H0023

TOPIC TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

ARCHITECTURE

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the topic session, the students should be able to:

1. identify the concepts of computer architecture,

2. describe the history of computer architecture,
3. describe what cost factor is for computer systems,
4. describe the performance metrics of a computer system, and
5. identify the evolution of computer memories.

MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT:

o OHP
o File/s (01 Introduction to Computer Architecture)
• 01 Presentation
• 01 Laboratory Exercise
• 01 Handout
• 01 Quiz

TOPIC PREPARATION:

o Prepare the topic slides (36 pages) needed for the topic
presentation.
o Prepare additional examples on the sub-topics to be
presented.

PRESENTATION OVERVIEW:

A. Introduction 20 min
B. Instructional Input
Introduction to Computer Architecture 95 min
a. Explain the concepts of computer architecture
b. Discuss the history of computer architecture by tracing its
history
Cost Factor – Technology Trends 50 min
a. Dis
cuss the cost factor for computer systems
Performance Metrics 50 min
a. Des
cribe the performance metrics of a computer system
Memory Hierarchy 65 min
a. Dis
cuss the memory hierarchy of a computer system
C. Generalization 80 min
D. Application 180 min
Total duration 540 min

TOPIC PRESENTATION:

A. Introduction

1. Start the session by introducing yourself, explaining the course

requirements, policies and grading system. Also discuss your

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expectations from the students and ask the students about their
expectations from the course.

2. Then, ask the students if they have any idea on how a computer
motherboard was built. Acknowledge their answers.

3. After that, tell the students that they will learn how engineers are
able to integrate the different parts of a computer system to come
up with one operational computer system. Tell your students that
this course will be about the basic computer architecture system
and how these systems interact with each other.

B. Instructional Input

Introduction to Computer Architecture

Slide 1 1. Start the discussion by presenting the topic coverage to your

students using Slide 1 of 01 Presentation.
Introduction to
Computer Architecture
 Introduction to Computer
Architecture
 Cost Factor – Technology Trends
 Performance Metrics
 Memory Hierarchy

Slide 2 2. Show Slides 2 to 15. Introduce and discuss the basic concepts a
computer architecture
Introduction to Computer
Architecture
 Computer Architecture Computer Architecture
 It is a coordination of many levels of abstraction under
a rapidly changing set of forces and is used to design,
measure, and evaluate computer systems.
Computer architecture is a coordination of many levels of
abstraction under a rapidly changing set of forces and is
used to design, measure, and evaluate computer systems.

Figure 1.1 Computer Systems Architecture

Figure 1.1 shows an overall view of computer systems

architecture. It is a coordination of different important
parts of a computer system such as the programs,
operating system, compiler, firmware and control units
such as the datapath control, the digital design and layout
and the instruction set architecture. The instruction set
architecture plays a major role in integrating these major
components of a computer system.

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Slide 3 What is Computer Architecture?

Introduction to Computer
Architecture
A Computer Architecture is a combination of
 What is Computer Architecture? Instruction Set Architecture and Computer Organization.
 It is a combination of instruction Set Architecture and
Computer Organization.
 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) covers WHAT the • Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) covers WHAT
computer does (logical view)
 A Computer Organization covers HOW the ISA is
implemented (physical view)
the computer does (logical view)

• A Computer Organization covers HOW the ISA is

implemented (physical view)

Slide 4 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

Introduction to Computer
Architecture
Instruction Set Architecture is a subset of Computer
 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) Architecture.
 is a subset of Computer Architecture
 encompasses instructions and instruction Formats,
Data Types, Encodings, and Representations,
programmable Storage such as Registers and Definition by Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks – 1964
Memory
 Definition by Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks – 1964
A programmer sees two attributes of computer system, one
is the conceptual structure and the functional behavior and
two is the organization of the data flows and the controls of
A programmer sees two attributes of computer system,
the logic design and the physical implementation.
one is the conceptual structure and the functional behavior
and two is the organization of the data flows and the
controls of the logic design and the physical
implementation.

