Non-Invasive Driver Drowsiness Detection using Deep

Neural Network

Master of Science in Computer Science

Name: ADIL ALI SALEEM

Registration No: COSC19251013
Session: 2019-2021

Department of Computer Science

Faculty of Computer Science
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering
and Information Technology
Rahim Yar Khan

January, 2021
 Non-Invasive Driver Drowsiness Detection using Deep
Neural Network

By

Name: ADIL ALI SALEEM

Registration No: COSC19251013

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for degree of

Master of Science in Computer Science

Supervisor: Dr. Hafeez Ur Rehman Siddiqui

Department of Computer Science

Faculty of Computer Science
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering
and Information Technology
Rahim Yar Khan

January, 2021

ii
 January, 2020

Declaration

I I Adil Ali Saleem hereby state that my MS thesis titled” Non-Invasive Driver
Drowsiness Detection using Deep Neural Network” is my own work and has not
been submitted previously by me for taking any degree from Khwaja Fareed
University of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan or anywhere
else in the country/world.
At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my graduation the
university has the right to withdraw my MS degree.

Rahim Yar Khan, on January 10, 2021

_______________________
COSC19251013

iii
 Plagiarism Undertaking

I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled “Non-Invasive
Driver Drowsiness Detection using Deep Neural Network” is solely my research
work with no significant contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help
wherever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been
written by me.
I understand the zero-tolerance policy of the HEC and Khwaja Fareed University of
Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan towards plagiarism.
Therefore, I as an Author of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of my
thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is properly
referred/cited.
I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above titled
thesis even after award of MS degree, the University reserves the rights to
withdraw/revoke my MS degree and that HEC and the University has the right to
publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students are
placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.

Rahim Yar Khan, on January 10, 2021

_______________________
Adil Ali Saleem
COSC19251013

iv
 Certificate of Approval

This is to certify that the research work presented in this thesis, entitled “Non-
Invasive Driver Drowsiness Detection using Deep Neural Network” was conducted
by Adil Ali Saleem under the supervision of Dr. Hafeez Ur Rehman.
This thesis is submitted to the Department of Computer Science and Information
technology, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology,
Rahim Yar Khan in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Science in field of Computer Science.

External Examiner Signature and Date

Co-Supervisor Signature and Date

Supervisor Signature and Date

Head of Department Signature and Date

Dean of Faculty Signature and Date

v
 Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Hafeez Ur Rehman, for his confidence,
expertise, support, inspiration, his experience in this field, and his advice has been
an incredible resource throughout this study. Without his persistent help, the goal
of this project would not have been achieved. I would also like to extend thanks to
the faculty of Computer Science at Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and
Information Technology Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan for their support and
instructions.

I would like to thanks Mr. Mansab Abbas Cheema managing director Manthar
transport company and Mr. Asad Nawaz Cheema owner Moon Cheema coaches
for understanding need of this research, collaborating with us and permitting us to
collect data of their drivers.

I would like to acknowledge the support and great love of my family, my colleagues
and my fellow researchers (Amna Ahmed, Kiran Shehzadi and Hina Fatima
Shehzad). They kept me going, and this research would not have been possible
without their support.

_______________________
Adil Ali Saleem

vi
 Abstract

Drowsiness leads to a decline in cognitive performance, that affects driver

performance and causes accidents. Drowsiness related road accidents leads to
severe trauma, such as physical injury, death, and economic loss. Real-time and
accurate driver drowsiness detection is necessary to bring down the drowsy driving
accidents rate. This research aims at classification of drowsy and non-drowsy
(Fresh) driver states based on respiration rate detection by impulsive radio ultra-
wide band (IR-UWB) radar non-invasively. Two approaches were applied a)
image-based b) intensive signal processing. Firstly, chest movement of twenty-
seven subjects were acquired and converted into greyscale images. Different
machine learning models, including Support Vector Machine, Logistic regression,
Gradient Boosting Machine, Extra Tree Classifier and one neural network
Multilayer Perceptron were trained and evaluated on these images. Due to limited
number of images the models were prone to overfitting and there was a significant
difference between training and testing accuracy. The next, intensive signal
processing was applied and respiration per minute is derived from the previously
recorded chest movement. A validation experiment was performed to validate the
respiration rate per minute with and off the shelf device named as Pulse Oximeter.
A dataset was maintained comprises of respiration rate per minute, age and label
(Drowsy/Fresh). Previously, mentioned machine learning models were trained and
tested on this dataset. Extra tree classifier outperformed other classifier with an
accuracy of 94%. Data set was extended making a total number of subject to forty-
two. Both approaches were applied on the extended dataset Support Vector
Machine outperformed other models with an accuracy of 87% on the respiration
per minute data set. While, classifiers were prone to overfitting issue on the image-
based technique. While, the classifiers were vulnerable to over-fitting the on
image-based methodology. It can be seen from the findings that respiration rate
dependent technique is better for the detection of drowsiness. This research can
be used as a ground truth for verification and assessment of UWB to be used
affectively for driver drowsiness detection based on respiration.

