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© Institute of Environmental Science & Meteorology,

College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman

Fig. 1. Baguio City is one of the highly urbanized cities in the

Philippines as defined by HB 6177. Photo by CLRingor.

Module 6
University of the Philippines Diliman

Urban
Environments
Learning Outcomes

! Explain the functions of a city from an

ecosystem or system perspective

! Describe the socio-economic and

environmental impact of urbanization

! Discuss how to achieve sustainable cities

What makes up an
urban area or a city?
Definitions differ. The U.S. Census Bureau considers any
incorporated community to be a city, regardless of size,
& defines any city with >2,500 residents as urban. In the
Philippines, we define a barangay to be an urban if it (1)
has a population size of 5,000 or more, or (2) has at least
one establishment with a minimum of 100 employees, or
(3) has 5 or more establishments with a minimum of 10
employees, & 5 or more facilities within the 2 km radius
from the barangay hall (National Statistical Coordination
Board Resolution No. 9, Series of 2003). An urban area
is considered to be a highly urbanized city if it (1) has a
minimum population of 200,000 inhabitants, as certified
by the PSA, & (2) has a locally-generated annual income
for the last two consecutive years of at least P250 M
based on the 2000 constant prices (House Bill 6177).

Fig. 2. View from above the Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur (left).
Photo by CLRingor.
4
 More meaningful definitions are based
on functions (Cunningham &
A
Cunningham 2018). In rural areas, most
residents depend on agriculture or other
ways of harvesting natural resources for
their livelihood (Fig 3A). Whereas in
urban areas, majority of the people are
not directly dependent on natural
resource-based occupations (Fig. 3B).

A village or barangay is a collection of

rural households linked by culture,
custom, family ties, & association with
the land. A city, by contrast, is a
differentiated community with a
population & resource base large
B
enough to allow residents to engage in
crafts, services, or professions other
than natural resource–based
occupations. While the rural village often
gives a sense of security & connection,
small communities may also resist
changes that might lead to economic or
social progress. A city offers more
freedom to experiment, to be upwardly
mobile, & to break from restrictive
traditions, but it can be harsh &
impersonal (Cunningham & Cunningham
2018).
Fig. 3. A. Rice farm in Pagudpud, Ilocos Norte (Photo by CLRingor). B. Call center in Davao City (Photo
by Lean Daval Jr/Reuters/Newscom).

Environmental worker had to be able to walk to work, do a day’s work, & walk
home the same day. The population density was limited by

History of Cities architectural techniques & primitive waste disposal. These cities
never exceeded a population of 1 M, & only a few approached
this size, most notably Rome (Fig. 4) & some cities in China
(Botkin & Keller, 2011).
Stage 1: The Rise of Towns
The first cities emerged during the New Stone Age with the
development of agriculture, which provided enough food to
sustain a city. In this first stage, the population density was
much higher than the surrounding countryside, but it was still
too low to cause rapid, serious disturbance to the land. In fact,
the waste from city dwellers & their animals was an important
fertilizer for the surrounding farmlands. The city’s size was
restricted by the primitive means of transporting food &
necessary resources into the city & removing waste (Botkin &
Keller, 2011).

Stage 2: The Urban Center

In the second stage, more efficient transportation made
possible the development of much larger urban centers. Boats,
barges, canals, & wharves, as well as roads, horses, carriages,
& carts, enabled cities to rise up & thrive farther from
agricultural areas. Ancient Rome (Fig. 4), originally dependent
on local produce, became a city fed by granaries in Africa & the
Near East (Botkin & Keller, 2011).

The population of a city is limited by how far a person can travel

in one day to & from work & by the population density. Hence,
Fig. 4. The ancient city of Rome. Photo by Pietro Canali/Grand Tour/Crobis.
the internal size of a city was limited by pedestrian travel. A

6
 travel & related activities, the city can become a cleaner, more
Stage 3: The Industrial Metropolis pleasing center of civilization (Botkin & Keller, 2011).
The Industrial Revolution allowed greater modification of the
environment than had been impossible before. Three An optimistic future for cities requires a continued abundance of
technological advances that had significant effects on the city energy & material resources, & wise use of these resources. If
energy resources are rapidly depleted, modern mass transit
environment were improved medicine & sanitation &
may fail, fewer people will be able to live in suburbs, & the cities
improved transportation (Botkin & Keller, 2011).
will become more crowded. Reliance on coal & wood will
increase air pollution. Continued destruction of the land within &
Modern transportation makes a larger city possible. Workers
near cities could compound transportation problems, making
can live farther from their place of work & commerce, &
local production of food impossible. The future of our cities
communication can extend over larger areas. Air travel has
depends on our ability to plan & to use our resources wisely.
freed cities even more from the traditional limitation of situation.
We now have thriving urban areas where previously
transportation was poor. These changes increase city dwellers’
sense of separateness from their natural environment.

Subways & commuter trains (Fig. 5) have also led to the

development of suburbs. In some cities, however, the negative
effects of urban sprawl have prompted many people to return
to the urban centers or to smaller, satellite cities surrounding
the central city. The drawbacks of suburban commuting & the
destruction of the landscape in suburbs have brought new
appeal to the city center (Botkin & Keller, 2011).

Stage 4: The Center of Civilization

We are at the beginning of a new stage in the development of
cities. With modern telecommunications, people can work
at home or at distant locations. Perhaps, as telecommunication
frees us from the necessity for certain kinds of commercial Fig. 5. Bullet trains (Shinkansen) in Japan can run as fast as 300 km/h allowing you to get
to wherever you need in little time. Photo by CSPascua.