Slide 5 An ISA encompasses instructions and instruction formats,

data types, encodings, and representations,
Introduction to Computer
Architecture programmable Storage such as registers and memory. It
 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
 ISA handles critical interface between hardware and
also covers addressing modes like accessing instructions
software.
 It standardizes instructions, machine language bit
and data and handling exceptional conditions.
patterns, etc.
 Its advantage is that there may be different
implementations of the same architecture.
 One disadvantage is that sometimes it prevents the
ISA handles critical interface between hardware and
system from using new innovations.
software. It standardizes instructions, machine language
bit patterns, and etc. Its one advantage is that there can
be different implementations of the same architecture and
ISA can handle the interface between the hardware and
the software. But one disadvantage of ISA is that
sometimes it prevents the system from using new
innovations.

Slide 6
Introduction to Computer Examples (versions) Introduced in
Architecture
Intel (8086, 80386, Pentium, 1978
Examples (versions) Introduced in

Intel (8086, 80386, Pentium, 1978 IBM

IBM Power (Power 2, 3, 4, 5) 1985
HP PA-RISC (v1.1, v2.0) 1986 Power (Power 2, 3, 4, 5) 1985
MIPS (MIPS I, II, III, IV, V) 1986
Sun Sparc
Digital Alpha
(v8, v9)
(v1, v3)
1987
1992
HP PA-
Power PC (601, 604, …) 1993
RISC (v1.1, v2.0) 1986

MIPS (MIPS I, II, III, IV, V) 1986

Sun Sparc (v8, v9) 1987

Digital
Alpha (v1, v3) 1992

Power PC (601, 604, …) 1993

Table 1.1 Examples of ISA

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Slide 7 Overview of the MIPS ISA

Introduction to Computer
Architecture
All instructions are 32-bit wide. Instruction categories
 Overview of the MIPS ISA include Load/Store, Integer Arithmetic, Jump and Branch,
 All instructions are 32-bit wide



Instruction Categories
Load/Store
Floating Point and Memory Management.
 Integer Arithmetic
 Jump and Branch
 Floating Point
 Memory Management

Slide 8
Introduction to Computer
Architecture

 There are three Instruction Formats

Registers
R-
Op6 Rs5 Rt5 Rd5 sa5 funct6
type R0 - R31
I-
Op6 Rs5 Rt5 immediate16
type
J- PC
Op6 immediate26
type HI
LO

a)

b)
Figure 1.2 Instruction Categories

Figure 1.2a shows the basic structure of registers in a

computer system. R0 to R31 is a 32 bit register that is
used by the system, followed by the program counter PC
and a HI and LOW registers. Figure 1.2b shows the
different instruction categories. R type sees the instruction
command Op, followed by registers Rs, Rt, Rd and then
stores the data to the memory sa and executes the
command. I-type gets the instruction Op, stores it of the
registers Ra or Rt before it stores the data instruction on
the immediate memory location. J type gets the instruction
Op and then stores that instruction in the immediate
memory.

Slide 9 Computer Architecture – Changing Definition

Introduction to Computer
Architecture
The following items show the changes made in computer
 Computer Architecture – Changing Definition system architecture and the year that these changes
 1950s to 1960s: Computer Architecture Course:
 Computer Arithmetic occurred.
 1970s to mid 1980s: Computer Architecture Course:
 Instruction Set Design, especially ISA appropriate for compilers

 1990s: Computer Architecture Course:

Design of CPU, memory system, I/O system,
multiprocessors, Networks
• 1950s to 1960s: Computer Architecture Course:
 2000s: Computer Architecture Course:
 Non Von-Neumann architectures, Reconfiguration

Computer Arithmetic

• 1970s to mid 1980s: Computer Architecture

Course:

Instruction Set Design, especially ISA

appropriate for compilers

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• 1990s: Computer Architecture Course:

Design of CPU, memory system, I/O

system, multiprocessors, Networks

2000s: Computer Architecture Course:

Non Von-Neumann architectures, Reconfiguration

Slide 10 Milestones in computer architecture

Introduction to Computer
Architecture Year Made By Name Comments
 Milestone in Computer Architecture
Year Made by … Name Comments
1834 Charles Analytical Engine first programmed computer
~1834

1943
Charles Babbage

British government
Analytical
Engine
COLLOSSUS
First programmed computer
(mechanical)
First electronic computer
Babagge (mechanical)
1944