Keywords: Drowsiness Detection, Respiration rate, Pulse Oximeter,

Physiological Signals, Machine learning, Ultra-Wide Band

vii
Contents

Declaration ........................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................ vi

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... vii

1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................1

1.1 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Drowsiness Detection Systems ........................................................................................ 1
1.3 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Short Term Objectives ............................................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Long Term Objectives .............................................................................................. 3
1.4 Outline of the Thesis ........................................................................................................ 3
2 Literature Review ...........................................................................................................4

3 Material and Methods/Model and Equations/Modelling ............................................... 21

3.1 Data Acquisition ............................................................................................................. 21

3.1.1 Impulsive Radio Ultra-Wide Band Radar................................................................ 21
3.1.2 Pulse Oximeter ....................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Estimation of Respiration............................................................................................... 24
3.2.1 Trapezoidal Method ............................................................................................... 26
3.2.2 Butterworth Filter .................................................................................................. 27
3.3 Validation Experiment ................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Drowsiness Detection .................................................................................................... 30
3.4.1 Image Based drowsiness detection ....................................................................... 31
3.4.2 RPM Based Drowsiness detection ......................................................................... 31
3.5 Machine Learning Models.............................................................................................. 32
3.5.1 Support Vector Machine (SVM) ............................................................................. 32
3.5.2 Extra Tree Classifier (ETC) ...................................................................................... 33
3.5.3 Gradient Bosting Machine (GBM) .......................................................................... 34
3.5.4 Logistic Regression (LR) .......................................................................................... 35

viii
 3.5.5 Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) ................................................................................. 36
3.5.6 Evaluation Parameters ........................................................................................... 39
4 Results and Discussions ................................................................................................ 40

4.1 Images Based Drowsiness Detection Results ....................................................................... 40

4.2 RPM Based Drowsiness Detection Results........................................................................... 43
4.3 Comparison of RPM and Image Based Drowsiness Detection............................................. 47
5 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... 48

5.1 Future Work ......................................................................................................................... 48

6 References ................................................................................................................... 49

ix
 List of Publications
• Saleem, Adil Ali, et al. "A Review on Smart IOT Based Parking
System." International Conference on Soft Computing and Data Mining.
Springer, Cham, 2020.
• Adil Ali Saleem, et al. "A survey on Physiological signal-based driver
drowsiness detection systems." IEEE Transactions on Intelligent
Transportation Systems.(Submitted)

x
List of Figures

Figure 3.1: X4m300 IR-UWB radar..................................................................... 22

Figure 3.2: X4m300 radar plot at time of data collection .................................... 23
Figure 3.3: Pulse Oximeter ................................................................................. 23
Figure 3.4: Noisy signal after finding are under the curve .................................. 24
Figure 3.5: Frequency Spectrum by Fast Fourier Transform .............................. 25
Figure 3.6: Filtered Signal .................................................................................. 25
Figure 3.7: Trapezoids of Sine function .............................................................. 26
Figure 3.8: Butterworth filter with Brick Wall Response ...................................... 27
Figure 3.9: Driver sitting in front of the Radar ..................................................... 30
Figure 3.10: Grey Scale image of Chest movement ........................................... 31
Figure 3.11: Image showing Different Layers ..................................................... 36
Figure 4.1: Comparison of classifiers on images ................................................ 42
Figure 4.2: Scatter Plot Of initial dataset ............................................................ 43
Figure 4.3: Scatter Plot of Dataset after expansion ............................................ 45
Figure 4.4: Comparison of accuracies on both datasets ..................................... 46
Figure 4.5: Comparison of Accuracies of Both Methods After and before
Expansion of Dataset ......................................................................................... 47

xi
List of Tables

Table 2.1: Comparison Table ............................................................................. 15

Table 3.1: Validation Results .............................................................................. 29
Table 3.2: Parameters of SVM ........................................................................... 32
Table 3.3: Parameters used to tune ETC ........................................................... 33
Table 3.4: Parameters used to tune GBM .......................................................... 34
Table 3.5: Parameters used to tune the LR ........................................................ 35
Table 4.1: Evaluation metrics of different ML models ......................................... 40
Table 4.2: Evaluation metrics after expansion of dataset ................................... 41
Table 4.3: Evaluation metrics of ML and Neural Network Classifiers ................. 44
Table 4.4: Average Accuracy of models after Dataset Expansion ...................... 45

