retrieved from Campbell Biology

Cilia and Flagella
In eukaryotes, a specialized arrangement of
microtubules is responsible for the beating of flagella
(singular, flagellum) and cilia (singular, cilium), microtubule-
containing extensions that project from some cells. Many
unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through water by cilia
or flagella that act as locomotor appendages, and the sperm
of animals, algae, and some plants have flagella. When cilia
or flagella extend from cells that are held in place as part of
a tissue layer, they can move fluid over the surface of the
tissue. For example, the ciliated lining of the trachea
(windpipe) sweeps mucus containing trapped debris out of
the lungs. In a woman’s reproductive tract, the cilia lining the Figure 6: A comparison of the beating of flagella and motile cilia
oviducts help move an egg toward the uterus. Retrieved from Campbell Biology

Motile cilia usually occur in large numbers on the cell surface. Flagella are usually limited to just one or a
few per cell, and they are longer than cilia. Flagella and cilia differ in their beating patterns

THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

The endomembrane system (endo = “within”) is a group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells
that works together to modify package and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear envelope,
lysosomes and vesicles and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which we will cover

Figure 7: Illustration of endomembrane system. Retrived from https://byjus.com/biology/endomembrane-system/ on Dec 20, 2020
shortly.

PEROXISOMES (figure 7)
These are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carryout oxidation reaction that
break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body.
Glyoxysomes, which are specialized peroxisomes in plants, are responsible for converting stored fats into
sugars.
VESICLES AND VACUOLES (figure 7)
These are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport.
Vacuoles are larger than vesicles
The membrane of vesicles can fuse with either the plasma membrane or other membrane system within
the cell. The membrane of a vacuole does not fuse with membranes of other cellular components.
LYSOSOMES (figure 7)
A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that many eukaryotic cells use to digest
(hydrolyze) macromolecules. Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment found in lysosomes.
Lysosomes only ca be found in animal cells. If a lysosome breaks open or leaks its contents, the released
enzymes are not very active because the cytosol has a near-neutral pH. However, excessive leakage from a
large number of lysosomes can destroy a cell by self-digestion.
Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion in a variety of circumstances. The food vacuole formed in this
way then fuses with a lysosome, whose enzymes digest the food. Digestion products, including simple sugars,
amino acids, and other monomers, pass into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell.
Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organic material, a process called
autophagy. During autophagy, a damaged organelle or small amount of cytosol becomes surrounded by a
double membrane (of unknown origin), and a lysosome fuses with the outer membrane of this vesicle.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (figure 7)
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules that modifies
proteins and synthesis lipids. However, these two functions are performed in separate areas of the ER: Rough
endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, respectively.
The hollow portions of the ER tubules is called the lumens or cisternal space. The membrane of the ER,
which is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, in continuous with the nuclear envelope.
ROUGH ER (RER) (figure 7)
It is so named because of the ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface give it a studded
appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.
Ribosomes transfer their newly synthesized protein into the humen of the RER where they
undergo structural modification, such as folding or the acquisition of side chain. These modified
proteins will be incorporated into cellular membrane – the membrane of ER or those of other
organelles - or secreted from the cell (such as protein hormones, enzymes). The RER also make
phospholipids for cellular membrane.
If the phospholipids or the modifies protein are not destined to stay in the RER, they will reach
their destinations via transport vesicles that bud from the RER’s membrane.
SMOOTH ER (SER) (figure 7)
This is continuous with the RER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface.
Function of the SER include synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids and steroids hormones;
detoxification of medications and poisons; and storage of calcium ions.
In muscle cells, a specialized SER called the sarcoplasmic reticulum is responsible for storage
of the calcium ions that are needed to trigger the coordinated contractions of the muscle cells.
GOLGI APPARATUS (figure 7)
After leaving the ER, many transport vesicles travel to the Golgi apparatus. We can think of the Golgi
as a warehouse for receiving, sorting, shipping, and even some manufacturing. Here, products of the ER, such
as proteins, are modified and stored and then sent to other destinations. Not surprisingly, the Golgi apparatus
is especially extensive in cells specialized for secretion.
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs—cisternae—looking like a stack of pita
bread. A cell may have many, even hundreds, of these stacks. The membrane of each cisterna in a stack
separates its internal space from the cytosol. Vesicles concentrated in the vicinity of the Golgi apparatus are
engaged in the transfer of material between parts of the Golgi and other structures.
A Golgi stack has a distinct structural directionality, with the membranes of cisternae on opposite sides
of the stack differing in thickness and molecular composition. The two sides of a Golgi stack are referred to as
the cis face and the trans face; these acts, respectively, as the receiving and shipping departments of the
Golgi apparatus. The term cis means “on the same side,” and the cis face is usually located near the ER.
Transport vesicles move material from the ER to the Golgi apparatus. A vesicle that buds from the ER can
add its membrane and the contents of its lumen to the cis face by fusing with a Golgi membrane. The trans
face (“on the opposite side”) gives rise to vesicles that pinch off and travel to other sites.
THE CYTOSKELETON
If you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane and cytoplasm be only
component left? No. Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules, plus a network of
protein fiber that helps maintain the shape of the cell, secure some organelles in specific positions, allow
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, enable cells within multicellular organism to move.
Collectively, this network of protein fibers is known as the cytoskeleton. There are three types of fibers
within the cytoskeleton: microfilaments (also called actin filaments) are the thinnest; intermediate filaments
are fibers with diameters in a middle range and microtubules the thickest of the three types.

Figure 8: The structure and Function of the Cytoskeleton. Retrieved from Campbell Biology

Centrosomes and Centrioles

In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome (figure 9), a region that is often located
near the nucleus. These microtubules function as
compression-resisting girders of the cytoskeleton.
Within the centrosome is a pair of centrioles, each
composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules
arranged in a ring. Although centrosomes with
centrioles may help organize microtubule assembly
in animal cells, many other eukaryotic cells lack
centrosomes with centrioles and instead organize Figure 9: Illustration of Centrosomes and Centrioles. Retrieved from
Campbell Biology
microtubules by other means.
SPECIALIZED CELL STRUCTURE
CELL WALL
The cell wall is an extracellular structure of plant cells that
distinguishes them from animal cells (see Figure 10). The wall
protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water. On the level of the whole plant, the
strong walls of specialized cells hold the plant up against the force
of gravity. Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular eukaryotes
also have cell walls.
Plant cell walls are much thicker than the plasma membrane,
ranging from 0.1 μm to several micrometers. The exact chemical
composition of the wall varies from species to species and even
from one cell type to another in the same plant, but the basic
design of the wall is consistent. Microfibrils made of the
polysaccharide cellulose (see Figure 5.6) are synthesized by an
enzyme called cellulose synthase and secreted to the extracellular
space, where they become embedded in a matrix of other
polysaccharides and proteins. This combination of materials,
strong fibers in a “ground substance” (matrix), is the same basic Figure 10: Illustration of Cell Wall. Retrieved from
architectural design found in steel-reinforced concrete and in Campbell Biology

fiberglass.
CHLOROPLAST
Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, along Figure 11: Diagram and TEM of
with enzymes and other molecules that function in the Chloroplast Retrieved from
photosynthetic production of sugar. These lens-shaped Campbell Biology
organelles, about 3–6 μm in length, are found in leaves and other
green organs of plants and in algae
The contents of a chloroplast are partitioned from the
cytosol by an envelope consisting of two membranes separated
by a very narrow intermembrane space. Inside the chloroplast is
another membranous system in the form of flattened,
interconnected sacs called thylakoids. In some regions,
thylakoids are stacked like poker chips; each stack is called a
granum (plural, grana). The fluid outside the thylakoids is the
stroma, which contains the chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as
well as many enzymes. The membranes of the chloroplast divide
the chloroplast space into three compartments: the
intermembrane space, the stroma, and the thylakoid space. This
compartmental organization enables the chloroplast to convert
light energy to chemical energy during photosynthesis.
As with mitochondria, the static and rigid appearance of
chloroplasts in micrographs or schematic diagrams is not true to
their dynamic behavior in the living cell. Their shape is
changeable, and they grow and occasionally pinch in two,
reproducing themselves. They are mobile and, with mitochondria
and other organelles, move around the cell along tracks of the
cytoskeleton, a structural network we will consider later in this chapter. The chloroplast is a specialized
member of a family of closely related plant organelles called plastids. One type of plastid, the amyloplast, is a
colorless organelle that stores starch (amylose), particularly in roots and tubers. Another is the chromoplast,
which has pigments that give fruits and flowers their orange and yellow hues.
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