1946
Howard Aiken

Mauchley & Eckert

Mark I

ENIAC I
Electromagnetic relays

Vacuum tubes, computed artillery

1943 British COLLOSUS first electronic computer
tables
~1952 John von Neumann IAS First stored program computer
(von Neumann architecture)
government
1960s Ken Olson (DEC) PDP-1 and PDP-8 Transistors, “minicomputer”
1944 Howard Mark 1 Electromagnetic relays
Aiken
1946 Mauchley ENIAC 1 vacuum tubes, computed
Slide 11
and Eckert artillery tables
Introduction to Computer
Architecture 1952 Johgn IAS First stored program
 Milestone in Computer Architecture

1964 Seymour Cray CDC 6600 First scientific supercomputer

Von computer (von
1964

1978
IBM

DEC
System/360

VAX
Integrated circuits, first “family” of
computers
First 32-bit superminicomputer
Neumann Neumann architecture)
1981 IBM IBM PC Started personal computer era

1985 MIPS MIPS First commercial RISC machine

1992 DEC Alpha First 64-bit personal computer 1960s Ken PDP -1 and Transistors,
Olson PDP-8 minicomputer
(Dec)

1964 Seymour CDC 6600 First scientific

Clay supercomputer

1964 IBM System /360 Integrated circuits first

family of computers

1978 DEC VAX First 32 bit super

minicomputer

1981 IBM IBM PC Started personal

computers

1985 MIPS MIPS First commercial RISC

machine

1992 DEC Alpha First 64 bit personal

computer
Table 1.2 Evolution of computer system

Table 1.2 shows the major evolution of a computer system

starting from the analytical engine in 1834 up to ALPHA in
1992. The significant improvements of these computers
are commented on the 4th column of the table. The
switches in a computer system started from magnetic
relays, vacuum tubes, transistor level until there is
supercomputers. Today, there are still 32 bit and 64 bit
computer systems.

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Slide 12 Computer generations

Introduction to Computer
Architecture 0th 1642 – 1945 Mechanical
 Computer Generations

1st 1945 – 1955 Vacuum tubes

2nd 1955 – 1965 Transistors

3rd 1965 – 1980 Integrated circuits

4th 1980 - VLSI, personal

computers

5th 1990s Invisible computers

(microcomputers)
Table 1.3 Computer Generations

Table 1.3 shows the advancements in the computer

generations starting from the 0th generation which is the
th
mechanical computing device up to the 5 generation of
computers that are used in cell phones and other compact
devices. These computers are sometimes called invisible
computer because of its size.

Slide 13 Impact of changing ISA

Introduction to Computer
Architecture
In early 1990’s, Apple switched instruction set architecture
 Impact of Changing ISA of the Macintosh from Motorola 68000-based machines to
 In early 1990’s Apple switched instruction set
architecture of the Macintosh. From Motorola 68000-
based machines to PowerPC architecture to improve
PowerPC architecture to improve its performance and
its performance and functionality
functionality.
 The Intel 80x86 family has many implementations of
same architecture, the programs written in 1978 for
8086 can be run on latest Pentium chip
The Intel 80x86 family has many implementations of same
architecture. The programs written in 1978 for 8086 can
be run on latest Pentium chip. This is called backward
compatible. The old programs can still be used in new
hardware as long the implementation of the architectures
are the same.

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Slide 14
Introduction to Computer
Architecture
 Cost Factors Affecting ISA
Technology
Programming
Languages

Applications

Computer Cleverness
Architecture

Operating
Systems
History

Figure 1.3 Cost Factors affecting ISA

Figure 1.3 show the cost factors affecting ISA that are
essential in understanding computer systems architecture.
There are several aspects that are needed to be taken into
consideration in the design of a computer system such as
the technology, programming language, applications that
are intended to be used by the system and the operating
system requirements. To be able to fully design or
improve the computer systems architectural design,
cleverness is very important. One should be familiar with
all the past improvements and history of the system so that
the design will be far better than the past and current
systems designs.

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Slide 15
Introduction to Computer
Architecture
 ISA: Critical Interface

software

instruction set

hardware

Figure 1.4 Instruction set

The instruction set plays a major role in interfacing the

software part and the hardware part of a computer system.
As shown in Figure 1.4, the instruction set forms the link
between the software and the hardware components.
Each computer system architecture or design has its own
set of instructions dedicated to the system. For example,
an 8086 has different instruction set than that of a Zilog
micro-processor. The correct instruction sets must be
used in a corresponding system so that it can interpret the
instruction properly and execute them according to the
user’s view of the application.