7 500 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments

Inputs Outputs

Air

City as a Water
Food
Fuels City
Internal
commerce,
Ideas
Waste heat energy

System
communication
Raw materials Finished goods
People
Wastewater
Solid wastes
We need to look at a city as the Air pollutants
ecological system—but of a special
kind. Like anyRother
FI GU E 22 .2 life-supporting
The city as a system Recycling
system,with
a city must
flows of maintain
energy anda flow of
materials.
energy, Aprovide
city mustnecessary
function material
as part of a
resources, & have waysecosystem,
city–countryside of removingwith an
wastes input
(Botkin of &
energy
Keller,and materials,
2011). Theseinternal Solid wastes
ecosystemcycling, and anare
functions output of wasteinheat
maintained a
energy and material wastes. As in Water
city by transportation & communication
any natural ecosystem, recycling of
with outlying areas. A city is not a self-
materials can reduce the need for Wastewater
contained ecosystem; it depends on
input and the net output of wastes.
other cities & rural areas. A city takes in
raw materials from the surrounding Fig. 6. The city as a system with flows of energy & materials. It must function as part of a city–countryside
ecosystem, with an input of energy & materials, internal cycling, & an output of waste heat energy & material wastes.
countryside: food, water, wood, energy,
Adapted from Botkin & Keller (2011).
mineral ores. In turn, the city produces &
Given
exports material goods.suchIt also
dependencies
exports andaround
interactions between
a city declines, will have
the city itself will the Withfoundation
increasingfor making
human decisions,
population, we based on
ideas, innovations, & inventions. A city
city and surroundings, it’s no wonder that relationships
be threatened. Cities also export science
waste and on canwhat you two
imagine value, about(1)what
futures: citieskind
are of urban-
cannot exist
betweenwithoutpeoplea countryside
in citiestoand in the products to the countryside,
countryside have of- including rural landscape pleasing & livable,
you believe useprovide
will resources thefrom
most benefits
support it. City & country, urban & rural, polluted water, air, & solids. If these are outside the city in a sustainable way,
ten been strained. Why, country dwellers want to know, for people and nature.
are one thing—one connected system
should they have to deal with theexported
of energy & material flows—not two
wastes of without care, they pollute the
those in the minimize pollution of the surrounding
countryside, reducing its ability to countryside, & allow room for
city?6).The answer is that many of our serious environmen-
things (Fig.
tal problems occur at the interface&between
provide necessary
making lifeurban
in theand ru- 22.3 The Location of Cities:
resources for the city
surroundings less
wilderness, agriculture, & forestry; (2)
cities continue to be seen as
ral areas. of
If the environment
almost certainly
People
the environment
vested interest
who live outsidehealthy
a city declines,
of its
in maintaining both
but near
a good
is so
& lessa city have(Fig.
pleasant
environment
much interactions
Site and Situation
a 7A). There
& dependencies
environmental negatives & are allowed
to decay from the inside. People flee to
surroundings
for that willcity
also anddecline. The
maintaining between
a good systemcityfor& managing
surroundings (Fig. 7). more expansive suburbs that occupy
reverse the
is also true:resources.
if the environment
Here is an idea that our modern life, with its rapid trans-
much land, & the poor who remain in
city’s The more concentrated the human portation and its many electronic tools, obscures: Cities are
population, the more land is available for other uses, in- not located at random but develop mainly because of local
8
cluding wilderness, recreation, conservation of biological conditions and regional benefits. In most cases they grow
diversity, and production of renewable resources. So cities up at crucial transportation locations—an aspect of what is
benefit wilderness, rural areas, and so forth. called the city’s situation—and at a good site, one that can
 A

the city live in an unhealthy & unpleasant

environment. Without care for the city,
its technological structure declines & it
pollutes even more than in the past
(Botkin & Keller, 2011). Do you think
trends in both directions already appear
to be occurring?

On a hopeful note, a city can fit within,

use, & avoid destroying the ecological
systems on which it depends. A city
itself can serve human needs & desires
as well as environmental functions. It is
our responsibility to learn how.

Fig. 7. A. An example of a city exporting solid B

waste products. Baguio City has a MOA with
Urdaneta City on the use of its sanitary landfill for
the disposal of Baguio’s residual waste from 1 Jan
2019 to 31 Dec 2021 (D. A. See, Baguio Herald
Express, 20 Jan 2020). B. An example of a city
importing raw materials from other provinces.
2,000 live hogs from South Cotabato have been
transported to Metro Manila to boost supply &
bring down the retail prices of pork products (R. N.
Araja, Manila Standard, 18 Feb 2021).

Global Trends of
Urbanization
Cities are growing larger & more numerous than in the past.
More than half the world’s population now lives in urban areas.
Most young people today plan to live in cities, because of their
educational, employment, & cultural resources. Would you
rather live in a rural area or in a city?

In 2018, 55% of the world’s population resided in urban areas.

Overall, 4.2 B people resided in urban settlements compared to
3.4 B in rural areas (UN, 2019). The world’s population has
gone through a process of rapid urbanization since 1950. In
1950, >70% of people worldwide lived in rural settlements. In
2007, for the first time in history, the global urban population
exceeded the global rural population. Since then, the number of
the world’s city dwellers has continued to grow faster than the
rural population (Fig. 8). Towards the end of the Agenda for
Sustainable Development in 2030, the share of the world’s
population living in urban areas is expected to reach 60%. It is
projected that by 2050, it will be more than 68%, roughly the
reverse of the global rural-urban population distribution of the
mid-20th century (UN, 2019).
Over the coming decades, the level of urbanization is expected
to increase in all regions. Latin America & the Caribbean, &
Northern America, with 80.7% of their population estimated to
be urban in 2018, is projected to be nearly 90% in 2050.
Europe, with 74.5% of its population living in urban areas in
2018, is expected to reach 80% urban in 2040 & nearly 85% by
Fig. 8. Global urban & rural population from 1950-2050 (UN, 2019).
2050. Oceania is expected to have an almost stable
percentage urban, rising from 68.2% today to slightly over 70%
in 2050. Africa, in contrast, remains mostly rural, with 42.5% of
its population living in urban areas in 2018, but projected to
reach 59% in 2050. Asia’s urban population is 49.9% in 2018,
which is projected to rise to 66% in 2050 (UN, 2019).
Africa & Asia are urbanizing more rapidly than other regions of
the world. The rate of urbanization, measured as the average
annual rate of change of the percentage urban, is highest:
1.3%/yr in Asia & 1.1%/yr in Africa between 2015 & 2020.
Whereas, regions that already have relatively high levels of
urbanization are urbanizing at a slower pace, at <0.3%/yr
during the same period (UN, 2019).

10
 Percentage urban
80 or over
60 to 80 Urban agglomerations
40 to 60 Megacities of 10 million or more
20 to 40 Large cities of 5 to 10 million
Less than 20 edi m− i ed i ie o o millio
No data Cities of 500 000 to 1 million

Fig. 9. Percentage urban & urban agglomerations worldwide, 2018. North & Latin America have the highest percentage of urban areas. As of 2018, there are 20
megacities in the world & Metro Manila is one of them. Adapted from UN (2019).

