Robot Technology Workbook

Robot Techno logy
Workb ook
City and Guilds Co-publishing Series
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Robot Techn ology
Workbook
David Cumbers
Department of Engineering
Ebbw Vale College of Further Education
Consultant Editor: Peter Riley

Head of Department of Engineering Technology
Blackpool and The Fylde College
M
MACMILLAN
~
C+3
City and Guilds
© David Cumbers and City and Guilds of London Institute 1993
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission

of this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied

or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance
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Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this

publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil
claims for damages.
First published 1993 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
ISBN 978-0-333-56508-7 ISBN 978-1-349-12688-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-12688-0
A catalogue record for this book is

available from the British Library.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
01 00 99 98 97 96 95 94 93
Acknowledgements
The author and publishers would like to thank the following for their help in
providing illustrations: M. T. Churcher (Figs 7.1, 15.1 and 15.2), ASEA
Brown Boveri (Fig. 9.1) and Stiiubli Unimation (Fig. 14.1).
Contents
Introduction Vl
How to use this book 1
1 Robot arm and wrist movements 2

2 The end-effector 4
3 Drive actuators Part I 6
4 Drive actuators Part II 8
5 Mechanical transmissions 10
6 The workcell and safety 12
7 Robot control systems Part I 14
8 Robot control systems Part II 16
9 Programming a robot 18
10 Program editing 20
11 External sensing: tactile sensors 22
12 External sensing: vision sensors 24
13 Robot performance 26
14 Process applications of robots 28
15 Robot arm maintenance 30
16 System maintenance 32
Index 34
v
Introduction
Programmable handling systems and robot technology are essential elements
in many industrial processes. The assignments in this workbook will provide
a broad range of practical experiences which represent a valuable foundation
to the successful application of this technology.
The subject is a diverse one, involving many traditionally separate
engineering disciplines. Because of this, practical activities have been
carefully selected to create a comprehensive yet cohesive programme of
study which closely follows the City and Guilds 230 computer-aided
engineering series robot technology syllabus. This workbook will also prove
to be a useful aid to those studying standard modules in robot technology
available through the Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC).
The approach in all the assignments concerns the practical application of
robot technology. This ranges from machine selection to workcell
maintenance. Programming is also included, together with the many uses of
feedback information and sensing systems. This is a multi-disciplined
technology which demands a multi-skilled engineer for effective application.
The workbook will be particularly suitable for:
• recently trained engineers wishing to advance to more specialised new
technology work
• mature, skilled and experienced engineers who require to update and
enhance their traditional skills with robot technology disciplines
• service and maintenance personnel who require to broaden their skills and
knowledge base in response to multi- and inter-disciplinary developments
in the field of robot technology
• technical trainers and teachers who are seeking to acquire new technology
skills in response to changing course demands.
The result of rapid technological advances in industry is that there has never
been a more exciting time to be an engineer. This workbook has been written
for those concerned with sharing and exploiting the benefits that may be
derived from this new technology and its associated working methods.
City and Guilds/Macmillan publishing for

computer-aided engineering
This workbook is one of a series of City and Guilds/Macmillan books which
together give complete and up-to-date coverage of computer-aided
engineering. The books complement each other but can be used
independently of each other.
A core text, or source book (Computer-aided Engineering), gives basic
information on all the main topic areas (basic CNC; CNC setting and
operation; CNC part programming; CNC advanced part programming;
basic CAD/CAM; computer-aided draughting; advanced CAD; basic
robotics; robot technology; basic programmable logic controllers; more
advanced programmable logic controllers). Tasks are structured into the text
to encourage active learning.
Additional workbooks cover five main topics: CNC setting and operation;
CNC part programming; computer-aided draughting; robot technology;
programmable logic controllers. Each includes all the operational
information and guidance needed to be able to complete the practical
assignments and projects.
Peter Riley (Head of Department of Engineering Technology, Blackpool
and The Fylde College) is Consultant Editor of the series.
Vl
How to use this book
Each Learning Assignment in this workbook has a similar structure to make
its use as straightforward as possible. Information and guidance that are
needed to enable you to complete the practical work are included with each
assignment.
You will be able to identify the following parts of the text:
• Background information introducing the topic is at the beginning of each
assignment.
• Other relevant knowledge is given under the heading 'Additional
information'.
• In the sections 'Useful observations' you will find points which will help
you in becoming familiar with the process and in exploring ways in which
it can be used.
• The practical 'Tasks' are presented in a logical sequence, so that they can
be accomplished safely and successfully. In many cases 'Additional tasks'
are included to reinforce and enhance the basic practical work.
• If there is information of particular interest concerning the practical tasks,
you will find this under the heading 'A point to note' or 'Points to note'.
All the diagrams and illustrations which are needed for each assignment are
given at the appropriate point in the text.
You are recommended to obtain a folder in which to keep work which you
have completed. This will serve as a record of your achievements and may be
useful for future reference.
1
Learning Assignment 1
Robot arm and wrist movements
All robot arms are designed to move a tool or product through space. The
maximum range of travel in all directions defines a volume of space known
as a working envelope. Manufacturers specify the capacity of a robot in
terms of maximum reach and working envelope.
The arm of a robot moves an object over a distance. A 'wrist' is attached
to the end of this arm to provide manipulation. The 'wrist' also extends the
reach of a robot.
Figure 1.1 shows robots with different types of geometry. Note that all
the movements in each arm are either linear or rotational. Each separate
movement is called an axis. Can you count how many axes each robot
possesses?
This A:;signment involves learning about robot arm geometry and
movements, which you must understand and take into account when
selecting a type of robot for a specific task.
cylindncal
.,.. Figure 1.1 Robot arm geometry
2
Additional information USEFUL OBSERVATIONS
A robot arm has a datum or reference point, which is used to place the Examine the rotating JO!llts of any
arm at a known starting position for each program. This datum is usually robot. Usually these are incapable of
in the centre of the 'wrist' flange where the tool or gripper are attached. moving through a full 360°. Try to
identify at least three reasons why this
Before executing a robot program for the first time it is necessary to should be so.
command the arm to its start position. This involves driving the datum
point on the 'wrist' to a known point in space. Each programmed Limit switches are fitted to most robot
arms and these may be positioned to
coordinate will then be measured by the control system from this start
restrict the maximum movement of
position. each axis in either direction. Write
down two reasons why these are usually
an essential design feature.
Task 1.1
Examine any robot arms that are available to you; alternatively, look
through literature that you have, particularly manufacturers'
specification sheets. Note for each robot arm:
• the type of arm geometry
• the total number of axes, including both the arm and the 'wrist'.
Draw diagrams of the configuration of the arm and the direction of
movement of each axis.
Task 1.2
Measure the length of a robot arm, and the angular movement at the
limit of its reach. Plot a diagram of the space travelled through by the
datum or reference point at the centre of the outer 'wrist' flange. Draw
diagrams of this movement in both the horizontal and vertical planes.
Compare your drawings with the manufacturers' specifications
given in the manual for the machine.
The working envelopes in Figure 1.2 are for the robots shown in
Figure 1.1. POINTS TO NOTE
When a tool or gripper is attached to
ADDITIONAL TASK the 'wrist' of a robot it will extend
the total reach of the arm. This may
significantly enlarge its working
Try to find a specification or description of a revolute robot arm
envelope.
having no 'wrist' axes, so that the mounting for the tool or gripper
must always remain vertical. (This condition sometimes applies to This tool or gripper also adds to the
Cartesian and cylindrical geometry robot arms as well.) payload of the robot. The maximum
Analyse the mechanism of this type of revolute arm to see how it reach and accuracy will depend
upon this payload being kept within
keeps the mounting plate vertical in any position. This configuration is
the limits set by the manufacrurer.
sometimes called a pantograph arm.
revolute
Cartes1an cyhndncal polar
DDvertical
plane
horizontal
plane
.... Figure 1.2 Space coverage of robots
3
The end -effector
'End-effector' is the name given to the gnpper or 'pick-up' that holds the
component being processed. Most robot applications involve only the
manipulation of a component between the machines that do the processing.
Sometimes it carries a tool instead, to work directly on a component - for
example, in drilling, welding or paint spraying. Sometimes a multi-purpose
end-effector can be used; this will handle either a component or a tool.
A mechanical gripper can be operated by small pneumatic cylinders or
electric motors or, for powerful robot arms carrying very heavy loads, even
by hydraulic actuators. Pneumatic suction pick-ups are widely used for
some operations, and electromagnetic pick-ups can be used for ferrous
materials.
The type of end-effector, and particularly its size, will affect the reach of
the robot arm, and its weight must be included with the load it carries when
considering the maximum load specified by the manufacturer. The choice
of end-effector must also take into account whether the component being
handled is fragile, or if it has a delicate surface.
Additional information
The system that powers the end-effector is normally built into it, so it will
USEFUL OBSERVATIONS require a power supply. This may take the form of an electric cable, or a
supply pipe for compressed air or hydraulic oil.
Do not forget that the accuracy of
positioning of a component or tool The control of the end-effector power system must be programmable in
depends as much on the choice of end- the same program that controls the robot arm and wrist movements.
effector as it does on the robot arm and
wrist. In hostile environments, special protection may be necessary for both the
end-effector and its power supplies.
Task 2.1
Select and specify suitable end-effector designs for the following
workpiece-handling jobs:
• loading blanks of round bar stock into CNC turning centres
• placing steel sheets into a forming press
• unloading plastic containers from an injection moulding machine
• handling glass tubes
• stacking large cardboard boxes.
In each example, consider whether to use a standard gripper with
'fingers' shaped to suit the workpiece, or if a more specialised end-
effector is required.
The type of arm movement and the number of wrist axes may affect
your choice of design, so note the arm and wrist geometry you would
use, as well.
Task 2.2
Choose a simple component that is assembled in a factory, for
example:
• an electrical fitting, such as a domestic 13 amp plug
• a bicycle pump
• a water tap
• a petrol pump for a car.
4
r~pi<oh
yaw
roll
..,. Figure 2.1 Robot wrist
Examine the component, and analyse how it would be assembled by