Slide 16 3. Show Slides 16 to 18. Discuss the components of computer

systems and the technology trends seen in the computer industry.
Introduction to Computer
Architecture
 Components of a Computer

Processor

Input

Control

Memory

Datapath
Output

Figure 1.5 Components of a computer system

Figure 1.5 show the 5 major components of a computer

system. Since 1946, these five components are the most
important components in a computer system. The
memory plays a very important role in computer industry
because all the data and instructions are stored in the
memory, followed by the processor that supervises the
control unit and the datapath unit. A computer system also

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needs i/o interface so that peripherals can be connected to

the computer.

Slide 17 Five Classic Components

Introduction to Computer
Architecture
Since the 1940’s, computers have 5 classic components.
 Five Classic Components These are:
 Since the 1940’s, computers have 5 classic
components
 Input devices: Keyboard, mouse, …



Output devices: Display, printer, …
Storage devices
1. Input devices: Keyboard, mouse, …
 Volatile memory devices: DRAM, SRAM, …
 Permanent storage devices: Magnetic, Optical, and
Flash disks, …
2. Output devices: Display, printer, …

3. Storage devices such as volatile memory devices:

DRAM, SRAM and permanent storage devices: Magnetic,
Optical, and Flash disks, …

4. Datapath

5. Control

Slide 18 6. Newly added 6th component: Network is an essential

component for communication in any computer system.
Introduction to Computer
Architecture Most of the computers nowadays are network ready
 Datapath
computers. The network component is used to connect



Control
Newly added 6th component: Network
the computer to the network such as LAN or the internet.
 Essential component for communication in any computer
system

Figure 1.6 Major components of a computer system

Figure 1.6 show the latest major components of a

computer system. There is still a need for the five classic
components namely the memory, datapath unit, control
unit, input port and the output port. Today, the network
interface is one of the most important part of a computer
system. Through network interface, a computer system
can have a network access or even an internet access.

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Cost Factor - Technology Trends

Slide 19 1. Show Slide 19 to 25. Discuss the cost factors that affect the
technology trends of a computer system.
Cost Factor - Technology
Trends
 Processor
 The logic capacity increases about 30% per year and the
The following are the main factors that affect the
clock rate increases about 20% per year
 Memory
performance of a computer system and the significant
 DRAM capacity increases about 60% per year (4x every 3
years), the memory speed increases about 10% per year
and the cost per bit improves about 25% per year
changes that that are being made to improve these factors
 Disk
 The capacity increases about 60% per year and the total
use of data increases 100% per 9 months
 Network Bandwidth
 Bandwidth is increasing more than 100% per year

• Processor

The logic capacity increases about 30% per year and the
clock rate increases about 20% per year.

• Memory

DRAM capacity increases about 60% per year (4x every 3

years), the memory speed increases about 10% per year
and the cost per bit improves about 25% per year.

• Disk

The capacity increases about 60% per year and the total
use of data increases 100% per 9 months.

• Network Bandwidth

Bandwidth is increasing more than 100% per year.

Slide 20 Technology Improvements

Cost Factor - Technology
Trends
 Technology Improvements

Year Technology Relative performance/cost

1951 Vacuum tube 1

1965 Transistor 35
1975 Integrated circuit (IC) 900
1995 Very large scale IC (VLSI) 2,400,000
2005 Ultra large scale IC 6,200,000,000

Figure 1.7 Technology improvements

Figure 1.7 shows the significant improvements in the

technology of a computer system. The computer system
started by using a vacuum tube as its semiconductor
device until the transistor was invented making a great
improvement in the computer system in terms of power
consumption and speed, then the integrated circuits or ICs
that contain thousands or even millions of transistors in the
single package. These great technology improvements
made the computer system faster and more reliable. From

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1951 to 2005, the processor’s transistor count increases

about 30% to 40% per year. The memory capacity also
increases about 60% per year (4x every 3 years), the
increase in the disk capacity is about 60% per year.
These improvements give opportunities for new
applications and better organizations and designs.

Slide 21 Spectrum of computers

Cost Factor - Technology
Trends
 Spectrum of Computers

Figure 1.8 Spectrums of computers

Figure 1.8 shows the different types of computers, its cost

and intended application. A disposable computer is
intended for simple applications such as creating greeting
cards and other simple applications. More complex
systems such as the microcontroller, gaming computers,
personal computers are design to have applications such
as home video games, and personal applications. More
advanced systems such as servers, workstations and
mainframes are intended to be used in network
applications, and data processing in large companies.

Slide 22 Growth of Capacity per DRAM Chip

Cost Factor - Technology
Trends
 Growth of Capacity per DRAM Chip
 DRAM capacity quadrupled almost every 3 years
60% increase per year, for 20 years
DRAM capacity quadrupled almost every 3 years around
60% increase per year, for 20 years this is due to the
increasing improvements in the field of microelectronics.
The capacity of the computer memories improve in
proportion with the increase in the number of transistors in
one IC package.

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Figure 1.9 Growth capacity of a DRAM chip

Figure 1.9 shows a great improvement in the capacity, in

terms of kilobyte capacity, of a DRAM chip from 1976 to
2008. The DRAM capacity started from 16 kilobytes
capacity but today, it goes as high as 1 Gigabyte capacity.
This great improvement in the DRAM capacity was the
result in the improvement in the transistor technology.
Because of these improvements in the capacity, the
computer system also improved a lot in terms of memory
storage and the use of larger and more complex
applications.

Slide 23 Processor Performance (1978-2005)

Cost Factor - Technology
Trends
 Processor Performance (1978 – 2005)

Figure 1.10 Processor performance

Figure 1.10 shows the improvements of processor

performance from 1978 to 2005. There are almost 10000
times improvements that happened in processors systems
within that period of time in terms of the power

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consumptions, speed and applications that can be used in

a processor system. The power consumption and the
memory latency or delays are the factors that limit the
improvement in the processor technology.

Slide 24 Microprocessor Sales (1998 – 2002)

Cost Factor - Technology
Trends
 Microprocessor Sales (1998 – 2002)

Figure 1.11 Microprocessor sales

Figure 1.11 shows the sales of different types of

microprocessors from 1998 to 2002. You can see great
increase in the demand of processors throughout the
years. The ARM processor sales exceeded Intel IA-32
processors which came second in terms of sales. The
ARM processors are used mostly in cellular phones. Most
processors today are embedded in cell phones, digital
TVs, video games, and a variety of consumer devices.

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The Processor Market (1997-2007)

Slide 25
Cost Factor - Technology
Trends
 The Processor Market (1997 – 2007)

Figure 1.12 The processor market

Figure 1.12 shows the trends in the processor market

between cell phones, personal computers (PC) and TVs.
From 1997 to 2007. More demands are focused on the
cell phones, followed by the personal computers and then
the television sets. The demand in the cell phone
processor is almost 4 times than that of the personal
computer and television sets.

Performance Metrics

Slide 26 1. Show Slides 26 to 31. Discuss the performance metrics of a

computer system.
Performance Metrics
 Response Time is the delay between start and end Performance Metrics
time of a task

 Throughput is the number of tasks per given time

A computer system’s performance can be measured using
 New: Power/Energy pertains to energy or power per
task
the response time and throughput. The response time is
the delay between start and end time of a task or an
application while the throughput is the number of tasks that
a computer can perform per given time. There is a new
parameter that can also show the performance of a
computer system, this is the Power or Energy that pertains
to energy or power consumed by the computer for a given
task.

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Examples (Throughput /Performance)

Slide 27
To improve the throughput or performance, you can
Performance Metrics replace the processor with a faster version, say use 3.8
 Examples (Throughput/ Performance) GHz instead of using a 3.2 GHz system. You can also add
 Replace the processor with a faster version
 3.8 GHz instead of 3.2 GHz
an additional processor to a system like using a Core Duo
 Add an additional processor to a system
instead of P4.
 Core Duo instead of P4

Measuring Performance
Slide 28
To measure the performance of a computer system, you
Performance Metrics can use wall-clock time or the total Execution Time of a
 Measuring Performance process. CPU Time can also be used to monitor the user
 Wall-clock time –or- Total Execution Time
time and the system time so that you can track how long it
 CPU Time
 User Time takes for a process or task to be accomplished.
 System Time

Slide 29 Relating the Metrics

Performance Metrics
The performance of a computer system can be measured
as the inverse of the execution time. The following
 Relating the Metrics
 Performance = 1/Execution Time equations can be used in measuring the performance of a
 CPU Execution Time = CPU clock cycles for program
x Clock cycle time computer system.
 CPU clock cycles = Instructions for a program x
Average clock cycles per Instruction

Performance = 1/Execution Time

CPU Execution Time = CPU clock cycles for program x

Clock cycle time

CPU clock cycles = Instructions for a program x Average

clock cycles per Instruction

Slide 30 Amdahl’s Law

Performance Metrics
The improvement of one aspect of a machine to increase
 Amdahl’s Law its performance is proportional to the amount and size of
The improvement of one aspect of a machine to improvement
increase its performance is proportional to the amount
and size of improvement

Example on how to improve a computer’s performance

A program runs in 100 seconds on a machine, with

multiply operations responsible for 80 seconds of this time.
Slide 31 How much do I have to improve the speed of multiplication
if I want my program to run five times faster?
Performance Metrics
 Example on how to improve a computer’s performance:
Solution:
 A program runs in 100 seconds on a machine, with multiply
operations responsible for 80 seconds of this time. How much do I
have to improve the speed of multiplication if I want my program to
run five times faster?
Solution: Solve for execution time after improvement

exec time after improvement = (80 seconds / n) + (100 – 80

Solve for the Execution Time After improvement which is
seconds)

We want performance to be 5 times faster

equal to the:
20 seconds = 80/n seconds / n + 20 seconds

0 = 80 / n in which the improvement that we want is impossible in this

situation
(exec time affected by improvement/amount of
improvement) + exec time unaffected

exec time after improvement = (80 seconds / n) + (100 –

80 seconds)

We want performance to be 5 times faster, meaning

instead of running a program in 100seconds, we want the
program to finish in 20 seconds. Substituting this to the
equation yields to:

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20 seconds = 80/n seconds / n + 20 seconds

0 = 80 / n in which the improvement that we want is

impossible in this situation.

Opportunity for improvement is affected by how much time

the event consumes. It makes the common case fast.
Very high speedup requires making nearly every case fast.

Focus on overall performance, not one aspect.

Memory Hierarchy

1. Show Slides 32 to 41. Discuss the memory hierarchy of a

computer system.

Slide 32 Memory Hierarchy

Memory Hierarchy
 Memory Hierarchy

Figure 1.13 Memory hierarchy levels

Figure 1.13 shows the memory hierarchy levels from the

main register that is used as the compiler of the computer
system, then the caches that are used as temporary
storage devices, the main memory unit, the disks and the
tapes that are used as external storage devices. Figure
1.13 shows that the register has lesser capacity than the
disk or tape by it is faster than the disk or tape. The trade
off between the capacity and speed is clearly shown in
Figure 1.13.

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Registers
Slide 33
Registers are temporary storage containers used inside
Memory Hierarchy the CPU. They are extremely fast, fixed size, usually
 Registers multiples of 8-bits. They are also called a “word”. One
 temporary storage containers used inside the CPU
 extremely fast, fixed size, usually multiples of 8-bits example is the 32-bit machines (4-byte words).
 also called a “word”
 example is the 32-bit machines (4-byte words)

Slide 34 Virtual Memory

Memory Hierarchy
What if a program is too big for RAM? If a program is too
big for memory (RAM), then we start using the hard drive
 Virtual Memory
 What if a program is too big for RAM? (disk) to store data. The portion of the hard drive that can
 If a program is too big for memory (RAM):



start using the hard drive (disk) to store data
The portion of the hard drive that can be used to increase
be used to increase the RAM capacity is referred to as the
the RAM capacity is referred to as the virtual memory
virtual memory. In effect, big programs can be stored in
the RAM and the virtual memory as if the RAM capacity
becomes bigger.

Slide 35 Cache

Memory Hierarchy
The characteristics of a cache memory are the following:
 Cache
 Characteristics of a cache memory
 Slower than registers • Slower than registers
 Faster than RAM
 Located in front of main RAM

•
 Different levels of cache



Level1 (L1) and Level2 (L2)
Size is usually around 1 MB
Faster than RAM

• Located in front of main RAM

• Different levels of cache

• Level1 (L1) and Level2 (L2)

• Size is usually around 1 MB

Slide 36

Memory Hierarchy

Figure 1.14 Cache Mamory

Figure 1.14 shows three levels of caches memories

located in front of the main memory unit. The data or
instruction from the CPU is stored temporarily in the cache
memories so that these data and instructions become
available even before they are needed. These make the
fetch and execute command faster than directly accessing
the main memory unit.

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Hard Drives
Slide 37

Memory Hierarchy
 Hard Drives

Figure 1.15 Hard Disk

Figure 1.15 shows the physical structure of hard disks.

Hard disks are composed of multiple platters. These
platters are metal disks that contain tracks, which are
circular patterns that serve as memory patterns, and
sectors which are parts of tracks where the data are
actually stored. The platters are cascaded to form a
cylinder. This cylinder is used to construct the desired
capacity of the hard disk.

Slide 38 CD/DVDs

Memory Hierarchy
CDs and DVDs have lands and pits used to represent
binary information. They use optical medium such as
 CD/DVDs
 Lands and pits used to represent binary lasers and refraction of light to read lands and pits.
 Optical medium - lasers and refraction used to read
lands and pits

Slide 39 Direct Access

Memory Hierarchy
Direct access is also known as “random access”. There is
no need to go through other data to get the data you want.
 Direct Access
 also known as “random access” It like “magic data retrieval” because there is no
 no need to go through other data to get the data you
want movement/motion needed to get the data. Examples are
 like “magic data retrieval” because there is no
movement/motion to get the data
 Examples are registers, cache and RAM
registers, cache and RAM.

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Sequential Access
Slide 40
Sequential access is also known as “serial-access”. The
Memory Hierarchy data is ordered in some sequential fashion, meaning, to
get to your data, you need to go through other data in front
 Sequential Access
 also known as “serial-access” of it.
 data is ordered in some sequential fashion, meaning,
to get to your data, you need to go through other data
in front of it
 Example is fast-forwarding through a tape to get to the
song you want
Example is fast-forwarding through a tape to get to the
song you want.

Slide 41 Direct-Access vs. Sequential Access

Memory Hierarchy
Direct-Access is a fast access. One disadvantage of direct
 Direct-Access vs. Sequential Access
 Direct-Access:
access is that the data cannot be accessed in sequential


Advantage: fast access
Disadvantage: data cannot be accessed in sequential or sorted
order
or sorted order. The data is placed randomly on the disk
 Data is placed randomly on the disk
 Accessing things in order then requires an index file
 Slower when trying to access sequential data that is not already
and accessing things in order then requires an index file.
in order (back-and-forth-and-back-and-forth)
 Example: hard drives (disks)
 Sequential Access
It is slower when trying to access sequential data that is
 Advantage: Simple to organize (already in some sequential order)
 Disadvantage: Slow when accessing specific things in no order
 Example: magnetic tape backups
not already in order (back-and-forth-and-back-and-forth).
One example is the hard drives or the disk drives.

One advantage of sequential access is that it is simple to

organize because the data is already in some sequential
order. One disadvantage is that it is slow when accessing
specific things in no order. One example is the magnetic
tape backups.

C. Generalization

1. Have a recap on what have been discussed from the topic by

asking your students about the following:

a. Instruction set architecture

b. Components of a computer system

c. Memory Hierarchy

2. Have a one hour quiz on you next session. Please check the
syllabus- outline for the schedule of the quiz. Ask your students to
answer the questions in 01 Quiz.

D. Application

1. Ask the students to perform and answer the activities in 01

Laboratory Exercise. Give the students three (3) hours to finish
the exercises. Move around the class to check their activities. Tell
them that they can consult you with their concerns regarding the
activities for them to perform properly.

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REFERENCES:

Null, L. and Lobur, J. (2003), Computer Organization and Architecture.

Jones and barlett Publishers Inc.

Patterson, D. & Hennessy, J. (1997). Computer Organization and

Design: The Hardware/Software Interface (2nd Edition). Morgan
Kaufmann Publishers.

Patterson and Hennessy (2003). Computer Architecture: A

Quantitative Approach (3rd Edition). Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.

Retrieved at http://www.mkp.com/cod2e.htm

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