Urbanization
Data also
source: United differs
Nations, considerably
Department between
of Economic countries
and Social (Fig.
Affairs, Most (2018a).
Population Division megacities
World(with >10 MProspects
Urbanization inhabitants)
2018. are located in Asia
9).designations
The In 2018, 14 countries
employed stillpresentation
and the have low oflevels of on
material urbanization, World Urbanization Prospects 2018: Highlights
this map do not imply the(20), followed
expression of anyby Latinwhatsoever
opinion America on & the Caribbean
the part (6), Africa
of the Secretariat of the(3),
with <Nations
United 20% concerning
of their population residing
the legal status of any in urbanterritory,
country, areas.city
In or area or of itsEurope (3)or&concerning
authorities, Northern theAmerica (2). Megacities
delimitation of its frontiersare notable for
or boundaries.
Dotted line represents
contrast, approximately
the proportion urban theisLine of Control
already >80% in Jammu
in 65 and Kashmir agreed upon theirbysize
India&and Pakistan. The final
concentration status of Jammu
of economic and Kashmir
activity thoughhas notare
they
yet been agreed upon by the parties. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. A dispute exists be-
countries. Among those with a population of at least 10 M, the home to only about 12.5% of the world’s urban
tween the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).
dwellers. Most
most highly urbanized
Figure 3. Percentage countries residing
of population are Belgiumin
(98%),
urbanJapan, of the urban
areas by income population
group of the world2018
and country, (58%) lives in smaller
Argentina & the Netherlands (all 92%). By 2050, 101 countries cities with fewer than 1 M inhabitants (UN, 2019).
(out
8 of 195) are expected to have >80% of their population World Urbanization Prospects 2018: Highlights
reside in urban areas.
Low income o e −middle e −middle High income
income income
In Asia, China has experienced rapid urbanization of their population living in urban areas in 2018.
11
since the lateFigure
1970s. In 1980, its proportion of Their
3. Percentage of population residing in urban areasrespective urban
by income group andshares
country,are 2018projected to
urban population was about one fifth, lower than experience only slight increases between 2018 and
the average levels of LowAsia
income (just over one oquarter).
e −middle
income
2050. income
eBrazil,
−middle on the other hand, at a similar level
High income

However, this percentage has increased rapidly of urbanization today, has experienced a different
100

to nearly 60 per cent in 2018 and is projected to trend, with a rapid urbanization process during
rise to over 70 per cent in 2030 and further to 80 the past decades that has slowed down in recent
per cent by mid-century. In Africa, the level of years. Like other highly urbanized countries, Brazil
80

urbanization in Ethiopia has been very low until is projected to experience only slight increases in
Percentage urban, 2018

now, with its proportion urban just over one fifth the percentage urban. Some countries in Eastern
60

in 2018. Nonetheless, in the coming decades, its Europe, partly due to a combination of low fertility
share of the population living in urban settlements and emigration, are projected to experience a
is projected to almost double, to just under 40 per fairly slow urbanization process. For example, the
40

cent in 2050 (figure 5). For already highly urbanized percentage of the populationAfrica living in urban areas
Asia
countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, in Poland, which had reachedOceania 60 per cent in 1990, is
Africa

Northern America, Europe and Oceania, the pace still 60 per cent today, and is America
Latin expected
Asia
and tothe increase
Caribbean to
20

Oceania
EuropeLatin America and the Caribbean
of urbanization has slowed down in recent years. just over 70 per cent by 2050.
Northern America
Europe
For example, Australia, the United Kingdom and MarkerNorthern
size is America
proportional to the
Marker size is proportional to the
total population in 2018
the United States of America have over 80 per cent total population in 2018
0

$400 $400
$1,000 $1,000
$3,000 $3,000
$8,000 $8,000$20,000$20,000 $60,000
$60,000
United Nations, Department Gross National Income per capita, 2016 (logarithmic scale)
Gross of Economic
National and Social
Income per Affairs,
capita,Population Division
2016 (logarithmic scale)
Fig. 10. source:
Data Percentage of population
United residing in urban
Nations, Department areas by income
of Economic group Affairs,
and Social & country, 2018. The Division
Population country classification
(2018a). Worldby income level is based
Urbanization on 2016
Prospects GNI per
2018.
capita from the World Bank. Adapted from UN (2019).
ce: United Nations, Note:
Department ofclassification
The country Economicbyand Social
income levelAffairs,
is based Population Division
on 2016 GNI per (2018a).
capita from World
the World Urbanization Prospects 2018.
Bank.
Is there
country classification by aincome
relationship
levelbetween
is basedurbanization
on 2016 GNI & gross national
per capita high-income
from the World Bank. countries. These countries have gained hundreds
Figure 4. Percentage
income? Most high-income countries ofof population
today residing in urban
have relatively areas by
of millions incomeliving
of people group, 1950-2050
in urban areas during recent
high levels of urbanization, e.g. Australia, Canada, Japan, decades, together with many lower-middle income countries,
Figure 4.USA,
Percentage of population
& most countries
100.0 in Europe (Fig.residing
10). Manyin urban areas by
upper-middle income
e.g. group,& 1950-2050
India, Indonesia Ethiopia, at lower levels of urbanization.
income countries, e.g. Brazil, China, Iran & Mexico, have In contrast, a significant number of low-income countries in
experienced
90.0 both rapid urbanization & rapid growth of gross Africa still have low levels of urbanization (UN, 2019).
national income, with levels of urbanization close to those in
80.0 High-income
12 countries
70.0

High-income
ban

60.0 Upper-middle-
 changes force subsistence farmers off the land so it can be
Why Do Cities Grow? converted to grazing lands or monoculture cash crops.

Urban populations grow in two ways: by natural increase
(more births than deaths) & by immigration. Natural increase is
fueled by improved food supplies, better sanitation, &
advances in medical care. These reduce death rates & cause
populations to grow both within cities & in the rural areas
around them. In Latin America & East Asia, natural increase is
responsible for two-thirds of urban population growth. In
Africa & West Asia, immigration is the largest source of urban
growth (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018).
Pull factors also draw people to even the largest & most
hectic cities. Young people are drawn by the excitement,
vitality, & opportunity to meet others like themselves. Cities
offer jobs, housing, entertainment, & freedom from the
constraints of rural traditions. The city provides opportunities
for upward social mobility, prestige, & power not ordinarily
available in the province (Fig. 11). Cities support specialization
in arts, crafts, & professions for which markets do not exist

Immigration to cities can be caused both by push factors that

force people out of the country & by pull factors that draw
them into the city. Common push factors are population
growth & unemployment in rural areas, which drive people to
cities in search of jobs, food, & housing. Economic forces can
also be push factors: trade policies might make farming
unprofitable, or production of export crops can displace food
production & deplete rural food supplies. Political, racial, or
religious conflicts also drive people from their homes &
villages. These events can actually depopulate the
countryside.

Land tenure patterns & changes in agriculture also play a role

in pushing people into cities, e.g. agricultural mechanization
that eliminated most farm labor. In many areas, the cost of
mechanization is leading to the increasingly concentrated
ownership of land by fewer & wealthier landowners. These
Fig. 11. A high standard of education, such such provided by the University of the
Philippines Diliman, also pulls people to move in the city. Having a diploma from
the top universities of the country ensures a better job not only locally but also
globally. Photo by Jefferson Villacruz.

13

elsewhere. Attractive images of urban life on television also

draw people to the city. And even for the desperately poor
and homeless, cities often provide social services that are
sometimes preferable to what rural areas can provide
(Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018).

Government policies can create both push & pull factors by

favoring urban over rural areas. Developing countries
commonly spend most of their budgets on improving urban
areas, especially around the capital city where leaders live,
even when a small percentage of the population lives there or
benefits directly from the investment (Fig. 12). This gives the
major cities a virtual monopoly on new jobs, housing,
education, & opportunities, all of which bring in rural people
B
searching for a better life (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018).

Governments often manipulate exchange rates & food prices

for the benefit of more politically powerful urban populations
but at the expense of rural people. Importing lower-priced
food pleases city residents, but local farmers then find it
uneconomical to grow crops. As a result, an increased
number of people leave rural areas to become part of a large
urban workforce, keeping wages down & industrial production
high. Keeping the currency exchange rate high stimulates
export trade but makes it difficult for small farmers to buy the
fuels, machinery, fertilizers, & seeds that they need. This
depresses rural employment & rural income while stimulating
the urban economy. The effect is to transfer wealth from the Fig.12. The Philippine government is spending billions of peso in building infrastructures in
country to the city (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018). Metro Manila. For example is the construction of Metro Rail Transit Line 7 (MRT 7), which
cost P69.3 B. Photo from malaya.com.ph (A). Another is the Manila Bay Rehabilitation
Project worth P389 M. Photo from gmanetwork.com (B).

14
 A

Impacts of
Urbanization
Developing World
Large cities in both developed & developing countries face
similar challenges in accommodating the needs & by-products
of dense populations. The problems are most intense,
however, in rapidly growing cities of developing nations. Low-
income cities cannot build infrastructure to keep up with rapid
urban growth. Poor water & air quality as well as
B
housing & waste management are also widespread problems.

Traffic is chaotic almost all the time in urban areas of less

developed countries (Fig. 13A). People commonly spend 3-4
hours each way commuting to work from outlying areas.
About 20% of all fuel is consumed by vehicles standing still.
Hours of work lost each year are worth hundreds of millions in
US dollars.

Traffic congestion is expected to worsen in many developing

countries as the number of vehicles increases but road
construction fails to keep pace. All this traffic, much of it
involving old, poorly maintained vehicles, combines with
smoky factories to create a thick pall of air pollution in the
world’s supercities (Fig. 13B). Lenient pollution laws, corrupt
officials, inadequate testing equipment, ignorance about the
Fig. 13. A. According to the TomTom Traffic Index 2019, Metro Manila is second in the
world's worst traffic congestion. Photo from rappler.com. B. Smog in Quezon City. Photo
by CLRingor.
15

effects of pollution, & lack of funds to correct dangerous

situations usually exacerbate the problem.

What is its human toll? Residents are thought to suffer from

respiratory diseases linked to air pollution. Lung cancer
mortality in cities are reported to be higher than rates in the
provinces. Traffic congestion & noise can also cause stress,
fatigue, irritability, & rage in commuters. Long driving
hours lead to greater physical health effects; mostly back pain
& pain in the legs.

Another impact is poor water quality. Few cities in developing

countries can afford to build modern waste treatment systems
for their rapidly growing populations. The World Bank
estimates that only 35% of urban residents in developing
countries have satisfactory sanitation services. Nearly a billion
people, or about 1/3 of the population in developing world
cities, do not have safe drinking water, according to the World
Bank. Although city dwellers are somewhat more likely than
rural people to have clean water, this still represents a large
problem. Where people have to buy water from merchants, it
often costs 100 times as much as piped city water & may not
be any safer to drink. Many rivers & streams in developing
countries are little more than open sewers, & yet they are all
that poor people have for washing clothes, bathing, cooking,
&—in the worst cases—for drinking (Fig. 14). Diarrhea,
dysentery, typhoid, & cholera are widespread diseases in
these countries, & infant mortality is tragically high
(Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018).
Fig. 14. A. Domestic wastes along the Pasig River. Photo from untvweb.com. B. Children
swimming in the polluted Pasig River. Photo by Lisa Wiltse/Corbis via Getty Images.

16
 Cities in developing world also lack
adequate housing.The United Nations
estimates that at least 1 B people—
nearly 15 % of the world’s population
—live in crowded, unsanitary slums of
the central cities & in the vast
shantytowns & squatter settlements of
most developing world cities. Around
100 M people have no home at all. In
Mumbai, India, for example, it is
thought that a million people sleep on
the streets, sidewalks, & traffic circles
because they can find no other place
to live. In Brazil, perhaps a million
“street kids,” who have run away from
home or been abandoned by their
parents, live however & wherever they
can (Cunningham & Cunningham, Fig. 15. Homes of about 200 informal settlers were demolished along Mother Ignacia Street, Quezon City (B. Nabong,
2018). rappler.com, 5 May 2015). Photo from rappler.com

Slums are generally legal but
inadequate multifamily tenements or
rooming houses, either custom-built to
rent to poor people or converted from
some other use. Never very safe or
sturdy, some of these dingy, airless
buildings are already crumbling & often
collapse without warning. Most of the
families in these tenements live in a
single room shared with six or more
people. Because of this crowding,
household accidents are a common
cause of injuries & deaths in
developing world cities, especially to
children. Faulty electrical wiring,
kerosene stoves, or candles used in
crowded homes are a routine source
of fires & injuries.
Shantytowns are settlements created
when people move onto undeveloped
lands & build their own houses. Some
shantytowns are simply illegal
subdivisions where the landowner
rents land without city approval. Others
are spontaneous or popular
settlements or squatter towns where
people occupy land without the
owner’s permission (Fig. 15).
Sometimes this occupation involves
thousands of people who move onto
unused land in a highly organized,
overnight land invasion, building huts &

17

Fig. 16. Informal settlers along the railroad tracks of the Philippine National Railways. Photo from Wikimedia Commons.

laying out streets, markets, & schools before authorities can
root them out. In other cases, shantytowns just gradually
“happen.” They surround every megacity in the developing
world. However, they are not an exclusive feature of the
poorest countries.
These populous but unauthorized settlements usually lack
sewers, clean water supplies, electricity, & roads. Often, the
land on which they are built was not previously used because
it is unsafe or unsuitable for habitation, e.g. along creeks,
rivers, canals & railways (Fig. 16).
As desperate & inhumane as conditions are in these slums &
shantytowns, many people do more than merely survive there.
They keep themselves clean, raise families, educate their
children, find jobs, & save a little money to send home to their
parents. They learn to live in a dangerous, confusing, & rapidly
changing world & have hope for the future. The people have
parties; they sing & laugh & cry. They are amazingly adaptable,
able, & resilient. In many ways, their lives are no worse than
those in the early industrial cities of Europe & America a
century ago. Perhaps continuing development will bring better
conditions to cities of the developing world.

18
 While the move to suburbs & rural areas has decongested the
Developed World cities, it also has caused numerous urban problems. Cities
that once were compact now spread over the landscape,
In developed countries, cities also suffer from pollution &
consuming open space & wasting resources. This pattern of
poverty, & urban sprawl undercuts urban sustainability. On a
urban growth is known as sprawl. Urban sprawl consumes
positive note, the rapid growth of central cities that
land intended for forests, farms, & wetlands. It requires
accompanied industrialization in 19th & early 20th century for
government to spend millions extra to build new schools,
the most part in Europe & North America has now slowed or
streets, & water & sewer lines.
even reversed. Many of the worst urban environmental
problems have been substantially reduced in recent years.
There is no universally accepted definition of sprawling land
Minority groups in inner cities, however, remain vulnerable to
development, however, Brody (2013) reported several
legacies of environmental degradation in industrial cities
common characteristics such as:
(Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018).

1) Low-density, single family dwellings (Song, 2005; Knaap &

Improved sanitation & medical care have reduced or
Talen, 2005).
eliminated many of the communicable diseases that once
afflicted urban residents. Air & water quality have improved
dramatically as heavy industry such as steel smelting & 2) Automobile dependency even for short trip (Benfield et al.,
chemical manufacturing have moved to developing countries. 1999; Song, 2005; Knaap & Talen, 2005).
In consumer & information economies, workers no longer
need to be concentrated in central cities. They can live & work 3) Spiraling growth outward from existing urban centers
in dispersed sites. Automobiles now make it possible for (Heimlich & Anderson, 2001).
much of the working class to enjoy amenities such as single-
family homes, yards, & access to recreation that once were 4) Leapfrogging patterns of development or dispersed
available only to the elite. development (Torrens & Alberti, 2000).

The emergence of high-tech companies also caused
migration to suburban areas. For many high-tech companies,
being located near industrial centers & shipping is less
important than a good climate, ready access to air travel, &
amenities such as natural beauty & open space.
5) Strip development or "ribbon" development (Fig. 17), in
which residences or commercial properties line roads
extending outward from urban centers (Tsai, 2005).
6) Undefined edge between urban & rural areas e.g.

19

Anderson, 2001).

Based on these characteristics, urban sprawl is also prevalent

in developing countries (Fifg. 17). Do you observe this
happening here in the Philippines?

In most American metropolitan areas, for example, the bulk of

new housing is in large, tract developments that leapfrog out
beyond the edge of the city in a search for inexpensive rural
land with few restrictions on land use or building practices
(Fig. 18). The U.S. Department of Housing & Urban
Development estimates that urban sprawl consumes some
200,000 ha of farmland each year. Because cities often are
located in fertile river valleys or shorelines, much of that land
would be especially valuable for producing crops for local
consumption. However, small towns & officials generally
welcome this growth because it profits local landowners &
business people. Although the initial price of suburban homes
often is less than comparable to urban property, there are
external costs in the form of new roads, sewers, water mains,
power lines, schools, shopping centers, & other extra
infrastructure required by this low-density development
(Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018).

Ironically, people who move out to rural areas to escape from

urban problems such as congestion, crime, & pollution often
find they have simply brought those problems with them. A
neighborhood that seemed tranquil & remote when they first
moved in soon becomes just as crowded, noisy, & difficult as Fig. 17. The establishment of SM mall along Marcos Highway in Rosales, Pangasinan
the city they left behind, as more people join them in their rural is an example of strip or ribbon development. Image from Google Earth dated 23 Feb
2020.
retreat.

20
 that we drive so much farther today & spend so much more
time idling in stalled traffic means that we burn more fuel &
produce more pollution than ever before.

Some people argue that the existence of traffic jams in cities

shows that more roads are needed. Often, however, building
more traffic lanes simply encourages more people to drive
farther than before. Rather than ease congestion & save fuel,
more roads can exacerbate the problem. Public transit can
make cities more livable. Consider how different your life might
be if you lived a car-free life in a city with good mass transit.
Fig. 18. Aerial view of D.C. and its regional surroundings. Study showed that
suburban sprawl has increased in the D.C. area since 1970 (A. Giambrone, Curbed
Washington DC, 13 Aug 2019). Photo by Shutterstock.

As a consequence of suburban housing, people now live far

from where they work, shop, & recreate, so most consider it
essential to own a private automobile. For example, the
average U.S. driver spends the equivalent of one full 8-hour
day per week sitting in an automobile. Of the 5.8 B barrels of
oil consumed each year in the U.S., about 2/3 is burned in
cars & trucks. Building the roads, parking lots, filling stations,
& other facilities needed for an automobile-centered society
takes a vast amount of space & resources. In some
metropolitan areas, it is estimated that 1/3 of all land is
devoted to automobile. As more & more drivers clog the
highways, traffic becomes congested. In Los Angeles, for
example, which has the worst congestion in the U.S., the
average driver spent 82 hours per year waiting for traffic (Fig.
19). Although new automobiles are much more efficient &
cleaner operating than those of a few decades ago, the fact
Fig. 19. Traffic congestion north of LAX in Los Angeles, California. Photo from
National Broadcasting Company (NBC) LA via Twitter.

21

Solutions Solutions
Smart GrowthTools
Smart Growth Tools

Sustainable Cities Limits and

Regulations
Protection

Preserve open space

Limit building
Cities contain the seeds of their own destruction: The very permits Buy new open space
artificiality of a city gives its inhabitants the sense that they are
independent of their surrounding environment. But the Prohibit certain types
Draw urban of development
opposite is the case: The more artificial a city, the more it growth
depends on its surrounding environment for resources & the boundaries Taxes
more susceptible it becomes to major disasters unless this
susceptibility is recognized & planned for. The keys to Create greenbelts Tax land, not
sustainable cities are an ecosystem approach to urban around cities buildings
planning & a concern with the aesthetics of urban
Tax land on value of
environments. actual use instead of
Zoning
on highest value as
Promote mixed
Cities depend on the sustainability of all renewable resources developed land
use of housing
& must therefore recognize that they greatly affect their and small
Tax Breaks
surrounding environments. Urban pollution of rivers that flow businesses
into an ocean can affect the sustainability of fish & fisheries. For owners agreeing
Urban sprawl can have destructive effects on endangered Concentrate not to allow certain
habitats & ecosystems, including wetlands. At the same time, development types of development
cities designed to support vegetation & some wildlife can along mass
transportation For cleaning up
contribute to the sustainability of nature. routes and developing
abandoned urban
How can cities become more sustainable & livable? One way sites
is by using smart growth tools (Fig. 20). Smart growth is a set Planning
of policies & tools that allow & encourage more Ecological Revitalization and
environmentally sustainable urban development with less land-use planning New Growth
dependence on cars. It uses zoning laws & other tools to Revitalize existing
Environmental towns and cities
© Cengage Learning

Fig. 20. Smart growth tools can be used to prevent or control urban growth & sprawl. impact analysis
Adapted from Miller & Spoolman (2015).
Build well-planned
Integrated new towns and
22 regional planning villages within cities
channel growth in order to reduce its ecological footprint.
Some critics contend that by limiting urban expansion, smart
growth can lead to higher land & housing prices. Supporters
counter that it controls & directs sprawl, protects ecologically
sensitive & important lands & waterways, & results in
neighborhoods that are enjoyable places to live.
Many environmental scientists & urban planners call for us to
make new & existing urban areas more sustainable &
enjoyable places to live through good ecological design—the
eco-city concept.
Bogotá, Colombia; Waitakere City, New Zealand; Stockholm,
Sweden; Helsinki, Finland (Fig. 21); Copenhagen, Denmark;
Melbourne, Australia; Vancouver, Canada; Leicester, England;
Neerlands, the Netherlands; & in the U.S., Davis, California;
Olympia, Washington; Chattanooga, Tennessee; & Portland,
Oregon. However, in the case of Curitiba, Brazil, rapid
development has made it increasingly hard for the city to stay
green. Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?

An eco-city is a people-oriented city, not a car-oriented city. Its

residents are able to walk, bike, or use low-polluting mass
transit for most of their travel. Its buildings, vehicles, &
appliances meet high energy-efficiency standards. Trees &
plants adapted to the local climate & soils are planted
throughout the city to provide shade, beauty, & wildlife
habitats, & to reduce air pollution, noise, & soil erosion.

In an eco-city, abandoned lots & industrial sites are cleaned

up & used. Nearby forests, grasslands, wetlands, & farms are
preserved. Much of the food that people eat comes from
nearby organic farms, solar greenhouses, community
gardens, & small gardens on rooftops, in yards, & in window
boxes. Parks are easily available to everyone.
Fig. 21. Helsinki, Finland claims to be a European pioneer in sustainable urban
Examples of cities that are striving to become more development. The city has bicycle sharing system & is committed to rendering the city
environmentally sustainable & livable are Curitiba, Brazil; carbon neutral by 2035. Know more about their sustainability program in https://
kestavahelsinki.hel.fi/en. Photo from smartcitiesworld.net.

23

Other means of achieving sustainabilty in urban areas is
promoting green urbanism, whether by utilizing unused
open space that could be used to grow food, pot gardening in
resIdential & commercial spaces (Fig. 22), planting trees in
subdivisions, roof gardening, creating pocket or small parks
dispersed all over the city, & a lot more.
arts centers, schools, & hospitals. Smaller size cities means
we can meet daily needs with less automobile dependency.
2) Identify sites & land uses carefully, to prevent chaotic
development in which the lowest uses drive out the better
ones.

3) Increase jobs in the community by locating offices, light

industry, & commercial centers in or near suburbs, or by
enabling work from home.

4) Encourage walking, cycling or the use of small, low-speed,

energy-efficient vehicles, such as smaller cars (Fig. 23).

5) Promote more diverse, flexible housing as alternatives to

conventional, detached single-family houses.

Fig. 22. The headquarters of San Miguel Corporation has greenery surrounding the
building. Photo from Google Earth Street View dated Jan 2019.

Here are some of the design principles of sustainable cities:

1) Limit city size or organize them in modules of 30,000 to

50,000 people, large enough to be a complete city but small
enough to be a community. A city of 50,000 people can have
real urban amenities & services such as museums, performing
Fig. 23. Bicycle highway in Copenhagen, Denmark. Photo from zhaw.ch

24
 Principles of green urbanist planning focus on efficiency &
reinvesting in cities (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2018):

Focus on in-fill development—filling in the inner city so as to

help preserve green space in & around cities.

Build high-density, attractive, low-rise, mixed-income housing

near the center of cities or near public transportation routes.

Provide incentives for alternative transportation, e.g. reserved

parking for shared cars & bicycles. Discourage car use by
minimizing roads & parking lots, or by charging for parking
space, once realistic alternatives are available.

Encourage ecological building techniques, including green

roofs, passive solar energy use, water conservation systems
(Fig. 24), solar water heating, wind turbines, & appliances that
conserve water & electricity.

Encourage co-housing—groups of households clustered

around a common green space that share child care,
gardening, maintenance, & other activities.

Provide facilities for recycling organic waste, building

materials, appliances, plastics, metals, glass, & paper.

Invite public participation in decision making. Emphasize local

history, culture, & environment to create a sense of community
& identity. Fig. 24. Rainwater tank in Baguio City National Science High School. Photo by CLRingor.

25

A B
development costs (less distance to build roads, lay telephone
lines, sewers, power cables, & so on) but also helps foster a
greater sense of community among new residents. Walking
paths & recreation areas get people out of their houses to
meet their neighbors. Home owners have smaller lots to care
for, & yet everyone has an attractive vista & a feeling of
spaciousness. Urban habitat can make a significant
contribution toward saving biodiversity.

Fig. 25. Conventional subdivision (A) & an open space plan (B). Although both plans
provide 36 home sites, the conventional development allows for no public space.
Adapted from Cunningham & Cunningham (2018).

We can also practice open-space design which preserves

landscapes. Traditional suburban development typically
divides land into a checkerboard layout of nearly identical
parcels with no designated open space (Fig. 25A; Fig. 26).
The result is a sterile landscape consisting entirely of house
lots & streets, which consumes agricultural land & fragments
wildlife habitat. An interesting alternative known as
conservation development, cluster development, or
open-space zoning preserves at least half of a subdivision
as natural areas, farmland, or other forms of open space. By
carefully clustering houses on smaller lots, a conservation
subdivision can provide the same number of buildable lots as
Fig. 26. In a cluster housing development, the natural landscape is preserved.
a conventional subdivision & still preserve 50-70% of the land Houses were built following the natural topography & the flow of waterways.
as open space (Fig. 25B, Fig. 26). This not only reduces

26
Urbanization in the
Philippines
As of September 2020, there are 146 cities & 1,488
municipalities in the Philippines (dilg.gov.ph). Of the cities, 33
are defined as highly urbanized cities (refer at the beginning of
this notes): Angeles, Bacolod, Baguio, Butuan, Cagayan de
Oro, Caloocan, Cebu City, Davao City, General Santos, Iligan,
Iloilo City, Lapu-Lapu, Las Piñas, Lucena, Makati, Malabon,
Mandaluyong, Mandaue, Manila, Marikina, Muntinlupa,
Navotas, Olongapo, Parañaque, Pasay, Pasig, Puerto
Princesa, Quezon City, San Juan, Tacloban, Taguig,
Valenzuela, Zamboanga City (Fig. 27), & 16 of these are
located in the National Capital Region (dilg.gov.ph). There has
been a rise in the number of cities from 60 in 1987 to 146 in
2020 (pna.gov.ph). The proportion of urban barangays also
increased. Of the 42,036 barangays nationwide in 2015,
7,437 barangays (17.7%) were classified as urban compared
to the 5,697 barangays (13.6%) of the 42,025 barangays in
2010 (psa.gov.ph).

The level of urbanization or the percentage of population

residing in urban areas in the Philippines has also been
growing (Fig 28). In 1960, only 30% of the population reside in
urban areas (pcij.org). By 2015, this jumped to 51.2%
(psa.gov.ph). This means that 51.73 M people resided in
barangays classified as urban. It is expected that urban
population in the country will jump to 77% in 2030 (pcij.org).
Fig. 27. Highly urbanized cities in the Philippines .
27

earthquakes. This is particularly true in the Philippines

because of our geographic location. Moreover, our cities are
prone to flooding because of rapid increase in impervious
areas, poor maintenance of drainage facilities, encroachment
on rivers & other natural channels, among others.

Urbanization also means we are competing with agricultural

Fig. 28. Changes in the level of urbanization in the Philippines. Data from psa.gov.ph,
pcij.org)
Metro Manila, for example, has expanded extensively from
1988 to 2014 (refer to the Lecture Notes on Human
Population).
lands. According to Bravo (2017), the influence of urbanization
is seen in terms of the declining share of agriculture in the
national economy & a minimal reduction in employment in the
agricultural sector. Urbanization has resulted in decreases in
the area & fragmentation of farm parcels as well as in the
conversion of agricultural lands to urban use. This, in turn, led
to a drastic decrease in crop production areas & changed the
agricultural landscape of the Metropolitan Manila area.

What are the implications of an urbanizing landscape in the

Philippines? The archipelagic & mountainous setting of our
country means that we have limited space for habitable
places. This means that with increasing population, more
people will be residing in urban areas. In fact, of the 18 East
Asian countries studied by World Bank, the Philippines ranked
2nd in terms of highest average urban population density (Fig.
29). Our urban areas have higher population density than
Japan, China, & Singapore (puma.worldbank.org). Having
densely populated cities also means that more people are at
risk in times of hazardous events such as floods or
Fig. 29. Average urban population density in East Asia in 2010. Data from World Bank.

28
 A
Here are some examples of conversion of agricultural lands
due to urban expansion: for residential areas (Fig. 30), for
roads or expressways, for commercial areas such as malls &
supermarkets, & for airports. Expressways such as NLEX,
SCTEX, & TPLEX, stretching 279 km, are all constructed on
farmlands (Fig. 31). The Bohol-Panglao International Airport,
which opened in 2018, used 230 ha of agricultural land (Fig.
32).

Another impact of urbanization is loss or fragmentation in

green spaces which is clearly observed in Metro Manila (Fig.
33). This is alarming since green spaces are crucial
components of urban landscapes & ecosystems. They play
key roles in the provision of environmental services, contribute
to improved physical health, fulfill the psychological needs of B
urban citizens, & bring about social & economic benefits (Li et
al., 2019). Degradation of these spaces may result in the
destruction of animals’ habitats resulting to reduction of
biodiversity, increased land-surface temperature (urban heat
island effect), disruption of urban ecosystems, &
deterioration in the quality of human living & working
environments. The effect of urban heat island has been
observed in Metro Manila. The minimum temperature in Metro
Manila is 0.4 - 2.4°C warmer than the areas surrounding it,
while the maximum temperature is 0.83-2.3°C higher (Vallar et
al. 2015). One possible reason for this is the lack of plants.
Evapotranspiration by plants is a major cooling process for the
land surface & the atmosphere. Transforming vegetation into
high rise buildings in Metro Manila results to less
Fig. 30. Google Earth images taken in 2007 (A) & 2019 (B) showing conversion of
evapotranspiration process, large sensible heat & warmed
agricultural lands to residential area in the cities of Tanauan & Santo Tomas in
environment (Vallar et al., 2015). Batangas.

29

A B

Fig. 31. A portion of TPLEX in Paniqui, Tarlac. Google Earth images taken in 2010 (A) & 2020 (B) showed conversion of agricultural lands to expressway.

30
A

Fig. 32 (above). Southwest of Panglao, Bohol before (A, 2015) & after (B, 2018) the
construction of the Bohol-Panglao International Airport. Images from Google Earth.

Fig. 33 (right). Google Earth image of Metro Manila dated 4 Mar 2018. The only
visible green spaces are golf courses, Quezon City Memorial Circle, Ninoy Aquino
Parks & Wildlife Center, Balara Filtration Plant & UP Diliman campus. Even UP
Diliman is becoming “urbanized” (see Fig. 34).

31

16 Jul 2001 C
A

15 Nov 2020 B
D

Fig. 34. Some of the landuse changes in UP Diliman campus are seen in: the colleges of Engineering & Science
(A & B) & the former location of UP Integrated School (C), which is now the UP Town Center (D). Images from
Google Earth. On a bright side, it looks like the College of Science area has grown lots of trees.
32
In terms of socio-economic effects of urbanization in the
Philippines, a study by ADB (2014) showed that poverty
incidence in Metro Manila is about 12% in 2012 (the poverty
line is P7,821/mo for a family of five). However, a very large
segment of the urban population is just above the poverty line
& extremely vulnerable to slipping back into poverty (ADB
2012e). According to the Housing & Urban Development
Coordinating Council (HUDCC), urban households with limited
or no access to basic services, security of tenure, & affordable
housing have reached 3.6 M. Informal settlements are a
growing problem in larger urban areas, with households
residing in dangerous locations like railroad tracks &
riverbanks (Figs. 14 & 16). Less than 50% of the urban
population have access to piped water or individual household
connection (ADB, 2014).
In NCR & other highly urbanized areas, the magnitude of
housing need—backlog housing & new households—is
staggering. Predictably, the greatest need for housing is in
NCR, with a housing deficit of almost half a million units,
followed by Southern Tagalog. The HUDCC estimated that by
2010, about 3.7 M housing units will be needed in the country.
The worsening situation in the social housing sector is evident
in NCR where about 43% of its >10 M inhabitants live in
communities with substandard housing (ADB, 2014; Figs.14,
16, & 35).

Inequalities in the form of shelter deprivation & disparities in

living standards & access to basic services &/ or infrastructure
are evident in most urban areas. According to the UN-
HABITAT, 40.9% or 18.3 M of the urban population live in
informal settlements. Manila is home to over 4 M informal
dwellers or 37% of the city’s population. Not all households in
these settlements, however, are income poor. Only 32% of the
informal dwellers (or <1 M people) are poor, based on national
poverty lines. In most cities, but most pronounced in NCR,
informal settlement communities & other smaller settlements
with no security of tenure & inadequate access to basic
services coexist with exclusive, fully serviced, & gated
Fig. 35. Informal settlements. Some of these settlers used the existing walls of some
communities (Ballesteros, 2010). establishments or residential compounds as part of the walls of their houses. Photo
from habitatforhumanity.org.uk.

33

Another obvious impact of urbanization is traffic congestion

(Fig. 36). As mentioned, Metro Manila is only 2nd out of 416
cities across 57 countries in the world's worst traffic
congestion in 2019 (TomTom Traffic Index). With its
congestion level of 71%, this means that for 230 working days
in a year, 10 days & 17 hours was lost driving in rush hours.
Further, without intervention, traffic costs will likely to increase
to P6 B/day, from the present P2.4 B/day (JICA, 2018).

Traffic crisis is not unique in Metro Manila. There are reports of

worsening of traffic in Metro Cebu (D.G. Israel,
newsinfo.inquirer.net, 17 Oct 2019), Davao City (J. C. Riveta,
sunstar.com.ph, 28 May 2019), & Iloilo City (sunstar.com.ph,
13 Aug 2019). Fig. 36. Traffic congestion along EDSA. Photo from philstar.com.

The Philippine government has been addressing this problem

by building more roads or transportation networks e.g. road
widening or extension, construction of skyways &
underpasses as well as developing railway systems such LRT
& MRT (Fig. 36). There is even a Metro Manila Subway
Project. However, will this really solve traffic congestion? For
example, MRT, which was supposed to ease the traffic along
EDSA has failed to do so. Will road & railway constructions
keep up with the rising population (PSA) coupled with
increasing motor vehicles (DOTC, LTO Statistics Section-
MID)? We also have to consider our climate, wherein we have
monsoon rains & frequent typhoons. Substantial rains & floods
cause heavy traffic. Taking all these into account, what are the
best ways to reduce traffic congestion in Metro Manila?

Fig. 37. MRT at North Edsa Station. Photo by CLRingor

34
Summing Up
Urban areas were viewed as polluted, dirty, lacking in wildlife &
native plants, & artificial—therefore bad. Rural areas were
viewed as unpolluted, clean, teeming with wildlife & native
plants, & natural—therefore good. However, urban & rural
areas are inextricably connected.
The evolution of cities can be described in four stages: 1) rise
of towns, 2) urban centers, 3) industrial metropolis, & 4) center
of civilization. The development of agriculture, efficient
transportation, improved medicine & sanitation, & modern
telecommunication all are key components in the expansion of
cities.
Cities are not located at random but develop mainly because
of local conditions & regional benefits. In most cases they grow
up at crucial transportation locations—an aspect of what is
called the city’s situation—& at a good site, one that can be
readily defended, with good building locations, water supplies,
& access to resources.
The city is also a system with flows of energy & materials. It
must function as part of a city–countryside ecosystem, with an
input of energy & materials (e.g. air, water, food, fuels, raw
materials, people), internal cycling (e.g. internal commerce,
communication), & an output of ideas, finished goods, waste
heat energy & material wastes.
35
Study Questions
What makes up an urban area or a
Why do cities grow?
city?
How do cities change its own
What are the socio-economic and
environment and affect the
environmental effects of
environment of surrounding
urbanization?
areas?
36
As the world’s human population increases, we are becoming
an increasingly urbanized species. Present trends indicate that
in the future, most citizens of most nations will live in their
country’s single largest city.
Cities depend on the sustainability of all renewable resources &
must therefore recognize that they greatly affect their
surrounding environments. Urban pollution of rivers that flow
into an ocean can affect the sustainability of fish & fisheries.
Urban sprawl can have destructive effects on endangered
habitats & ecosystems, including wetlands. At the same time,
cities designed to support vegetation & some wildlife can
contribute to the sustainability of nature.
The keys to sustainable cities are an ecosystem approach to
urban planning & a concern with the aesthetics of urban
environments. If we are serious about conserving biological
diversity, we must assign greater value to urban areas. The
more pleasant cities are, & the more recreation people can find
in them, the less pressure there will be on the rural
environments.
The level of urbanization or the percentage of population
residing in urban areas in the Philippines has also been
growing: from 30% in 1960 to 51.2% in 2015.
How do location and site
conditions determine the success,
importance, and longevity of
cities?
How can we achieve sustainable
cities?
Learning Activities
geographic data over the internet to represent the Earth as a
The Case of Curitiba City, Brazil 3D globe. Google Earth Pro is available to download for
desktop use for free. An app, Google Earth for Mobile, can also
Watch this video to know the challenges of sustaining a
be downloaded. It has similar viewing capabilities as the
sustainable city.
Google Earth for Web, but one cannot build projects.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PYfbS4cMSE
Google Earth presents a great deal of information in a
geographic context, particularly on landuse & landcover
Modes of Transportation in a Dense changes. Using Google Earth, you can see & measure, in some
way, how much of the environment has change (e.g.
Urban Setting conversion of agricultural lands to residential or commercial
spaces). In this exercise, look at the images of UP Diliman &
These videos show the best mode of transportation in a highly describe how the landscape of the campus changed through
dense urban area to ease traffic congestion. time, say in the last 10 years. You can also look at the images
of your hometown to see the changes.
Space usage https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=g_ILtWzH3Ko You may also check this site where you can find time lapse of
landuse & landcover changes on the different parts of the
Flow of people https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=06IjfbqdnNM Earth. https://earthengine.google.com/timelapse/

This exercise is not compulsory but this will give you an idea on
Documenting Landuse Change using the pattern & rates of landuse & landcover changes.
Google Earth & Google Earth Engine
Timelapse
Google Earth Pro is a geobrowser that accesses satellite &
aerial imagery, topography, ocean bathymetry, & other

37

Learning Activities
What is the Future of Cities?
Watch this short video to find out.

TED-Ed Urbanization and the future of cities

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKnAJCSGSdk

Fig. 38. View from my window in the heart of Quezon City. We can see vivid sunsets
in urban areas, too. Photo by CLRingor.

38 © CLRingor, 27 Nov 2020

References
Asian Development Bank (2014). Urban poverty in Asia. Metro Manila,
Philippines.
Ballesteros, Marife M. (2010). Linking poverty and the environment:
Evidence from slums in Philippine cities. Makati City: Philippine Institute
for Development Studies.
Botkin, D. B. & Keller, E. A. (2011). Environmental Science Earth as a
Living Planet, 8th Ed. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bravo. M. R. (2017). Urbanization in the Philippines and its influence on
agriculture in Makoto Yokohari, Akinobu Murakami, Yuji Hara, Kazuaki
Tsuchiya (Eds) Sustainable Landscape Planning in Selected Urban
Regions, Springer Nature.
Brody, S. (2013) The Characteristics, Causes, and Consequences of
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