an operative in a labour-intensive production line. Then decide how
you would reorganise the assembly operation for a robotic production
line. List the tools that the robot would use and the sequence of
assembly operations.
Consider the following:
Assembly by robot is often done using only vertical movements; can
you think of a reason for this?
Sometimes robot assembly is easier if parts of components are
modified slightly - for instance, so that screw holes are automatically
aligned as the parts are pushed together in the robot assembly of small
electric motors.
Tools are sometimes modified as well; for instance, a screwdriver that
incorporates a miniature gripper for cheese-head screws will allow the
robot to do two jobs in one: the gripper will pick up the screws and
insert them, as well as screwing them home.
ADDITIONAL TASK
Find the solutions to the following end-effector problems, either by

reading books, magazines or manufacturers' literature, or by making A POINT TO NOTE
enquiries in industry. The selection or design of the end-
• How could you limit the force applied by a gripper to a fragile effector will be an important factor
component? in the final quality of the operation
• An electromagnetic pick-up will induce opposite polarity in a steel carried out. If, for instance, a
sheet it is handling. How could you make sure it will release the component is being manufactured
sheet when the current in the electromagnet is switched off? using a machining workcell, the
quality specification of the finished
• To decrease cycle time (reduce time wasted) a robot may carry a product will include the effect on
fresh part to load into a machine at the same time that it unloads the quality of the design of end-effector.
finished part. How may this be achieved?
5
Drive actuators Part I
Robot arms are driven (or powered) either by electric motors or by fluid
power actuators. Electric motor actuators for industrial robots can be de
servomotors or ac servomotors, but a special type of motor called a stepper
motor is often used on educational robots. In de motors current is supplied
to the rotor through brush contacts to a commutator; ac servomotors are
induction motors, which require no contacts to the rotor.
Fluid power actuators are either cylinders, giving linear movement, or
torque actuators, giving rotary movement to a shaft. The force exerted by
both types originates in the pressure in a fluid, either oil (hydraulics) or air
(pneumatics).
Large forces can be produced directly, though only at low or moderate
speeds, with hydraulic actuators, so these are used for the most powerful
robots. Pneumatic actuators can produce much faster movement, but with
lower forces for the same size of actuator.
Electric motors give lower torques than fluid power actuators, but will
run at high speeds. They are therefore used with mechanical transmission
systems to reduce the speed and increase the torque to the robot arm joints.
Electric motor drives are now far more widely used for industrial robots
USEFUL OBSERVATIONS than are fluid power actuators, and a major reason for this is the difference
in the maintenance requirements. Apart from cleaning or changing the
All types of actuator require a control brushes on de motors, very little routine maintenance is required on electric
system that will start and stop them motors. Fluid power systems, on the other hand, need regular attention to
quickly. To achieve accurate posi- keep the fluid clean; filter elements in hydraulic systems have to be cleaned
tioning, some control of speed is also
desirable. In this respect ac motors or changed, while in pneumatic systems filters need cleaning and
present more problems than de motors lubricators topped up.
do, as they require control of the ac The robot's environment will often affect the choice of actuator. In
frequency as well as control of current situations where a spark could cause an explosion or fire, fluid power
and voltage. The control circuits of fluid
power actuators can include valves for actuators are used in preference to electric motors; for example, hydraulic
control of speed as well as direction of robots are widely used in paint spraying operations. Electric motors are
movement. preferred where cleanliness is important, however, as in the processing of
food materials or textiles.
Task 3.1
Examine the drive actuator systems of any robot arms that you have
access to, and complete the check list opposite. (You may need
permission to remove inspection covers. Use maintenance manuals for
the robots if they are available.)
6
Check item Choices Robot specification
(tick when identified)
Type of robot Electric motor

Hydraulic
Pneumatic
DC servomotor
Design of electric motor
AC servomotor
or Stepper motor
Design of fluid Cylinder actuator

power actuator Vane actuator
(more than one Opposed piston
type is often actuator
used for any
one robot)
Reduction gear Yes

from drive actuator No
to arm joint
Task 3.2
Find out from a robot manual how to check the brushes of a de motor
on a robot with de servomotor drive. Remove the inspection covers so A POINT TO NOTE
that you can see how to change the brushes when they need it. If a The movement of a robot arm axis
suitable robot arm is not available, use a ordinary de motor. is usually limited by the type of
Examine the inside of the casing of a de motor that has been used actuator. For linear movements, the
cylinder size of a fluid power system
for some time, and compare it with the state of an ac induction motor sets this limit; for electric motor
that has also been used for a while. Check particularly the amount of drive, it is set by the size of the
dirt inside the casing of each motor. You should be able to explain the rotary-to-linear transmission used
difference between them. with the motor. With an electric
You may find it difficult to examine the inside of the ac induction drive the actuator will not limit
motor. Why is it so much easier to get at the inside of the de motor? rotary movement, but when fluid
power drives are used the vane type
ADDITIONAL TASK of rotary actuator used with fluid
power drives often has only about
One type of de motor is called a brushless motor. Find out the 90° of movement, and this limit will
also apply to axes rotated by
characteristics of this type of motor. Why is it not used for robot
cylinders.
drives?
7
Drive actuators Part II
From Assignment 3 (Drive actuators Part I), you will remember that fluid
power actuators produce high torque (or force) at all speeds from very low
speed to the highest speeds necessary. Electric motors can only produce
high forces by driving through mechanical transmissions that increase
torque by reducing speed.
Electric drive systems are cleaner than hydraulic systems, however. They
need less maintenance, and they are driven directly from the electrical
supply. Moreover, hydraulic drives need a 'power pack' to hold and supply
the hydraulic fluid, which makes them more costly.
For this Assignment you will need some hydraulic and pneumatic
equipment, such as is usually found in basic training rigs for fluid power
courses. The components required are cylinders and directional valves
(both hydraulic and pneumatic) and Lhe connecting pipes plus a layout
board or rig mounting frame. The hydraulic system requires its own power
pack, and a pneumatic system will need a compressed air supply.
USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

Pneumatic systems use a compressible Pneumatic actuators are widely used for driving end-effectors because they
fluid (air) while hydraulics use an are light and easy to maintain, and only need one supply pipe to provide
incompressible fluid (usually an oil). the power.
This is the main reason for the
differences you will find in the fluid
power systems when you carry out
Task 4.1.
S2 Task 4.1
Cf)
~ Set up the simple hydraulic circuit shown in Figure 4.1, with a double-
acting cylinder controlled by a 4/3 directional valve. Make sure the
ports A and B are stopped (closed) in the centre position of the valve,
as shown.
cylmder
load
extend t
valve
r--------------- ------,
1 I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I I
I IL _ _ _ _,I
I
I I
I I
I power pack I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
L----------------------J
~Figure 4.1 Simple hydraulic circuit
8
Operate the valve to extend and retract the cylinder, and then try to
stop the piston rod somewhere in the middle of its stroke. Is it difficult
to do this? Set up the pneumatic circuit shown in Figure 4.2 to do the
same as the hydraulic circuit.
Is it possible to stop the pneumatic piston rod accurately or quickly
anywhere in the stroke?
If you know enough about other types of pneumatic directional
valves and circuits, you can use one 5/2 valve in place of the two 3/2
valves shown. Is this any better for stopping the piston rod midway?
Change the valves in the pneumatic circuit (or reconnect them if
possible) to give the circuit shown in Figure 4.3. Notice carefully the
valve port interconnections. Now try stopping the piston in mid-stroke
with this circuit and note the difference. Can you explain why this
circuit behaves differently?
Task 4.2
From manufacturers' sales literature, find an industrial robot now
being sold with ac servomotor drive. Note down the advantages they
claim for the ac motor compared with de servomotors. Can you find
any disadvantages for ac servomotors?
A POINT TO NOTE
Also look through the literature for a comparison between hydraulic
The tasks you have just completed
and electric drive. Some manufacturers offer the same type of arm with
should have shown you the effects of
a choice of drive actuators. Identify reasons for using each type of drive. the different characteristics of the
various types of power actuator,
ADDITIONAL TASK including:
• the low torque of electric
Find the figures for maximum angle of rotation for as many rotary
actuators compared with that of
hydraulic and pneumatic actuators as you can find, using hydraulic torque actuators
manufacturers' literature or reference books. What is the main difference
• the cleanliness of electric motors
in this respect between the two common designs of rotary actuator? (particularly ac motors) compared
Also list the torque figures for bot..~ common types of actuator, with hydraulics
particularly for hydraulic actuators. Which design of actuator gives the • the compressibility of the fluid in
highest maximum torque valve for the same approximate weight? Can pneumatic systems
you explain your answer? • the frequency control required for
You will notice a big difference in torques between hydraulic and ac motors.
pneumatic actuators, for both designs.
load
valves
-
no rmally closed
down
-up
cylinder
• Figure 4.2 Simple pneumatic circuit
load
-
valves
no rmally open
down
- up
cylonder
• Figure 4.3 Pneumatic positioning circuit
9
Mechanical transmissions
As you have seen (Assignment 3), most electric motors operate at high
speed with comparatively low torque output compared with fluid power
torque actuators (particularly hydraulic actuators), which produce very
high torque at low speeds. Consequently electric drive robot arms require
mechanical transmissions to reduce the output speed of their motors and
increase torque to drive the arm joints. (Fluid power actuators can drive
robot arms directly.)
The tasks in this Assignment concern mechanical transmissions and can
only be carried out on electric drive robot arms.
USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Some types of mechanical drive transmissions need regular maintenance,
although the work required is usually very simple and quickly carried out.
Tests on mechanical transmission can Modern designs of transmission, like harmonic drive gears and ballscrews,
easily be set up using simple equipment, are often maintenance-free for at least a year. These new designs were
since all the measurements of torque,
developed primarily to improve the efficiency of drives (by reducing power
speed ratio and backlash can be taken at
very low speed or even at zero speed. loss through friction) and also to minimise backlash and wear, so cutting
Task 5.2 is just such a test. down lost motion caused by over-large clearances between the moving
parts.
S2 Task 5.1
V)
~ List and analyse all the mechanical drive transmissions in a particular

robot arm, under these headings:
Type of Type of Drive to Speed reduction

transmission input/output (name arm joint (speed ratio or
or other linear movement
movement) per motor revolution)
Ideally you should carry out this analysis on an industrial robot arm. If
none is available for close examination, however, use one of the several
types of educational robot which have easily removable covers,
allowing the mechanism to be observed.
As an alternative, the maintenance manual for an industrial robot
will often give sufficient information for this task.
The task should be carried out on several different robot arms, if
possible.
Task 5.2
In this task, the efficiency of a conventionalleadscrew for converting
rotary to linear motion is compared with that of a recirculating-ball
leads crew.
A simple test rig is set up as shown in Figure 5 .1. This allows us to
measure the torque needed to lift a weight up the leadscrew. A pulley
or drum is fixed to the nut of the conventional sliding friction
leadscrew and also to the ball bush of the ballscrew. The weight
pulling on the cord wrapped round the pulley is increased until it just
starts to turn the nut or bush in the direction to lift the weight, for both
types of leadscrew.
10
top support
loading
weights
..,.. Figure 5.1 Test rig for measuring the

torque on Jeadscrews
S2 Calculate the torque (in newton metres) exerted at this point, using the
'JJ values of the weights used and the pulley or drum diameter.
~ Answer the following questions.
. d th
1 Fm . torque c
e ratio --:-h tOr
we1g t A POINT TO NOTE
(a) the conventionalleadscrew Although the ballscrews used for
(b) the recirculating ballscrew. accurate machinery like robot arms
are quite expensive, a much cheaper
2 What is the ratio of (a) to (b) in question 1? ballscrew is available which can be
used for Task 5.2. This is the 'rolled
3 Can you explain why answer (b) in question 1 is so much less thread' type, which does not have
than (a)? the same accuracy (the clearances
are larger) but does have all the
4 What other advantages does the ballscrew have over the
other properties of ballscrews.
conventional nut leadscrew?
11
The workcell and safety
Safety of people at work is of primary importance, and is covered by the
legal requirements of the Safety at Work Acts. Safety of machinery is also
important, because machine failure can be not only expensive but also
dangerous to people.
The hazards in a workplace must be identified so that both people and
machinery can be properly protected. The severity of the hazards should
also be assessed, so that the extent of the safety measures match the
category of the hazard. Automated processes are intended to operate with
the minimum human presence, so they are always potentially dangerous to
people. Robots may move in ways that are quite unexpected by someone
passing by, so are even more hazardous than dedicated automation.
When people are required to work on robots for maintenance work or for
programming, it is important that they follow a standard procedure which
has been analysed and tested to be completely safe. A useful way to detail a
safety procedure is in the form of a flow chart which lays down each step to
be taken in a logical and safe order. A flow chart of this type is the subject
of Task 6.2, and an example is shown in Figure 6.1.
USEFUL OBSERVATIONS
Safety measures for automated
machinery must provide 'fail safe' Note that some safety devices will be affected by the environment, so they
operation when they are activated. This cannot be used for certain processes.
means that if there is a machine fault
the process will be stopped in such a The Health and Safety Executive have published special guidelines for the
way that no possible danger to safety of robot installations; in particular, the publication HS/G43 will be
machinery or to people can arise, either helpful for tackling the tasks in this Assignment.
as it stops or when it is stationary.
Task 6.1
Sketch the layout of a robot workcell for either a seam-welding
operation or a diecasting machine. Show the guarding methods that
you would use to make the workcell safe.
Task 6.2
Draw a flow chart to show the sequence of operation of a trapped-key
exchange lock used to protect a programmer when programming
inside the workcell (this device is described in the core text Computer-
aided Engineering). Explain how the exchange of two keys produces a
safe working system.
Figure 6.1 shows a different example of a flow chart for a safety
sequence.
12
Task 6.3
For a robot arm that you are familiar with, plan a workcell for a obtain signed
component-handling operation. Find out the maximum speed and permit to work
reach of the robot, and decide where safety devices should be placed in
your workcell.
Sketch the workcell and the positions of the safety devices, and
indicate whether they are for guarding personnel or machinery. Use
l
any available manuals or handbooks to help with this exercise. lock out
auto mode
Task 6.4
Use the Health and Safety Executive publication HS/G43 to compare
the safety requirements in an educational robot installation with the
l
unlock safety
requirements for an industrial application. The case studies in HS/G43 gate
no. 5 and nos. 2 and 3 apply to these situations. In particular, note
l
which safety devices required for the industrial workcell are not
essential for the educational use, and explain why they can be
dispensed with.
unlock
ADDITIONAL TASK brakes
Operatives sometimes have to work on the same line or cell as a robot

- for instance, when setting up an assembly to be welded by a robot
arm. Describe the extra safety requirements for this type of operation.
l
Again, HS/G43 will give you help with this exercise. support weight
of arm
l
release pressure
in fluid power
systems
.6 Figure 6.1 Flow chart of safety

procedure to be used before starting
A POINT TO NOTE
Virtually all aspects of safety in a
place of work are subject to legal
requirements, mainly covered by the
Safety At Work Act, but the legal
requirements cannot be stated in
precise detail for every work
situation. The Health and Safety
Executive guidelines are not legal
requirements, but where these are
followed closely it will usually be
accepted that every attempt has
been made to implement sufficient
safety measures to comply with the
Safety At Work Acts.
13
Robot control systems Part I
The control system of a robot has two main functions. Firstly, it must store
the operational sequences (the programs) that a programmer feeds into its
memory; secondly, it must operate the robot ·arm by playing back the
sequence in its memory.
There are several component parts of the control system. The
controller contains the memory which holds all the program data, and a
processor sends out the signals to operate the arm actuators. Often there
is a separate processor to monitor the movements of each actuator. For
each joint of the arm there is a transducer which sends back signals to the
controller, giving it the position or movement of that joint. A keyboard or
keypad is required for entering the movement sequence or program into
the controller memory.
Two different kinds of signal are passed between the parts of the control
systems. They can be digital signals, identified simply by whether the
current is on or off, or they can be analogue signals, in which the voltage
may be of any value between a maximum and a minimum level. The
USEFUL OBSERVATIONS controller itself consists mainly of microchips, which operate only with
digital signals. Any analogue signals used by the transducers or actuators
As well as the 'feedback' transducers, must therefore be changed to digital signals before being used by the
other sensing devices are often used on processor or memory of the controller.
the robot arm. For instance, limit
switches may be used to stop the arm
driving hard against the mechanical
stops and damaging itself. Other sensors Additional information
may be monitoring the process itself or
the other machinery with which the The position signals sent to the controller by the transducers are usually
robot is working. These sensors can be called 'feedback' signals, since they continually feed back the position of the
connected to input ports on the arm joints to the controller. These signals are compared with the desired
controller, which then uses the position given by the program data in the memory so that the controller
information from the sensors m can send the appropriate signals to the arm actuators.
conjunction with the program data.
~ Task 7.1
CJ)
~ Identify the different parts of a robot control system. On some robot

arms the different parts can be clearly seen; use the manufacturers'
operating and maintenance manuals or sales literature.
Note the type of actuator (for instance, it might carry a label 'ac
servomotor') and the type of position transducer. Check whether it has
a velocity transducer. The controller often has a main microprocessor
to hold the program and other microprocessors to drive the actuators;
check the manuals to see if this is the case. Also note where the
programming keyboard is situated.
14
Task 7.2
The position transducer most commonly used is the rotary encoder.
Figure 7.1 shows two different types of encoder disc, both transmitting
digital signals.
Find out why they are different and how they are normally used.
The names of the two types offer a clue. The disc at the top is an
'incremental encoder', and the one below is an 'absolute encoder'.
ADDITIONAL TASKS
1 Investigate why robot controllers often have a separate

microprocessor for each axis movement. Incremental
2 If the speed of a drive actuator is monitored, the transducer used is
normally a tachogenerator. Find out the difference between the
interface requirements for this sensor and the requirements for a
digital encoder. (Reading the manual should help to explain this).
(Note. An interface is the unit that connects two electrical
components and performs any signal conversion or amplification
between the two.)
3 Some smaller robots do not have tachogenerators to measure speed
but they can measure speed from the signals of the encoder position
transducer. Find out how this is achieved.
Absolute
"- Figure 7.1 Digital encoder discs
A POINT TO NOTE
Some parts of the control system
may be affected by the heat, dust,
humidity or other factors associated
with certain processes. The
controller itself can be installed
away from the severest conditions,
but the actuators and measurement
transducers must operate near to or
in the heart of the hostile
environment. Unless they are
immune to the factors concerned,
they will need to be specially
protected.
15
Robot control systems Part II
This Assignment looks further into the use of position sensors in the
control system. The accuracy of arm positioning depends directly on the
performance of the position sensor and this is called the resolution of the
sensor. Resolution is defined as the minimum change of value (position in
this case) that the sensor can measure.
A small rotary potentiometer (voltage divider) is required for this
Assignment. The widely used variable resistors or rheostats are suitable;
these have a finely wound coil of resistance wire with a sliding contact that
moves from one end of the coil to the other. If these have connections at
each end of the coil as well as to the sliding contact, they can be used as
potentiometers. In this form they can be used as position sensors by linking
the arm joint movement to the slider, but their resolution when used in this
way is not very good.

Both encoders and potentiometers Potentiometers can be made with the coil wound on a circular former (the
operate at low voltage (12V, for rotary version used for this Assignment) or wound on a straight former for
instance) and very low currents, so they measuring translational arm movement. There are many other forms of
present no safety hazards. linear and rotary position sensors (transducers) as well as potentiometers
All position transducers must be sealed and the digital encoders referred to in Assignment 7.
devices, impervious to the dusty
conditions common in many work
situations. Task 8.1
The small rotary potentiometer needed for this exercise will normally
have a rotary movement of about 300° and a resistance which varies
with the position of the slider from zero to a fairly high value -
typically 1000 to 10 000 ohms. You are required to design a system to
sense position for a rotary joint of a robot arm using the rotary
shaft driving
upper arm
potentiometer.
Figure 8.1 shows the position sensor fitted to a rotary joint.
Measure the full rotation of the potentiometer together with its
maximum and minimum resistance. If the maximum rotation of the
arm joint is 90°, calculate the step-up ratio required by the drive to the
sensor in order to use the full rotation of the potentiometer for the 90°
rotation of the arm. Then calculate the value of change of resistance of
the potentiometer for every degree of rotation of the ann (remember to
use the step-up ratio in your calculation). This value can be used by
the control system to monitor the arm position when driving it to its
rotary programmed position.
potentiometer Why do you think a step-up ratio is used for the sensor drive
transmission?
A Figure 8.1 Shaft position sensing Can you explain why potentiometers are not used as accurate
system position sensors?
16
ADDITIONAL TASKS
POINTS TO NOTE
1 With only a basic knowledge of electrical theory, you can build a Although the potentiometer
simple circuit that will give a voltage signal instead of a resistance transducer is not accurate enough
value. What would be the advantage of using a voltage signal instead for position sensing on its own, it
of a resistance value? can be used with other sensors. The
potentiometer gives a coarse
What will be the interface requirement when this analogue voltage
measurement over the full range of
signal is sent to the digital control system? movement, while the other sensor
2 Measure the resolution of your rotary potentiometer by turning it gives a fine measurement over a
very slowly and measuring the jump in resistance value as it changes. small range of movement.
Other types of rotary transducer can
also be 'gear.e d up' like the
potentiometer used here to make
full use of their movement, when the
arm movement is only 60-90°. An
encoder, for example, will measure
over the full 360° of rotation.
17
Programming a robot
Project work on programming can be done at any centre, but the approach
will depend upon the equipment available at the centre. Some centres have
full-sized industrial robots and others use educational robot arms which are
controlled and operate in much the same way as industrial robots, but are
usually smaller, slower and less accurate.
Programming of most types of educational robot is performed by the
walk-through method - that is, by driving the arm to the required position
which is then recorded in the memory. Some robots can be 'taught' by
using 'off-line' programming, in which the program is written on a
computer system and fed to the robot controller one step at a time to run
the arm through its work sequence.
Both these methods are used for industrial models, but they also use
lead-through programming very widely, in which the end-effector is moved
by hand to its required positions.
While educational robots usually have some edit facilities, the complexity
of industrial control systems makes the edit facilities much more
comprehensive; for example, a program taught by walk-through
programming might be edited by off-line methods. (Program editing is
discussed in Assignment 10.)

Gripper velocity will increase with the Industrial robots normally have the facility to program straight-line
reach of the robot arm, so velocity will movements or circular-path movements when necessary, whatever the
be highest at the outer limits of the geometry of the arm.
movement envelope.
When programming, allowance must be
The skills of the programmer can improve the accuracy of robot arm
made for any lost motion in the operation, and/or decrease the cycle time of the complete work sequence.
mechanical system (the backlash). For example, the number and position of intermediate steps programmed
Remember that programming is done at in a pick-and-place operation will certainly affect cycle time, and perhaps
lower speeds than the normal also accuracy of placement, by altering approach velocities. The final
operational work sequence. adjustment of component positioning will be more accurate with a skilled
programmer, particularly for educational robots with inherently poor
position control systems.
For industrial robots, which normally have accuracies of better than
0.5 mm, some sort of fixture can be used as the simulated machine position
so that the component must be placed in the fixture with the accuracy
required in industry. If this is done with educational robot arms, the
accuracy limits must be known and applied to the design of the fixture.
Task 9.1
1 Set up the robot arm for use by carrying out any 'initialisation' or
'calibration' procedures.
2 Switch the controller to TEACH or PROGRAM mode.
3 Program the arm to move to three or four different points in space.
Choose one point to correspond to a movement of the arm of about
two-thirds or three-quarters of its full travel on each axis in one
direction. The next point should correspond to the same amount of
movement in the opposite direction. The third point can be at almost
full reach away from the body but with the 'waist' rotation in its mid-
position (for all robot geometries except Cartesian). For this point,
make the arm approach the set point slowly. If no control of speed is
18
S2 possible, use more intermediate points. At one point program the wrist
VJ to rotate and at another point program the end-effector to grip an controller
ES object.
4 Play back the program (in the correct mode) to move the arm
-
through the taught sequence several times.
Note that if your controller has a separate keypad, like the one shown
in Figure 9.1, you can carry it to the best position to observe the
movement of the arm as you program it. When programming by the
lead-through method you must have someone else present to move the
arm by hand while you key in its positions. Be ready to operate any
emergency stop system.
Task 9.2
1 Set up the robot ready for programming as in Task 9.1.
2 Program the robot arm wrist and end-effector to carry out the
following sequence:
• pick up a component at a certain height above floor level, equivalent POWER SUPPLY
MODULE
to a feed-in position for that component
• place the component accurately inside a small space simulating a
machine entry for a processing machine
• withdraw the arm leaving the component in the 'machine' space and
wait for, say, 20 seconds for the process to finish
• return to the machine position, pick up the component and move it
to a third position at a different level, equivalent to a feed-out = r-r-
position (for example, an output conveyor)
• release the component
keypad
• return the arm to its start position.
.6 Figure 9.1 Robot controller and mobile
keypad
feed-m
(a)
mach1ne
posit1on
feed-out
feed-In
(b)
,~---------~~~-1 :
- - - - - - .....
~--~----------j---------~=r--~ _____ _)
feed-out ... Figure 9.2 Programming positions,

(a) from the side, (b) from above
19
Program editing
All industrial robots, and even some educational models, have facilities for
editing a program after it has been 'taught' to the robot. Editing will allow
the correction of any errors and the change ·of position coordinates to
improve accuracy or to allow for change in component size. Extra steps can
be inserted, time delays can be added or removed, and speeds can be
changed at any part of the program. Some robot programming systems
have other editing facilities in addition to these basic ones.

In some robotised processes the Editing methods are different for every type of control system. Usually a
operator in charge of the workcell may manufacturer who makes several different models of robot will use the
need to do the editing of a process, if same or similar software for all his controllers, so the editing methods will
programming has been done elsewhere. normally be similar for all models of one make.
This could apply to off-line
programming, or where a program has The robot's operational manual will detail the editing facilities and
been transferred from one robot to methods. It is essential to practise editing programs repeatedly in order
another. fully to understand the editing procedures.
When a program is edited the software
controlling the program storage has to
move the data around in the memory Task 10.1
store so that it is kept in the correct
order. For instance, when an extra step Study the editing facilities for your robot arm. The manual should
is inserted space must be made available explain the editing procedures and the range of facilities available.
in the correct place by adjusting the Use the edit facilities to change a program taught by lead-through or
memory locations of all the later steps. walk-through programming, such as the program in Task 9.2 in
Assignment 9.
The following editing facilities are normally available on any control
system:
• insert or delete a programmed position
• add or change time delays
• change the speed in any step of the program.
Edit the program using these operations. Include further steps in the
work sequence to move the component to another machine position.
Add another process operation to the robot work sequence. Either add
two or more time delays or change existing time delays; also change
the robot's speed for part of the cycle.
Task 10.2
Some robots can be programmed using distance coordinates measured
from a fixed reference point, even when they are normally
programmed by lead-through or walk-through methods. This makes it
possible to edit programs by off-line methods even if they were
originally taught by other methods.
Figure 10.1 shows a workcell set up for a machining operation with
the robot measuring position by Cartesian coordinates relative to a
point on the robot centre line. The horizontal coordinates are
designated x andy. The z-coordinate is measured on the vertical axis.
Coordinates show the positions in tenths of millimetres, and positive
values are assumed unless negative values are given.
The machining centre B is square with the x- and y-axes, but the
parts feeder A is set at 30° to the x-axis (as shown in Figure 10.1).
When initially programmed by the walk-through method, the
coordinates shown on the controller screen for positions A and B were:
20
--?
outfeed conveyor
B
robot y-aXIS
machining centre
..... Figure 10.1 Machining centre workcell
A: X 4928 y- 3157 z- 1742

B: X 2343 y 6781 z 1939
When the program was played back, it was found that there were small
errors in positioning the arm at A and B. At the feeder A the errors
relative to the feeder were:
• arm position 1.5 mm too far from the robot
• position on centre line of feeder was correct
• vertical position was correct.
At machining centre B, errors relative to the machine (and therefore
x-, y- and z-axes) were:
• arm position 1.2 mm too far from the output conveyor on the
X-aXIS A POINT TO NOTE
• 0.8 mm too near the robot on they-axis Any additional operations added to
• 1.1 mm too low (on the z-axis). the program, or any change of
locations when editing, may affect
Edit the program by correcting the position coordinates given above. the existing program. It may
produce velocities that are too high
ADDITIONAL TASK for safe movement of the workpiece,
or a movement path that passes too
Find out from the operational manual how to check the unused close to other machinery. If so, some
memory capacity of the controller after keying in a fairly long steps in the existing program may
require modifying, or perhaps extra
program. If possible, work out how many more points you can add to
steps may need to be added.
the program before you run short of memory storage capacity.
21
External sensing: tactile sensors
Microswitches are a very simple form of tactile (or touch) sensor and are
widely used in industry. They are mechanical switches which will operate
with a very light touch and transmit an electrical signal when contact is
made with them. They can be used to sense the movements of machinery
or of parts being carried along a conveyor belt. Even light and fragile
articles, such as packets of biscuits, can be detected by microswitches.
The first task demonstrates how microswitches can be used for the
identification or orientation of simple parts. Only two microswitches are
used, so the system can check only a very limited range of parts.
Nevertheless, the principle is the same as that for a more complicated
sensing system, such as a matrix of touch sensors.
This kind of sensor matrix is made up of an array of perhaps 100 very
small touch sensors arranged in a rectangular pattern. When a component
having a flat face but an irregular outline is placed against the sensor
matrix, the pattern of electrical signals received from the separate sensors
will correspond to the pattern of the outline of the component.
L'SEFUL OBSER\'ATIO~S
If timing of a signal frem a microswitch This Assignment deals with tactile sensors - those sensing touch or force.
is important, then the position of the Other types of sensor operate by light detection. These are non-tactile, and
switch must be carefully adjusted are called vision sensors or optical sensors. Other non-tactile sensors
relative to the part contacting it and known as proximity sensors operate by other methods, such as electrical
with regard to the travel of the switch capacitance or electromagnetic effects.
before it closes the electrical contacts.
Task 11.1
Set up two microswitches to sense objects on a flat surface. Either
A POINT TO NOTE position the switch probes to protrude slightly through holes in the
Some microswitches are two- surface, or suspend them over the surface so that the objects
position switches - that is, their underneath will touch them (Figure 11.1 shows both possibilities).
switching action can be used to The flat surfaces must have two straight stops or edges placed at
connect the power source to one of
right angles to each other, so that the components being sensed are
two output connections. If this type
is available to you, you can have pushed up against both surfaces (into the angle between the two
lights of different colours at A and stops). The two microswitches are positioned as shown in Figure 11.2.
B. A red light will denote ' switch Make up three components from metal plate or sheet to the sizes
ofr (so no component touching) shown in Figure 11.3, heavy enough to operate the microswitches if
and a green light means 'switch on' they are set below the flat surface or thick enough to operate the
(component present) . This is clearer microswitches if they are set above it.
than having signal combinations Connect the microswitches to signal lamps and power sources,
where no light is on at either A or B. labelling the lamps A and B. Put each component in turn in the
sensing position so that it touches the two stops. Complete the table to
show which light sequence is produced by each component.
T Figure 11.1 Tactile sensing test rig
mocroswo tches
Component Light signals
Light A Light B
Q
R
22
<1111 Figure 11.2 Position of microswitches
(dimensions in mm)
80
I
150
---'--~- A,
p
125
1 --+----~-v
150
·------~1
-J-- '
1'~--8-0---r.
125
stop
The light signal given by the asymmetric component R will depend on

the way it is placed for checking. 0
Component R should be placed with the cut-away on the outside of
the test position, so that the longest sides are touching the stops
(Figure 11.4). If you identify the two sides with different markings or
different colours, you can show the marking for each side separately in
your table. Each side will then give a different light signal.
Task 11.2
Fix a small strain gauge to the top of a rectangular-section bar as
shown in Figure 11.5. Either grip one end of the bar with the robot
gripper, or attach it to the end-effector, and use the other end (suitably
shaped) to pick up a normal load for the robot you are using.
With an ohm-meter, measure the resistance of the strain gauge first r----------ro R
with the load and then without it. Use the system to pick up a range of 180
loads of different weights. Then you can calibrate this primitive force
sensor by drawing a graph of weight against resistance.
If you have sufficient knowledge of electronic circuits you can
design a circuit that will give out a signal if the load exceeds a certain 120
value. The signal can be used to sound a buzzer or activate a flashing I

light as an alarm signal.
100
A Figure 11.3 Test components

(dimensions in mm)
<1111 Figure 11.4 Position of component R
ADDITIONAL TASK
Try this problem, which is based

on Task 11.1.
In a workcell or on a production
line, the checking station would be
automated. It is possible that
component R could be put in the
SlOP
test position the 'wrong' way
round, with the cut-away in the
comer between the two stops. Add
)
Stram gauge
extra microswitch sensors to
indicate this to the control. (Note
that we have already used all
bar possible combinations of two
sensors and lights.)
<1111 Figure 11.5 Use of strain gauge sensor
23
External sensing: vision sensors
Vision sensing systems fall into two categories: light beam sensors and
camera-type sensors. A light beam sensor may transmit an electrical signal
either when the beam is broken, or when the beam is present.
Camera systems compare the signals from a video camera with signals
stored in the controller memory, and are used for part recognition or
orientation. There are still problems with parts recognition, because the
signals from the camera are related to differences in light level and these
can vary with the strength and direction of the illuminating light source.
USEFUL OBSERVATIO~S
When setting up a vision recognition With camera sensing, the controller must have processing and memory
system, it is sometimes found necessary facilities comparable to those of a computer. It has to store a program to
to increase the number of light sources compare the image signals from the camera with the image data held in the
to get adequate signals. For certain memory and must be able to 'rotate' the image until it lines up with the
conditions, however, it may be found stored data, unless extra equipment is used to orientate the part
that a unidirectional light source is mechanically.
better, provided that the light is
powerful enough. For recognition of complicated outlines, cameras with small pixel spacing
The use of colour cameras can
must be used. (Pixels are the tiny dots that make up the image; the higher
sometimes improve shape recognition, the quality of the image, the closer together the pixels have to be.) This
particularly if a part is being picked out means that the camera must measure and transmit many hundreds of
from several different components, all signals each time it scans the object.
of which can be coloured differently.
~ Task 12.1
fJ)
E:S Use a light beam sensor which gives an output signal when the beam is
interrupted. Set it up outside the robot workcell, but near enough to
observe the robot's movements. Connect the sensor output to one of
the inputs of the robot system which can be programmed to stop the
robot. The light beam should be positioned so that any access to the
workcell will interrupt the beam. Test the light beam sensor by
breaking the beam when the robot is operating in a normal program.
Some types of robot controller will branch the program to a
subroutine when an input signal is received. If you have a system that
will do this, then a light beam can be used for a different purpose.
Set up the light beam sensor across the position where the
A POINT TO NOTE component is picked up, so that it breaks the beam when it is in
If you are attempting Task 12.1 position. The robot program must check the signal from the light
using an industrial robot, make sure beam sensor before the robot moves to pick up the component. The
that all the recommended safety system is then said to be interlocked, that is, the next step cannot
devices are fully functioning. When proceed until the required check has been carried out. If the signal
you are using l!.ny industrial indicates no component present, the program should switch to a
equipment, even in a laboratory subroutine which makes the robot pause for, say, two seconds before
situation, remember that normal
checking the signal again. If possible, include a count in the subroutine
safety standards might always be
maintained. so that, after a given number of pauses, an alarm will sound. Industrial
systems normally check for parts present in a similar way.
24
Task 12.2
Set up a monochrome video camera to look vertically down on to a
plain white surface. Fix lamps above the white surface so that it can be
illuminated with different levels of light intensity (Figure 12.1 a).
Obtain two or more flat components for this test. These can be plain
pieces of steel strip of, say, 6 mm thickness.
View the two components through the video camera and screen,
first with the components separated on the flat surface, then with one
component laid across the other (Figure 12.1 b) so that they can both
be seen easily by eye.
Now, still viewing the components through the camera, alter the
light level. Start with a low light intensity and increase it until the
components can be seen on the screen as separate entities.
Repeat the test with the lamps moved to the sides so that they are
not shining vertically on to the surface. (Note that it is easier to see the
separate components like this.) Move the lamps to different positions
and alter their brightness until you get the clearest possible picture.
This task will illustrate the difficulties of using vision sensing to
identify components or to check workpiece orientation.
ADDITIONAL TASK
Try painting the surfaces of the components in Task 12.2 in different

colours, or make them from different metals, such as brass and steel.
You may find that parts recognition is then easier even with a
monochrome camera. The colours may need to be carefully chosen as
some colours (red and black, for example) look the same on
monochrome television even though they appear very different to
the eye.
(a)
camera
component
sur'face
(b)
components
separated
components supenmposed
~Figure 12.1 Camera recognition test

(sec text)
25
Robot performance
A robot arm is a mechanism for positioning parts or tools with a consistent
accuracy and at a speed that makes the robot cost-effective. So a robot's
performance is primarily measured in terms ·of its accuracy and its speed,
although it is not maximum speed but cycle time that is the important
factor. (Cycle time is the time to carry out one complete cycle of
operations.)
The load that the arm is carrying, the arm geometry and the reach of the
arm all have an effect on accuracy and on cycle time. Any performance
specification must therefore relate positioning accuracy and speed to these
other factors.

When a robot arm is moving heavy Accuracy and repeatability are two different aspects of performance.
weights at high speeds, the problems Accuracy is the measure of the error between the required position (i.e. the
are often referred to as 'inertia' or position being taught) and the average position achieved when the program
'momentum' effects. is played back to run the robot arm through its sequence. Repeatability is
Inertia is related to accelerating a mass the maximum error between different runs of the programmed sequence.
from standstill to maximum speed, and
this will normally affect the cycle time
but not the accuracy. Task 13.1
Momentum is directly proportional to
speed (momentum == mass X velocity), Obtain as many different robot specification tables as you can from
and if the momentum is too large then manufacturers' literature. From these, list the value given for the
the position accuracy is reduced. If a accuracy of each robot compared with the maximum load it can carry.
heavy load is being moved at high Then list the accuracy of the robot against its maximum speed. Start at
speed, it is more difficult to stop it the lowest values of the load and speed and work up to the highest
accurately at the desired position; if values.
position accuracy is of overriding Lay out your lists as shown in the table below.
importance more time may have to be
allowed for stopping the arm, so
increasing cycle time. It is normally Load/kg Accuracy/mm Speed/m s- 1 Accuracy/mm
possible to 'trade-off cycle time against
accuracy in this way, or vice versa. In 1 0.2
fact many of the performance para- 5 0.3
meters can be traded off against the other 10 0.5
factors, since they all affect the two 25 0.8
basic requirements of accuracy and cycle 50 1.0
time. 200 1.5
etc. etc.
How does accuracy vary with load and speed?
Task 13.2
Set up a robot arm to measure the accuracy and repeatability of
positioning of the end-effector. Either an industrial robot or an
educational robot can be used for this Task.
If you are making your measurements with dial test indicators
(DTis) then use at least two, measuring position on two axes at right
angles. Program the arm to move first to the measurement position
and then to another position some distance away. Plot each pair of
readings on graph paper as x- andy-coordinates. Remember to
include a time delay in the program, long enough to take readings of
both DTis every time they are in contact.
26
If DTis cannot be used, program the robot to grip a pen so that the
pen makes a mark on a blank piece of paper each time it reaches the
---~
programmed point. The first time that it does so, mark the point by
drawing a small cross on the paper. The pen will then make a
~ "'""~
succession of dots when running through the sequence several times -
say 10 to 20 times.
Accuracy and repeatability can be measured as shown in
Figure 13.1. Using DTis and using the pen marker method should
give exactly the same pattern. repeatability
Task 13.3 good repeatability

but poor accuracy
When you have perfected the measurements of accuracy and
repeatability in Task 13.2 try the same measurements again but with a
heavier load, and then again with a higher speed. If you used a high
speed for Task 13.2 use a lower speed this time.
• •
ADDITIONAL TASK
•
Note variations in accuracy for each robot. If you have sufficient • • • •
information, draw up a table of accuracy of positioning against robot
cost. The table can be in the same form as the one you drew up in
good accuracy but
Task 13.1. poor repeatability
A Figure 13.1 Accuracy and repeatability

test
A POINT TO NOTE
From Task 13.2 you can check
whether the repeatability of the
robot arm is bener than its accuracy.
For some robots it may be the other
way round, or both may be equally
good . This may depend on the
performance of the control system,
on the method of programming or
on the skill of the programmer.
27
Process applications of robots
For most robot applications, the robot arm is operating in a workcell where
it is supplying parts or using tools with one or more production machines.
Such workcells are capable of batch production or continuous production
of one component or product. In some processes like spot welding or paint
spraying of vehicles, many robots are used together on one large
production line. By putting the robot to work with other automatic
machines the whole process is automated, giving several aJvantages
compared with labour-intensive production methods.
Robots and automated machinery need no meal breaks, holidays or other
time off. They can work two or three shifts a day without tiring. The work
is carried out to the same consistent degree of accuracy all the time, and the
robots can work in extremely hostile environments with a minimum of
extra protection. In addition, robots are very flexible in the operations they
can perform.
USEFUL OBSERVA TIO~S Additional information

Remember the us e of interlocks T he safety requirements referred to in Assignment 6 cover the hazards
between process machinery and the associated with automated machinery in general and with robots in
robot, referred to in the section dealing particular. For many processes there are other health and safety
with sensing devices. Remember too requirements that must be met. The hazards in environments dangerous to
that 'fail safe systems' should be used people, such as high temperatures and dusty or fume-filled atmospheres,
with other machinery and equipment, as are well known and personnel who have to work there must be suitably
well as with the robot. protected.
Many other requirements are now covered by the Health and Safety
Regulations. Two of the more recent provisions are the Control Of
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) regulations and the Electricity
At Work Act. The implications of legislation of this sort for many industrial
processes are not always obvious or clear-cut, so anyone setting up an
automated or robotic process must study the health and safety aspects
carefully.
Task 14.1
Design a robot workcell using an industrial robot for a component-
handling operation - for example, loading a turning centre with bar
stock and checking the component dimensions after turning, or
loading sheet steel into a forming press, then into a trim press. You
will need to make decisions about these requirements:
• the process steps required in the operation
• the movement path of the component
• mounting of the robot arm to accommodate the movement required
for the component
• the type of end-effector required
• feeders or conveyors for transferring parts into and out of the
workcell
• safety devices and interlocks to protect personnel and machinery.
When you have set down the machines and layout required for the
workcell, determine the cycle time for one complete operation of the
process. T o do this you will have to find the best operational speed of
the robot, which may depend on whether it is unloaded or carrying a
.A. Figure 14. 1 A robot loading a full load (consult the manual). You will need to know the distance
machining centre between machines, and that between robot and feeders. The length of
28
any time delays in the process operation will have to be used in the
calculation as well. A POINT TO NOTE
Mter calculating the cycle time for your first attempt at the workcell Cycle time (the overall time for the
design, examine your calculation and methodology and try to reduce whole operational sequence) is very
the overall cycle time. Can individual times for different steps in the imponant for a robot operation. For
program be lessened? Try to reduce the distances moved: this is likely any manufacturing process the
speed at which it is carried out has a
to be easier than increasing the speed, which is probably at its
direct bearing on the productivity,
optimum value already. Can the time delays be altered? Or can the and therefore on the profitability of
machines and feeders be rearranged to cut down the distances the operation. A robotised process is
travelled? no exception, so reducing the cycle
time directly increases the
Task 14.2 productivity of the process.
Analyse the assembly requirements for building a small electric motor

using a robot arm. The separate parts of the assembly are shown in
Figure 14.2.
Decide on the types of feeder required to present the parts in the
correct place with the right orientation. You will also need to choose
the tools the robot must use to assemble the motor.
Consider the possibility of using two robot arms for the assembly,
one for placing the parts in position, and a second one using the tools
to secure the parts in the assembly. Write down the advantages and
also the disadvantages of using two robot arms instead of one.
ADDITIONAL TASK
Modify the motor design slightly to make it easier to be assembled by a

robot. Minor modifications to component design can often speed up
the robotised process considerably.
Small modifications can often help parts to fit together more simply,
or allow bolts to enter bolt holes more quickly. Perhaps fastening com-
ponents can be changed to speed up assembly, or two parts amalga-
mated into one.
4screwsc
~
each end
·-
end
cap body rotor end cap w1th brushes
• Figure 14.2 Electric motor components
29
Robot arm maintenance
Maintenance activities are mainly of two types.
Preventive maintenance includes:
• lubrication to prevent or reduce wear in bearings, gears, transmissions
and any other sliding surfaces
• adjustment of drives and transmissions to reduce further wear.
Replacement maintenance includes:
• replacement of seals in fluid power systems
• replacement of filters for cleaning fluids (air and oil)
• replacement of cables or connectors for electrical equipment.
Most of these jobs are mechanical and must be carried out fairly often
throughout the year. Electrical maintenance may only be required once or
twice in a year.
Prevention of wear and adjustment to reduce wear are especially
important, because the accuracy of the robot arm is related mainly to the
backlash (or lost movement) in the mechanical system. Any wear in the
system increases the backlash so the accuracy deteriorates.

There is usually a direct link between The limits of error quoted by robot manufacturers allow for a minimum
the cleanliness of machinery and the amount of backlash. There must be some (very small) amount of free
wear created between its moving parts. movement for mechanical movement to take place without undue stress.
Well-designed machines will be encased This must be limited, however, to keep within the accuracy claimed for the
to protect them from exterior dirt, particular robot arm.
particularly in very dirty environments.
Any relative movement creates minute Actual values of these limits will depend on the size of the arm, but typical
dirt particles as the parts wear, however, values could be 0.02mm for bearings using rolling friction and O.OSmm for
and a maintenance program may need sliding friction surfaces. Unless the wear substantially outside these limits
to include periodic cleaning of moving can be taken up by adjustment, the relevant parts will probably need
parts - for example, of the 'brush' replacing.
contactor in a de motor. In fluid power
systems, the fluid itself helps to clean
wear particles from the sliding surfaces
and the fluid is then cleaned by suitable Task 15.1
filters.
Carry out a maintenance check on an industrial robot by inspecting
the different parts of the system, specified in the table opposite.
Report on the condition of each part and suggest any action
required in the appropriate columns.
Task 15.2
Use the maintenance manual for a robot arm to obtain the following
information:
• the period for inspection and maintenance of each component
• the method of gaining access to the parts requiring maintenance,
particularly the mechanical components
• how to lubricate the mechanical drives to the arm and to the position
transducers
• how to make adjustments to take up the backlash in all the drives.
Compile this information into a table for maintenance scheduling.
30
Component Condition Action
POINTS TO NOTE
Electrical Motors Routine maintenance is essential
• general condition because it can do much to prevent
the breakdowns that cause
• brushes
unscheduled shutdown of the plant.
This can be very costly in lost
Connectors production. But it must be remem-
• to motors, bered that any routine maintenance
encoders etc. that necessitates stoppage of
production is also expensive in lost
Cables production time, even if it is much
less so than breakdown maintenance.
Mechanical Wear It is essential to keep the time for
• of bearings maintenance to the absolute
• of drive transmission minimum if it involves plant
shutdown.
Lubrication If maintenance can be carried out
• of gears and between shifts or at times when the
transmissions plant is not operating, there will
obviously be no loss in productivity;
Backlash adjustment this is not always possible, however.
• of the arm drives
• of encoder drives
Fluid power Actuator seals

systems • valves
• pipework
• connections
ADDITIONAL TASK
Make a list of the different lubricants used on robot arms. Note exactly
where each one is used on the arm, and how often the particular
lubricant requires to be topped up or replaced.
..... Figure 15.1 Access to parts requiring

maintenance
joint 4 joint 5
joint 4 adjustment hole adjustment hole
/
wrist coupling
access holes
joint 5
A Figure 15.2 Backlash adjustments
31
System maintenance
Maintenance will need to be carried out periodically on the services to a
robot arm and workcell. This should be included in a maintenance
schedule for the complete workcell or production line, which will cover the
preventive maintenance required for every part of the production facility.
The robot operating manual will give the tasks required for the robot
arm, and the other items of equipment should have manuals supplied by
their manufacturers listing their maintenance requirements. The user of all
these systems can compile a complete maintenance schedule for the plant
which takes account of any production downtime (as mentioned in
Assignment 15).
Maintenance schedules will cover work required on both electrical and
mechanical equipment, including fluid power systems. It is inefficient to
use different maintenance personnel for these different jobs, so today's
craftsmen must be multi-skilled in all these disciplines to the level at which
they can carry out maintenance on any of these systems.

Much of the plant used in modern With automated assembly used in many production processes, more and
automated systems has specialised more parts are made in such a way that they cannot be stripped down for
equipment that will require the inspection or repair. In these cases a procedure should be established for
maintenance personnel to undergo extra checking them for wear or for deterioration, to determine the point at
training on these systems. The which they will need replacing.
operators involved in programming a
robot will also often need a training
course by the manufacturers in order to
use the robot effectively. Access to the
S2 Task 16.1
V)
robot will then be limited to the people
qualified to maintain it or to program it. ~ Use a table like the one below for inspecting and servicing a
conditioning (service) unit for a pneumatic system.
You will find this type of unit wherever pneumatic equipment is
being used. The components of a typical unit are shown in Figure 16.1.
Use a manufacturer's manual to determine what checks are
required. Inspect each component after making sure that the air supply
is disconnected. Then carry out any further maintenance checks that
are required, filling in the table as you do so.
Component Result of check Action taken
Air filter
Pressure
regulator
Lubricator
32
pressure
regulator
lubncator
supply
__..,.
~Figure 16.1 Pneumatic service unit
Task 16.2
Strip down a pneumatic cylinder and a torque actuator (rotary
actuator or limited-arc motor). Examine the seals and see how to
replace them if they become worn. Also strip any valves that can be
reassembled (small pneumatic valves cannot always be stripped
down).
These tasks can be applied to either hydraulic or pneumatic devices.
Do not, however, try to strip hydraulic servovalves (the control valves
on hydraulic robots).
Task 16.3
Carry our a visual inspection only of the electrical services to the
workcell and the robot. Note first where the power supplies must be
isolated before any maintenance work is attempted. Then find out
what other safety procedures are required (for example, a permit to
work).
Then note where there are connectors in the supply system that
should be checked periodically for wear or damage. Note any other
parts of the system that will require regular checks.
Do not attempt to check anything yourself!
ADDITIONAL TASK POINTS TO NOTE

Some of the units that wear or
If you have access to a hydraulic drive robot arm, carry out an deteriorate cannot be checked while
inspection of the power pack. Fill out a table similar to the one given they are in service. These items will
for the conditioning unit above. need replacing periodically. The
frequency of replacement must be
Do not carry out any maintenance on the power pack. based on their replacement costs
Find out what safety precautions are required before any maintenance balanced against the estimated
productivity losses arising from
can be done.
reduced accuracy or from plant
If a hydraulic robot is not available to you, try this exercise on any breakdown.
hydraulic power pack to which you have access.
33
Index
accuracy of positioning 18, 26-7 mechanical transmissions 10-11
actuators 6-9 microswitches 22-3
axis of movement 2 momentum effect 26
backlash 10, 18, 30, 31 optical sensors see vision sensors

ballleadscrew 10-11
pantograph arm 3
camera system sensors 24-5 part orientation 22
cleanliness, related to wear 20 part recognition 23
controllers 14-1 7 pickups 4
memory 14, 20-1, 24 pixels 24
processor 14 pneumatic actuators 6, 8, 9
cycle time 18, 26, 27, 29 pneumatic conditioning (service) unit 32, 33
position sensing 15-16
datum position 3 potentiometers 15-16
digital signals 14 preventive maintenance 30
process applications 28-9
edit facilities 18, 20-1 programming 18-21
encoder discs 15 see also edit facilities
end-effectors 4-5 proximity sensors 22
fail safe systems 12, 28 recirculating ballscrew see ball leadscrew

feedback 14 reference position 3
fluid power actuators 6, 7, 8, 31, 33 repeatability of positioning 26-7
replacement maintenance 30
geometry of robot arm 2, 4 resolution of sensor 16
rotary encoder 15
harmonic drives 10
Health and Safety Executive 12, 13, 28 safety 12-13, 25, 28
hydraulic actuators 6, 8, 9 sensor matrix 22
hydraulic power pack 8, 33 servomotors 6, 9
start position 3
inertia effect 26 stepper motors 6
interface 15 subroutines 24
interlocks 24, 28
tachogenerators 15
keyboards/keypads 14, 19 tactile sensors 22-3
TEACH mode 18
light beam sensors 24 training 32
lubrication 30, 31 transducers 14, 15, 16
trapped-key exchange lock 12
machining workcell 28
maintenance v1s1on sensors 22, 24-5
robot arm 30-1
system 32-3 working envelope 2, 3
manufacturer's specification 2 wrist 2-3, 4
34

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Robot Technology Workbook

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Robot Techno logy

City and Guilds of London Institute has a long history of providing

Carolyn Andrew and others, Business Administration Level I and Business

Consultant Editor: Peter Riley

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this

First published 1993 by

ISBN 978-0-333-56508-7 ISBN 978-1-349-12688-0 (eBook)

A catalogue record for this book is

1 Robot arm and wrist movements 2

City and Guilds/Macmillan publishing for

.,.. Figure 1.1 Robot arm geometry

..,. Figure 2.1 Robot wrist

Examine the component, and analyse how it would be assembled by

Find the solutions to the following end-effector problems, either by

Type of robot Electric motor

Design of fluid Cylinder actuator

Reduction gear Yes

USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

• Figure 4.2 Simple pneumatic circuit

• Figure 4.3 Pneumatic positioning circuit

~ List and analyse all the mechanical drive transmissions in a particular

Type of Type of Drive to Speed reduction

..,.. Figure 5.1 Test rig for measuring the

Operatives sometimes have to work on the same line or cell as a robot

.6 Figure 6.1 Flow chart of safety

~ Identify the different parts of a robot control system. On some robot

1 Investigate why robot controllers often have a separate

USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

feed-out ... Figure 9.2 Programming positions,

USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

A: X 4928 y- 3157 z- 1742

Component Light signals

The light signal given by the asymmetric component R will depend on

value. The signal can be used to sound a buzzer or activate a flashing I

A Figure 11.3 Test components

Try this problem, which is based

<1111 Figure 11.5 Use of strain gauge sensor

Try painting the surfaces of the components in Task 12.2 in different

~Figure 12.1 Camera recognition test

USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

How does accuracy vary with load and speed?

Task 13.3 good repeatability

A Figure 13.1 Accuracy and repeatability

USEFUL OBSERVA TIO~S Additional information

Analyse the assembly requirements for building a small electric motor

Modify the motor design slightly to make it easier to be assembled by a

USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

Fluid power Actuator seals

..... Figure 15.1 Access to parts requiring

A Figure 15.2 Backlash adjustments

USEFUL OBSERVATIONS Additional information

Component Result of check Action taken

~Figure 16.1 Pneumatic service unit

ADDITIONAL TASK POINTS TO NOTE

backlash 10, 18, 30, 31 optical sensors see vision sensors

fail safe systems 12, 28 recirculating ballscrew see ball leadscrew

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