xii
1 Introduction

1.1 Problem Statement

Feeling abnormally tired or sleepy refers to the term drowsiness. Drowsiness is
caused by several factors including shortness of sleep, mental health, or a serious
medical condition. Drowsiness is among the major causes of fatal road crashes.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than one million road
accidents occur every year (Organization, 2018), and 30% are caused by driver
fatigue or sleepiness (Martiniuk et al., 2013). According to an investigation
conducted by National safety council of America the chances of getting crashed
increased three times if the driver is fatigued (National Safety Council, 2020). A
study conducted by the American Automobile Association (AAA), A Foundation for
traffic safety, estimated 328,000 drowsy driving crashes that costs $109 billion to
the society (National Safety Council, 2020). Driving without sleep for more than
twenty hours is equal to 0.08% (US legal limit) blood-alcohol concentration level
(National Safety Council, 2020). According to National Highway Safety Traffic
Administration (NHSTA), 4,111 people died and 50,000 got injured in USA due to
drowsiness between year 2013-2017 (NHSTA, 2017). Therefore, a system is
needed that can timely detect drowsiness to overcome these issues, save human
lives and assets.

1.2 Drowsiness Detection Systems

Researchers have developed several drowsiness detection systems to detect
drowsiness in a timely manner to overcome previously described issues. These
systems are classified into three major groups on the basis of the driver's facial
features, physiological signals and vehicle dynamics (Sahayadhas, Sundaraj, &
Murugappan, 2012). Facial character based systems uses drivers facial images
to extract blinking, head movement and yawning shows good result in the

1
drowsiness detection in a controlled environment (Sahayadhas et al., 2012).
However, the efficiency of these systems decreases in the real environment due
to some unexpected changes in environmental factors such as light, temperature,
etc. (Sahayadhas et al., 2012). In addition, the performance of the vehicle
dynamics based systems is poor because of the influence of factors that includes
traffic, road geometry and slow processing speed. (Sahayadhas et al., 2012).
Systems that use physiological signals are very effective to detect drowsiness in
drivers (Sahayadhas et al., 2012). High performance of these systems makes them
more reliable in the drowsiness detection system (Sahayadhas et al., 2012).
Physiological signals that include respiration rate, electroencephalography (EEG),
electrocardiography (ECG), electrooculography (EOG) and electromyography
(EMG) signals are mostly used for drowsiness detection. However, most
physiological sensors are invasive, making them difficult to use in an actual
environment. Due to the high precision of these systems, a non-invasive method
of signal acquisition can lead to a system that can be used in a real environment.

1.3 Research Objectives

The purpose of this research is to investigate a ground truth for a non-invasive

approach for drowsiness detection using UWB based on respiration signal. This
system will acquire chest moment of the drivers non-invasively using impulsive
radio ultra-wide band (IR-UWB) radar. Respiration per minute (RPM) will be
acquired from previously acquired chest movement and classifier will classify it as
drowsy or non-drowsy (fresh).

1.3.1 Short Term Objectives

To develop and assess non-invasive respiration monitoring using IR-UWB radar
that will be used in driver drowsiness detection system based on respiration rate.
This system will assist in the timely detection of driver drowsiness. Publication of
new findings in the relevant journals and conferences.

2
1.3.2 Long Term Objectives
Successful completion of this research will result a non-invasive driver drowsiness
detection system that will be used as a ground truth in the future investigations.
This system further can be used to generate an alert system for driver or the control
of the vehicle transferred to computer on detection of drowsiness.

1.4 Outline of the Thesis

Chapter 1 – Introduction
• Problem Statement
• Drowsiness Detection systems
• Outlines research short- and long-term objectives of this study.
Chapter 2 – Literature Review
• Reviews the background Work.
• Comparison Table of the literature
Chapter 3 – Material and Methods/Model and Equations/Modelling
• It explains the development of research project and contains specifications
of sensors and devices used for this study.
• Preprocessing Steps.
• Validation Experiment
• Drowsiness detection
Chapter 4 – Results and Discussion
• Evaluation of Results.
Chapter 5 – Conclusion
• Draws conclusions from the study.
• Future work

3
2 Literature Review
This chapter comprises of recent investigations conducted about the driver
drowsiness detection using respiration rate. Respiration system endures
substantial variations from wakefulness to sleep. Respiratory states vary according
to physiological conditions. However, because of the unpleasant nature of
traditional methods of respiration monitoring, respiration is the least assessed vital
sign. Respiratory features differ greatly from wakefulness to sleep (Douglas, White,
Pickett, Weil, & Zwillich, 1982). Reduction of muscular tone and metabolic activity
and alteration of chemical/non-chemical reactions affect breathing in sleep (Xie,
2012).

A system is proposed to detect driver drowsiness using respiration signals by

(Sharma & Bundele, 2015). Respiration signals from one-hundred-fifty drivers in
pre-and post-driving states are acquired in a real environment for three to five
minutes. Two types of feature sets (Pre and Post driving) are then extracted from
respiration signals and analyzed by scatter plot. The feature set 1 has fifty-six
features of DMeyer wavelet at level four decomposition and feature set 2
comprises of a total of thirty-seven features derived by Daubechies wavelet
function of order six and a level three decomposition. K-means algorithm is used
as a classifier in three different versions implemented in JAVA. The classification
accuracy (CA) was obtained at specific decomposition level of the implemented
filter as mentioned above. It is observed that MIN, MAX, Mean, Mode in
classification accuracy using Daubechies wavelet at decomposition level 3 (CA3),
and classification accuracy using DMeyer wavelet at decomposition level 4 (CA4)
showed 100% accuracy. These selected features can be used for the classification
of fatigue.

A non-invasive approach is proposed by (Solaz et al., 2016) for the acquisition of

breathing rate using two high-dynamic PAC16 and FRCAM cameras to detect
driver drowsiness. Two experiments are performed for data collection. The first

4
experiment is carried out to validate Kinect for a non-invasive breathing rate
detector. The second experiment is carried out in order to find the best spot of the
cameras for better results Each camera is equipped with a microcontroller
responsible for the transmission of video signals. The data obtained from these
cameras is then processed using a custom OCTAVE algorithm to determine the
rate of breathing. The breathing rate is then compared to the results of the
Plethysmography Band, an off-the-shelf chest band for respiration rate detection.
Five males of age ranges from 28 to 38 years took part in the data collection
process. The respiration signals of these subjects in normal sleep and sleep
deprivation (twenty-four hours without sleep) are recorded during a driving
simulation of one hour and forty minutes. The experiment is performed in a
controlled environment to lessen noise during the data collection process. The
videos captured using cameras are converted to frames and the histogram
equalization is applied to improve the global contrast of the lightning conditions in
the outdoor environment. Noise filter and image stabilization are applied to prevent
the effects of motion while driving Frame differentiation-based techniques are used
to determine the motion level and the image is segmented in regions where motion
is detected After evaluating the motion signals of each image fragment, non-
periodic signals are discarded. A short-time Fourier transform is applied over
motion signals to measure the respiration rate. This approach (Solaz et al., 2016)
is beneficial for driver fatigue detection non-invasively based on respiration signal.

An optical imaging technique is used to acquire physiological signal brainwave,

cardiac and respiration pulses for fatigue detection in (Tayibnapis, Koo, Choi, &
Kwon, 2016). Driver’s facial images are captured using Infrared (IR) camera placed
at dashboard. From these captured images, the fatigue is detected by visual
behavior like eye, mouth and head pose. Physiological signals Heart rate (HR),
Heart rate variability (HRV) and respiration are also acquired from captured images
using photoplethysmography (PPG) (Poh, McDuff, & Picard, 2010). PPG is an
optically obtained plethysmogram that can be used to detect blood volume
changes in the microvascular bed of tissue. Viola Jones algorithm is used to detect

5
face region (Viola & Jones, 2001). SIFT (Scale Invariant Feature Transform) key
points are extracted from facial images and stored in database (Lowe, 2004).
These extracted facial features are used to detect eye blinking, yawning and head
nodding that helps in driver drowsiness detection. PPG extracts blood volume
pulse (BVP) from sequence of facial images (Allen, 2007). HRV is acquired from
BVP by applying Butterworth filter of window size 15 and bandwidth of 0.75 to 4
Hz. Respiration rate is acquired from the center of frequency of HF that is in
between 0.15-0.4 Hz of HRV power spectrum density (PSD). These extracted
facial and physiological features are feed into multi class SVM.

Multiple Physiological signals that include oximetry pulse (OP), skin conductance
(SC), and Respiration signals are acquired for fatigue detection by tagging
respective sensors to the drivers body in (Wang, Shen, Wang, & Xiao, 2017).
Physiological signals are recorded using a piece of equipment named Nexus-10
designed by B.V. Mind Media. Nexus-10 can record ten types of physiological
signals by tagging respective sensor to the subject’s body. The Physiological
signals of ten drivers who drive vehicles like taxies, lorries, luxury buses and
trucks, are recorded at a sampling rate of 256 Hz for three to five minutes before
driving in the morning and after covering a distance of five to six hundred
kilometers in a day. A median filter with a window length of 200 and a band pass
filter with a cutoff frequency of 200Hz are applied to remove the baseline drift and
noise, respectively. signals Hilbert-Huang transform (HHT) is used to remove ECG
and EEG signals from the recorded signals. Linear combination of the number of
intrinsic mode functions (IMF) is acquired by decomposing the processed signals.
Six features namely, mean of the signals, maximum of the signal, standard
deviation of the signals and mean, maximum, and standard deviation of frequency
are extracted after dividing signal into half-second frames. A Scatter plot shows
the inseparable overlapping of some features and classification is done by random
forest (RF). The dataset is divided into 67% training and 33% testing data. RF
combined with HHT gives an accuracy of 99% which is higher than MLP (93%)
and SVC (70%).

6
A safety belt which monitors heart rate and respiration for driver state recognition
is presented in (Leicht, Vetter, Leonhardt, & Teichmann, 2017). Belt has two types
of sensors. First, an optical sensor that emits infrared light towards the body of the
driver and the heart rate is detected by the reflection of the infrared light. Second,
magnetic induction (MI) system that comprises of a high-frequency oscillator and
a coil embraided on the safety belt. The orientation of the driver's body changes
concerning coil while breathing that results in a frequency change and respiration
can be detected by observing that frequency. Keeping in mind regulatory and
safety considerations, a textile cover comprising of these sensors is made that can
be positioned on the safety belt using Velcro tape. Respiration and heart rate
signals are sampled equipped with seat belt having MI sensor is used for data
acquisition. To validate the system, these ECGs and a piezoelectric sensor Heart
rate signal are processed using a FIR sensor of order twelve and a cutoff frequency
of 10 Hz. While a FIR filter with an order thirty and cutoff frequency of 1Hz is
applied on respiration signals. By the comparison of safety belt and validation
sensors, it is observed that the MI system gives better respiration rate monitoring,
but it produces high-frequency noise in the signal which makes heart rate
monitoring difficult during inspiration.

The system proposed by (Tateno, Guan, Cao, & Qu, 2018) used respiration rate
derived from ECG signals. Two experiments are performed. In the first experiment,
the accuracy of the respiration rate is verified by calculating the respiration rate
from heart rate signal and by observing actual respirations of four healthy subjects.
A portable fingertip pulse wave sensor placed on the left index finger is used to
collect acceleration pulse wave that is very similar to heart rate (can be considered
as heart rate signal) at a sampling rate of 50 Hz. The time interval between
neighboring peaks is calculated to form an R-wave interval (RRI). Cubic spline
interpolation is used to equals the sampling point intervals. Respiratory sinus
arrhythmia (RSA) information is extracted from interpolated RRI data using
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) that maps the complex f(x) to the complex f(t).
RSA includes high frequency (HF) component of heart rate variability (HRV) (0.15

7
to 0.4 Hz) so, a bandpass filter is used to remove the useless signal. An inverse
DFT is applied to calculate RSA from the processed signal. The second
experiment is performed to detect drowsiness in the driver. In this experiment heart
rate data of four healthy subjects along with their facial expressions monitored
using portrait recognition based on the android system is acquired. The heart rate
signal is sampled at 50 Hz with a constant temperature of 25 degrees. The
Respiratory rate slope (RRS) of the linear regression equation is calculated by the
least square method in a specific time. If the value of RSS is less than a pre-defined
threshold (which is -3.0 in this case), the degree of drowsiness (DOD) is
considered increasing. The portrait recognition program detected drowsiness
eleven-time and gave an accuracy of 72.7% while the accuracy achieved by
(Tateno et al., 2018) is 64.4%.

A non-intrusive driver fatigue detection is proposed using Continuous-Wave (CW)

Doppler radar (Gu et al., 2018). CW radar placed at the car dashboard is used to
acquire respiration and heart rate of the driver. The experiment is performed on
the heart and respiration signals collected from three healthy subjects in normal
and fatigued states. Subjects are advised to sit on the chair facing the digital-IF
(Intermediate Frequency) doppler radar placed 0.625m away from the subjects
with the antenna facing the chest. Data of normal state is gathered in the morning
when the subjects feel fresh and fatigued data is collected in the afternoon after
lunch because that causes the subjects to get fatigued easily (Miao, Zhao, Hong,
Zhu, & Li, 2017). The subjects have to sit in front of the radar for ten minutes.
During the data collection, status of the subject is asked every five minutes that is
recorded as reference. The collected heart and respiration rate signals are
segmented into sixty seconds frames. A total of 240 data sets are collected and
seven features in frequency and time domain are extracted. A decision tree that
shows an accuracy of 82.5% is used for classification purposes because it can
easily process non-linear characteristics between values (Lavanya, Bajaj, Tank, &
Jain, 2017).

8
An efficient cross-subject transfer learning system is proposed for the driver’s
status detection based on physiological signals (Chen, Zhang, & Lou, 2019). Two
data sets that are recorded in the simulated and real environments are used for
validation of the proposed system (Chen et al., 2019). Dataset ‘A’ contains
physiological signals of nine healthy subjects in three different driving conditions--
rest period (low stress), highway section (medium stress), and city session (high
stress). ECG, GSR, and respiration signals are acquired at a sampling rate of 496
Hz, 31 Hz, and 31 Hz, respectively for thirty minutes. The acquired signals are then
segmented into hundred-second segments. Specific thresholds for each signal are
set to remove the noise from the original time series. After noise removal, time
domain, frequency domain, and wavelet-based features are extracted from the
signals. Data set B consists of EEG and EOG signals of twenty-three subjects in
a simulated driving environment. The route is designed in such a way that it can
easily induce a drowsy state in the driver. EEG signals are collected from
posterior, temporal, and forehead at a sampling rate of 1 kHz. EOG signals are
captured from the electrodes placed at the forehead. From the recorded twenty-
three subject’s data, balanced physiological signals of fourteen subjects are
selected. After initial signal processing and feature selection, feature evaluation is
applied to find the important feature for classification purposes. Cross subject
feature evaluation is performed by both class separation and domain fusion
(CSDF). After cross-domain feature evaluation and selection, the samples from
target and source domains are sent to the classifier. Adaption Regularization
based transfer learning (ARTL) is used and compared in (Chen et al., 2019). ARTL
optimizes structural risk, joint distribution, and manifold consistency. ARTL
achieved an accuracy of 94.44% and 88.67% on Dataset A and B, respectively
that is better than the seven base classifiers including SVM, ELM, and KNN.

A Driver drowsiness detection system based on respiration rate acquired using an

inductive plethysmography belt is proposed in (Guede-Fernández, Fernández-
Chimeno, Ramos-Castro, & García-González, 2019). Respiration signals of twenty
healthy subjects (ten males and ten females) of ages ranging between 20-60 years

9
are recorded on two different days while driving on a driving simulator under control
conditions. Simulator consists of a front screen and a car body that is equipped
with steering wheel, pedals and automatic transmission. Experiment is conducted
on a room temperature with low light and highway sounds. A video camera is used
to record the video of the experiment to validate the drowsiness signals by external
observers. A low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 0.5 Hz and a high pass filter
with a cutoff frequency of 0.05 Hz are applied on respiration signal to remove noise
and base line signal, respectively. Respiration rate variability (RRV) is obtained
from respiration signal. The ratings generated by external observer are used to
validate the system. Thoracic Effort Derived Drowsiness index (TEDD) is used for
classification of the collected dataset that achieve sensitivity of 90% and specificity
of 96.6%.

A system using HRV derived respiration measures to detect driver drowsiness is

presented in (J. Kim & Shin, 2019). Euro Truck simulator and FANATEC virtual
hardware setup is used to create virtual environment for drivers to collect dataset.
A wearable ECG device is used to detect RR-intervals (RRI). Data is gathered from
six individuals giving thirty-seven recordings from which 1% poorly monitored
values are excluded. Some constraints have been used to collect dataset e.g. the
participant should not have caffeine intake four hours before experiment and have
to drive for one hour on the same virtual environment They are advised to keep
speed at about 80-90 Km/h and keep steady lane. PolarH7 device is used to collect
HRV data. Average running time of each recording is about 67 minutes. Two
cameras are used in experiment setup video of the upper body of driver and the
screen. New RRI data having constant time interval at the sampling rate of 0.5
seconds is acquired by performing Cubic interpolation High frequency (HF), low
frequency (LF), LFHF ratio and VLF power is used in predicting drowsy state of
the driver. Three different machine learning models- Random Forest (RF), KNN
and SVM, are used to verify the usefulness of the drowsiness detection. SVM
shows better accuracy among these three models.

10
Facial thermal imaging respiration analysis is used in (Kiashari et al., 2020) to
detect driver drowsiness.. Respiration cause temperature changes under the
nostrils which is detected by thermal imaging. Respiration region is detected by
geometrical features of face and then target tracker is used to track this region in
upcoming frames. In this study respiration region is detected in the first few
seconds of thermal image sequence. The frequency of respiration of normal
human varies between 12-20 breathes per minute (Lindh, Pooler, Tamparo, Dahl,
& Morris, 2013). Maximum time interval is five seconds between two breaths so,
region of image with high variation rate in first five seconds is located as respiration
region. Canny edge detector is used to separate respiration region from the image.
To get accurate respiration region, head of driver should not move quickly in first
five second of thermal imaging process. Mean of the respiration region pixels is
used to form a respiration signal. Noise is eliminated by applying a fourth-order
Butterworth low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 0.6 Hz. A driving simulator is
used to gather data. Environmental features can affect the performance of the
thermal imaging process so environmental variables are kept constant during
experiment. Respiration rate, inspiration and expiration (I/E) ratio, standard
deviation and mean are the main extracted features from the respiration signal.
Two machine learning models, SVM and KNN are used with fusion of all extracted
features is used, SVM Showed 90% accuracy which is better than the accuracy
(83%) showed by the KNN.

Driver drowsiness is detected from the respiration signals acquired using a

wearable clothing sensor in (YUDA, YOSHIDA, & HAYANO, 2020). Respiration,
ECG and acceleration signals of seven healthy subjects are recorded while driving
and wearing a smart shirt biometric sensor (Hexoskin). Hexoskin is made up of
smart garment and data logger in shirt pocket which is used to monitor respiratory
movements. ECG electrodes are placed at the back of the shirt. Respiration, ECG
and 3-axial acceleration signals are sampled at a rate of 128, 256 and 64 Hz,
respectively. Respiration signals are analyzed by complex demodulation with
amplitude and frequencies ranging from 0.05 Hz to 0.45 Hz. In previous

11
investigation, drowsiness is accompanied by typical heart rate pattern named as
Dip & waves. Changes in respiration signals are compared with the traditional Dip
& waves characteristic associated to the driver drowsiness. Respiration amplitude
and frequency don’t show significant changes than the Dip & wave. So, from the
experiment it is observed that the acquired respiration signals can be used for
drowsiness detection.
IR-UWB radar is used in (Leem, Khan, & Cho, 2017) for vital sign and mobile usage
detection of the driving to prevent accidents. Vital signs like respiration and heart
rate is monitored in both moving and stationary driver. Fast Fourier transform (FFT)
is used to find respiration and heartbeat rate. The Metals used in mobile phone
manufacturing make it easy to detect the mobile phone using radar. The short
movements while driving which are not dangerous for driver should be ignored by
any algorithm. For this dual-mode background subtraction method algorithm is
used. When a cell phone is detected, background is removed before updating the
signal to detect minimal movement of the cellphone. An alarm is kept on beeping
when cellphone is detected. loopback filter is used to remove clutter from the raw
signal. Sinusoidal fitting algorithm is used to detect the sinusoidal motion caused
by respiration and heart pumping. R square value is used to find the fit of signal.
Signals having low R square values are discarded. The radar is setup in car and
detection region is divided into two parts- mobile detection or vital sign detection.
Experimental results show that this proposed system detects mobile phone
perfectly in most cases.

Two different methods are proposed for drowsiness detection based on HRV
signals by (Vicente et al., 2016). This study uses three different datasets:
Simulated Driving Database (SDB), Alarm Test Driving Database (ADB) and Real
Driving Database (RDB). SDB consists of ECG signals of nine volunteers and ADB
consists of ECG recordings of eleven volunteers. RDB consists of ECG signals of
ten volunteers. Signals are sampled at a sampling rate of 256 Hz by using two-
lead ECG electrode. HRV signal is acquired from ECG signal, QRS complex is
detected and artifacts are identified to tune the dataset. Integral pulse frequency

12
model and Wigner-Ville distribution is used for HRV signal estimation and
smoothness, respectively. To measure the performance of the system, sensitivity
(Se), positive predictive value (P+), and specificity (Sp) are estimated. Seven
features are extracted from each minute of driving in first method called drowsiness
episode detector. This method gives 0.96, 0.59 and 0.98 of P+, Se and Sp,
respectively. In second method, Sleep-deprivation is estimated from first three
minutes of HRV data. This method gives 0.80, 0.62 and 0.88 P+, Se and Sp,
respectively.

Drowsiness is detected using ECG signals acquired using wearable computing

system (Gupta, Najeeb, Gabrielian, & Nahapetian, 2017). The system comprises
of a Zephyr BioHarness device and an android application. Zephyr BioHarness is
a device having chest strap and BioHarness module that is used to acquire and
transmit ECG signals. ECG signals are transmitted to the android application after
establishing a Bluetooth connection to determine the state of subject
(awake/sleepy). Actual sleep and waking driving dataset taken from PhysioBank
datasets is used to test the system. This dataset contains physiological signals of
actual sleep and waking of drivers. The application is used to monitor current
activity of the driver and warning system. System uses two algorithms. First
algorithm is used to set a threshold value based on average heart rate of the awake
dataset of the driver. If the heart drops below the threshold, the algorithm
categorize it as drowsiness and alert is generated for the user by the android
application in the form of audio and vibration alert. While the second algorithm
finds ratio of low to high frequency from the ECG signal used to set the threshold
instead of average heart rate.

Driver fatigue detection based on ECG (electrocardiography) signals using deep

learning and machine learning models is proposed by (Bhardwaj, Natrajan, &
Balasubramanian, 2018). This study is based on two datasets. First dataset is
acquired on driving simulation and the other is acquired in real environment with
sleep deprivation and no sleep deprivation respectively. In the dataset, ECG
signals are collected from ten subjects of ages raging between 22 to 31 years. The

13
experiment is conducted on a driving simulator that comprises of a steering wheel,
feed pedals, gear shift lever, and LCD. ECG signal are acquired with the
silver/silver chloride electrodes at a sampling rate of 150 Hz from the subject’s
chest and processed in MATLAB. A fourth order band pass Butterworth filter with
a cutoff frequency of 0.5 to 40 Hz is applied on the ECG signal to remove noise.
The time domain, frequency domain, and nonlinear HRV (Heart rate variability)
features are extracted for classification to ensure high detection rate and accuracy.
For classification, different machine learning models such as Support vector
machine (SVM), K-nearest neighbor (KNN), Logistic Regression (LR), complex
tree (CT), ensemble (subspace KNN) and ensemble (bagging trees) deep learning
models such as stacked autoencoders are used. This study [(Bhardwaj et al.,
2018)] shows that deep learning models perform better than machine learning
models. In Machine learning models the highest accuracy is achieved by KNN that
is 95% while the Deep learning model autoencoder achieved 96.6% accuracy that
is better than ML models.

Electrocardiogram (ECG) and Electroencephalogram (EEG) signals and

behavioral data are acquired for drowsiness detection in drivers by (Gwak, Shino,
& Hirao, 2018). ECG and EEG signals of sixteen healthy male subjects of ages
twenty-four years is acquired while driving simulator (DS). DS comprises of a
display screen, steering wheel and pedals in a controlled environment having a
temperature of 26 degrees. Two experts rated the drowsiness of the drivers based
on the recorded video every ten seconds. An infrared camera is used to record
eye blink data at a sampling rate of 60.1 Hz. EEG signals are acquired at a
sampling rate of 500 Hz using EEG measuring instrument EEG-1200. the number
of eye blinks counted every ten seconds from the raw data. ECG signals are
acquired at a sampling rate of 1 kHz using WEB-7000. A band pass filter with a
cutoff frequency of 1-40 Hz is used on EEG signal for noise removal. EEG, ECG
and eye blinking data are segmented into ten second frames and thirty-two
features are extracted. Four Machine learning (ML) models- SVM, KNN, LR, and
Random forest (RF) are used for the classification. RF performs better with an

14
accuracy of 81.4% than others that achieved an accuracy of 72.3%, 78.6%, and
75.3% by LR, SVM and KNN respectively.

In these investigations different sensors augmented with machine learning are

presented, which subsequently yield in the driver drowsiness detection system
aiming to decreases accident rate, economic loss and save lives. Many
investigators collected data in controlled and virtual environment on driving
simulators for driver’s safety during experiments. It is noticed that many of the
investigators used invasive approach in their investigation that makes driver
uncomfortable while driving and there is no single global solution exist so far.
Comparison of all reviewed investigations is summarized in table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Comparison Table

Reference

Hardware
Number of

used for Signals

Subjects

Pros Cons
signal acquired
acquisition

No
Achieved explanation
100% about signal
accuracy acquisition.
using K- Also, the
(Sharma
means Signals are
&
150 - Respiration algorithm. only
Bundele,
Signals acquired
2015)
acquired in before and
Real time after the
Environme driving, not
nt. during the
driving.
Non- A virtual
invasive controlled
method for environment
PAC16 and
(Solaz et acquisition is used for
5 FRCAM Respiration
al., 2016) of signal
cameras
respiration acquisition.
signal is Camera’s
proposed. result can be

15
 affected by
environment
al factors in
real
environment.
Signals
acquired but
not used for
Classificatio
n or model
training.
Camera’s
result can be
affected by
Non-
environment
invasive
al factors in
method for
real
acquisition
environment.
of
SVM is used
respiration
for
(Tayibnap Respiration signal is
Infrared classification
is et al., - HR proposed
camera but results
2016) HRV and PPG is
are not
used for
mentioned.
physiologic
There is no
al signal
explanation
calculation
about how
from
many
images.
subjects are
used in
experiment.
Data is
collected
Data is before or
Skin collected in after the
Conductan real time. driving not
(Wang et ce Random during the
10 NEXUS-10
al., 2017) Respiration Forest driving.
Oximetry gives an Attachable
Pulse accuracy of device is
99%. used for
signal
acquisition.

16
 A cover for
seat belt is
made for Data is
signal collected in
acquisition controlled
that can be virtual
Seat belt cover
adjusted or environment.
having optical
(Leicht et HR removed Heart rate is
- sensor and
al., 2017) Respiration by Velcro not
magnetic
tape. monitored
induction coil
Non- correctly due
invasive to high noise
signal during
acquisition inspiration.
is
proposed.
Attachable
sensor is
Threshold used for
system is signal
designed acquisition.
that gives Time and
an resource
Respiration
(Tateno et Fingertip wave accuracy of usage while
4 derived
al., 2018) pulse sensor 64.4%. extraction
from ECG
Respiration Respiration
signals signals from
acquired ECG.
from ECG Signals
signals. acquired in
controlled
environment
Decision
tree Data
achieves collected in
an controlled
accuracy of environment.
(Gu et al., CW Doppler ECG
3 82.5%. Number of
2018) radar Respiration
Non- subjects
invasive used in
method for experiments
signal are too low.
acquisition.

17
 Accuracy
of 94.44
and
88.67% Signals in
achieve dataset A
using data are acquired
Datas sets A and in controlled
et A=9 ECG B virtual
(Chen et
Datas Electrodes GSR respectivel environment.
al., 2019)
et B Respiration y. Attachable
=23 Signals in electrodes
dataset B used for
are signal
acquired in acquisition.
real
environme
nt.
Virtual
environment
is used for
(Guede- