FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCE

AUTE2010U – AUTOMATIVE FUNDAMENTALS

ASSINGMENT 1

Name: Fahim Mahmud

Student Number: 100570820
CRN: 73307
Instructor: Dr. Greg Rohrauer

1. Name a highly influential car (other than mentioned in the lecture notes) and indicate what
feature sets it apart as being remarkably innovative or setting a trend in automotive design?

One highly influential car is the 2011 F150. First introducing the pickup truck bed in the Model
T, Ford has over the last century has evolved the pickup truck. Ford introduced 4-wheel drive
in 1959 in the Ford F-100. This turned the pickup truck from a road vehicle to an off-road
utilitarian vehicle capable of going anywhere. In 1974 Ford innovated again by creating the
extended cab in their pickups. With booming population, Americans needed not just a work
vehicle, but also a vehicle capable of transporting their ever-growing families. Ford saw the
need and provided the first pickup truck with a back row seat. Finally in 2009 Ford introduced
the 12th generation of the F-series pickup and with the 12th generation, they introduced the best
in 2011. Ford over the years devolved new standard for the pickup truck such as a truck bed
and 5 to 6 seats. With all the innovations, Ford still lacked innovation in their engine design.
Finally in 2011 Ford introduced the 5 l modular engine nicknamed “Coyote”. The key
innovation Ford made in the Coyote was Dual Over Head Cam Design or DOHC. Prior tucks
used old style push rod overhead cam, but Ford’s new DOHC in their Coyote chanced the
pickup truck engine. The DOHC allowed the Coyote to have much higher redline and rev much
higher than their counter part push rod V8 such as Chevy LS or Dodge Hemi.
2. Name 5 “fuels” that have seen use in modern cars? Name a renowned vehicle employing
each?

Diesel: 1989 Dodge Power RAM 250, 1989 Dodge Power RAM 350
Diesel cars were already available before 1989, but in 1989 Cummins and Dodge worked
together to release the RAM 250 and RAM 350 with the iconic 5.9 l 6BT Cummins engine.
Although diesel engines in pickups were already done by the other two American car
companies, Dodge’s 6BT was turbo charged and over built for the “Medium Trucks”
producing 400 lb. ft of torque in a pickup. Even to this day, the 5.9 l Cummins are still in
production producing even more torque.

Gasoline: 1964 Pontiac GTO

Gasoline is a commonly used fuel in automobiles, but one car to me that was renowned for
employing this fuel type was the 1964 Pontiac GTO. Although fuel wise, it was not very
interesting, but it was the first ever vehicle to use the muscle car term and started the American
muscle car movement. The muscle car movement was to put a high horsepower gasoline V8
engine into a small 2 door sedan. These are commonly used in drag racing.

Compressed Natural Gas: 1998 Honda Civic Gx

Honda Civic GX is one of the only factory modified vehicle primarily designed for compressed
natural gas in America. The 1998 Honda Civic Gx was the first vehicle production model and
was awarded by the EPA to be the cleanest burning combustion engine in the world.
Unfortunately, Honda’s dream of compressed natural gas driven cars did not seem to pick up
and gasoline cars still rule the market.

Electric Fuel: 2000 Toyota Prius

Although the 2000 Toyota Prius, is not an all-electric vehicle, it was the first ever and still the
most practical implementation of a low emission vehicle. Modern cars like Tesla emphasizes
on “Zero Emissions”, which is a complete lie, but Toyota achieved a low emission vehicle and
helped the environment by implanting a hybrid design, with a lithium battery pack attached to
a small gasoline engine. They paved the path to eco-friendly vehicles.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell: 2015 – 2020 Toyota Mirai
In 2015 Toyota released their first generation Mirai mid-sized sedan. It was the first mass
produced Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicle.

3. Name 5 regulated emissions for auto engines?

Five regulated emissions for auto engines are Hydrocarbons (HC), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx),
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Particulate Matter (PM).

4. What “fuel” might you expect to put into your car in 20 years?

Within the next 20 years, I expect to put diesel into my vehicles. Unfortunately, due to current
emission standards, fossil fuel-based vehicles will be going off the market. Already by 2035
all automobile manufacturers must stop production of all combustion engines. With electric
vehicles being the future, so would be diesel. Regardless of emissions, diesel is extremely
important to day-to-day life. The massive amount of lithium required will be mined by
equipment run by diesel and transported by diesel trucks. For an electric future, gathering of
unique materials such as lithium, cobalt, magnesium and nickel must be expedited and for that
reason I believe diesel will still be around. Assuming gas is phased out or priced out, I will be
driving a diesel pickup. Living in cold environment, a combustion engine is not only practical
but mandatory as already Tesla battery cannot charge in extreme cold.

5. Equation 2.24 in the textbook suffers from typesetting errors. Find the mistakes and write
it out correctly.

𝑇! 𝛼 $%& 𝛼 $%& 𝛼 $%&

=# & → 𝑇! = # & × 𝑇" , 𝑇" = 𝛼𝑟# $%& × 𝑇& , 𝑇! = # & × 𝛼𝑟# $%& × 𝑇&
𝑇" 𝑟# . 𝑟# 𝑟#
𝑇& = 𝛼 $ × 𝑇& , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑇! = 𝛼 $ × 𝑇&

6. Textbook Equation 2.28 also suffers typesetting errors. Follow the derivation from 2.27
and write the result correctly.
 𝑃& 𝑟# $%&
𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 8(𝛼𝑟# $%& − 𝑟# ) − (𝛼 $ − 1)9
(𝛾 − 1)(𝑟# − 1)

7. Look carefully at the indicator diagram of Figure 2.3 in the textbook. It shows different
peak pressures in the cycle. (28-37 bar). Why/how does this happen? What is the impact
on engine performance?

In Figure 2.3, 28 and 37 bar represents cylinder pressure. The upper pressure, 37 bar, represents
imep, a theoretical pressure value. The 37 bar represents what the engine can theoretically
produce, but in reality there are losses such as friction and heat. The lower value, 28 bar,
represents a value that the engine will most likely see during operation, represents bmep. In an
ideal world, the bmep should be high and almost the same as the imep, but reality usually bmep
is lower than imep. This mechanical loss cause the engine to have less power and be less
efficient. Higher the bmep, results with the engine being more efficient and more power.

8. Does the “accelerator pedal’ in a car control the engine’s torque or speed? Decide and
explain.

The accelerator pedal first controls the throttle body. This allows air into an engine. The
accelerator pedal also controls the fuel entering the engine. This is achieved both in carburetors
and electronically on fuel injectors. Since the accelerator pedal controls both the air and fuel
entering the engine, the air and fuel amounts correlates to power of an engine. Comparing
speed and torque, torque is related to power. Therefore, the accelerator pedal controls the
torque output of the engine, and torque with increase and decrease speed.

9. How is torque output controlled in a carbureted SI (gasoline engine)? How is torque output
controlled in a CI (diesel) engine? How do you expect torque output is controlled in a direct
injection gasoline engine? In the above, which engine needs a mass air flow sensor?

Carbureted SI Gasoline Engine: The Torque output is controlled by the carburetor. The
carburetor premixes the air and fuel before sending the mixture into the engine. The amount of
the mixture going in is determined by a throttle body (usually by wire). It either allows more
or less of the mixture inside the combustion chamber controlling the torque output. Carbureted
engines does not require mass air flow sensors.

CI Diesel Engine: Compression ignition diesel engines, uses the high pressure diesel fuel
which ignites due to the high temp inside the compressed combustion temperature. The torque
output is controlled by the amount of diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber by the
ECU. Some diesel engines, modern ones, does come with a mass air flow sensors, but older
ones did not need them. Older CI diesel engines like the 7.3 Powerstroke did not use any mass
air flow sensor, rather used a manifold absolute pressure sensor for calculating fuel amount.

Gasoline Direct Injection GDI engine: GDI engines used the amount of fuel injected into the
combustion chamber to control the torque output. These engines must use a mass air flow
sensor as the ECU must be able to the data provided to calculate the amount of fuel entering
the engine. Based on the measurements, the ECU will inject the correct amount of fuel needed.

10. What does an engine governor control? Why would it be needed? Give an example of a
governor on a vehicle.

The engine governor controls and regulate the speed of the engine. Some engines are built to
rev high, Honda K series engine 10000 rpm, and some to rev low (diesel engine 4000 rpm).
Going past the maximum revolution that the engine can handle causes engine damage such as
spun bearing, overheating, scoring cylinder walls, etc. The governor controls the engine so that
the engine can never reach the damaging rpm or go to 0 rpm. Older engines had a physical
built in governor that restricts the engine to go to damaging rpm, but modern car has this built
into the ECU and fuel map, so that the engine can never reach damaging rpm.
11. Why did early cars run with a low compression ratio? Look up and provide an example
each for compression ratios found on relatively modern gasoline and diesel engine cars.

There are many reason for earlier cars running low compression ratio. The first reason was due
to the manufacturing and material at that time, which was not at the tolerance or strength for
higher compression. Another reason is due to varying fuels. Back then no standards were put
on gasoline or any fuel, therefore a large compression ratio engine was able to run any fuel
regarding its heating capacity or efficiency. The third reason is due to heating. Running higher
compression ratio, makes more heat and air cooling was not able to handle the extra heat.
Regarding modern engines, looking at 2023 Ford’s latest engine, 5.0 Coyote V8 gasoline
engine and 3.0 Powerstroke diesel engine, they have much higher compression ratio. The 5.0
Coyote V8 gasoline engine has 12.0:1 and 3.0 Powerstroke diesel engine has 16.0:1, much
higher compared to 1908 2.9 I4 Ford model T at 3.98:1.

12. Why do diesel engine cars run more efficiently, especially at the lower power output
needed for cruising speeds, compared to gasoline engine cars? Explain 2 distinct
phenomena at play.

Diesel engine cars run more efficiently, especially at the lower power output needed for
cruising speeds, compared to gasoline engine cars. The first reason behind the greater
efficiency is higher thermal efficiency. Diesel already has a higher kJ/kg than gasoline, but the
diesel engine usually has a higher compression ratio. With higher compression ratio, the power
stroke can produce more work output per power stroke compared to gasoline engine. The
second reason behind the greater efficiency is that diesel has a lower air fuel ratio than gasoline.
Diesel has an air fuel ratio of 14.5:1 where gasoline has an air fuel ration of 14.7:1. This means
diesel engines runs leaner compared to gasoline engines, increasing their efficiency.
13. Study figure 2.10 in the textbook. What equivalence ratio 𝜑 corresponds to points A and B
respectively? Which equivalence ratio is a modern car’s gasoline engine running at under
normal cruising conditions? Why?

In Figure 2.10, point A and B represents points along the bmep vs sfc graph where engine runs
lean and rich, point A rich, point B lean. The equivalence ratio at point A is roughly 1.2 and at
point B is roughly 0.9. A modern gasoline car running under normal cruising conditions, runs
an equivalence ratio of 1.0, or sociometry 14.7:1, this is ideal as the engine in reality can go a
little less or more than 1, but very close to 1.

14. What buys you more heat energy: A liter of gasoline, or a liter of diesel? How much more
energy? [Research heating value of fuels]

HHV values for gas and diesel from combustion LAB 2 calculation.

Fuel HHV 𝑚 =𝜌×𝑙 𝐻𝐻𝑉 × 𝑚 Energy kJ

Gasoline 41097.409 kJ/kg 𝑚 = 0.7429 𝑔 × 1 41097.409 × 0.7429 30531.265

𝑚𝑙
𝑚 = 0.7429 𝑘𝑔

Diesel 46126.761 kJ/kg 𝑚 = 0.85 𝑔 × 1 46126.761 × 0.85 39207.747

𝑚𝑙
𝑚 = 0.85 𝑘𝑔
Using the HHV values from combustion Lab 2, the results show that 1 l of diesel has more
heating energy than 1 l of gasoline, 8676.482 kJ more.

15. Assuming today’s average pump price for gasoline is $1.44/L, and $1.80/L for diesel. What
increase in efficiency is necessary for the diesel engine relative to the gasoline engine to
attain the same operating cost?

From earlier equation, gasoline is 30531.265 kJ/L and diesel is 39207.747 kJ/L. Converting
that to kJ/$ gets gasoline 21202.267 kJ/$ and diesel 21782.082 kJ/$. Form heating value alone,
diesel provides 579.815 kJ more per dollar more than gasoline. Diesel as a fuel is a more cost
efficient fuel than gasoline.
For vehicle use, fuel economy must be used for 1 vehicle with 2 engine option for the best
price calculation. For the vehicle the 2020 F150 2WD is chosen with the 3.0 V6 diesel and 5.0
V8 gas. For fuel economy, fueleconomy.gov was used for an equal comparison, although not
accurate, is a bias website by the government.

Engine Fuel MPG L / 100 km $ / L $ / 100 km 22 cents

3.0 l Powerstroke Diesel 24 9.8 1.80 17.64 $ / 100 km difference.
5.0 l Coyote Gasoline 19 12.4 1.44 17.86 $ / 100 km

Based on calculation, now diesel is 22 cents less per 100 km than gasoline. If both fuel is the
same cost, gasoline engines must increase their efficiency by 21 % per 100 km to have the
same operating cost.

16. For a given quantity of heat input, which process will raise the temperature of the working
fluid the most: constant volume or constant pressure heat addition? Show it
mathematically.

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒: 𝑄# = 𝑚 × 𝑐# × Δ𝑇# , 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒: 𝑄( = 𝑚 × 𝑐( × Δ𝑇(

)
Δ𝑇 = *+ From theory, 𝑐( > 𝑐# as since at constant pressure, more energy is needed to increase

the temperature compared to constant volume, easier to heat a fluid while increasing pressure.
Knowing 𝑐( > 𝑐# , and that c and p are related, give us 𝑇( > 𝑇# . Therefore, for a given quantity
of heat input, constant pressure heat addition will raise the temperature of the working fluid
more than constant volume heat addition.

17. Explain the primary purpose of exhaust gas recirculation.

The purpose of an exhaust gas recirculation, EGR, is to pump exhaust gases into the
combustion chamber. Pumping exhaust gas into the combustion allows the combustion
temperature to lower, reducing NOx emission. As exhaust gas is low in oxygen the combustion
chamber is not able to combust as hot as fresh air, which lowers its temperature, requiring more
timing advance. Aside primary use, EGR also helps burn off any left-over fuel in the exhaust
gas. This is theoretical as some fuel does remain in the exhaust gas, but practical use, EGR
doesn’t lower fuel consumption.

18. What does Urea decompose into when it hits the exhaust stream, and why not use the
decomposition product directly?

Urea when undergone thermal decomposition, it forms, Ammonia and Isocyanic acid.
(NH₂)₂CO (Urea) + Heat → NH₃ (Ammonia) + HNCO (Isocyanic acid)
Regarding used decomposed products directly, Ammonia is the main fluid used. Ammonia
when reacted with NOx, it produces H2O and N2, both harmless to the environment unlike
NOx. Using Ammonia only is not viable due to Ammonia being corrosive, which can cause
damage to the vehicle. Also, Ammonia is toxic as the smell of the fluid alone hurts my eyes
and while working with it a respirator must be used. Using straight Ammonia near heat is worse
due to the Ammonia vapor. For Isocyanic acid, the same corrosive issue exists. Aside damage
to the engine, Isocyanic acid when broken down form Ammonia, which helps with emissions,
but also forms carbon dioxide, which should be negated. Overall using Urea is the only option,
using its decomposed products creates emissions, damages vehicle and harmful to humans.

19. What is the key advantage of a piezo electric fuel injector?

First advantage of piezo fuel injector over solenoid based, is the response of opening and
shutting fuel supply. Piezo has a much faster response time over solenoid-based fuel injection.
The second advantage is that piezo can offer higher fuel pressure. Modern engines, especially
GDI engines, require very high fuel pressure, almost 3000 psi, which piezo can deliver. The
Third key advantage is that piezo offers a more controlled and precise fuel injection. With the
faster response time, piezo fuel injector is much easier to control with a faster on and off time.
Also, they spray a more consentient fuel amount and spray pattern. Last key advantage is
durability. Being electric with less mechanical parts than solenoid based, piezo is more durable
and wear friendly.
20. What fuel pressure is needed for gasoline direct injection, port fuel injection, carburetors?

Gasoline Direct Injection: 725 psi to 2900 psi

Port Fuel Injection: 45 psi
Carburetors: “3” psi, uses vacuum to draw fuel form carburetor fuel bowl,
does not pressurize the fuel, rely on vacuum pressure.
Slightly above atmospheric pressure

21. Modern oxygen sensors have a heater embedded in them. For what purpose?

Modern oxygen sensors have heaters imbedded in them for two reasons. First reason is simply
to achieve operating temperature. Oxygen sensors have an operating temperature that it must
achieve for it to operate well, which usually is achieved by absorbing heat from the exhaust
gas. On cold startups, the oxygen sensors do not have the heat it normally achieves form the
exhaust gas, therefore the oxygen sensors is heated manually to function properly. The second
reason is that oxygen sensors are close to the catalytic converts, and catalytic converts requires
a certain temperature to perform. Heating the oxygen sensor intern heats up the catalytic
converts, for better emissions at startups.

22. Does the spark plug fire when the primary current is turned on, or when turned off? Explain.

The spark plugs fires when the primary current is turned off. At the beginning of the ignition
system of a vehicle, 12 v form the battery is supplied to the ignition coils. Inside the ignition
coil, copper coils are present. The primary current, 12 v from the battery, travels into the coils
charging the coils up at a much higher voltage. When the car wants to fire the spark plug the
primary current is cut off and the coils dumps an induced current onto the spark plug creating
a spark between the gaps in the spark plug by ionizing the air between them.
23. Why is more spark advance needed when engine speed increases?

With increased engine speed, the cylinders move faster. In a 4-stroke engine, 2 revolutions are
done to perform for all 4 stroke, intake, compression, power and exhaust. Within the
compression and power stroke, the spark plug must combust the air fuel mixture, and increased
speed causes the pistons to move faster, this combustion period is shortened as speed increases.
Advancing spark timing, igniting earlier than normal, allows the air fuel mixture to be ignited
at max pressure within the combustion period, between the compression stroke and power
stroke. Therefore, as engine speed increases, more spark advance is required due to shorter
combustion period.

24. Modern cars have their catalytic converters immediately on the exhaust manifold exiting
the engine, rather than positioned under the car. Why?

There are many reasons for car designers placing the catalytic converter near the exhaust
manifold rather than further downstream (under the car). The first reason is due to faster
operating temperature. The catalytic converter requires to be at an operating temperature
(roughly 300 oC) to function well. Being closer to the exhaust manifold allows the catalytic
converter to get to operating temperature faster compared to being downstream. The second
reason is due to space restrictions. Modern cars have little to no space under the body due to
gas tank, transmission and other components under the car, therefore placing the catalytic
converts by the manifold saves space under the vehicle. The third reason is due to safety.
Placing the catalytic converter not under the vehicle, stops damages and vibrations caused by
being under the vehicle and makes it harder to steal it.
25. The spark timing is normally set to maximize what exactly, and how would it be modified
by engine controls?

Spark timing is normally set to maximize power output for best torque. This timing can be
modified by the ECU (Engine Control Unit), by either advancing or retarding timing. A retard
timing is used by the ECU to avoid knock and detonation of the air fuel mixture. Retard timing
can also help lower combustion temperature.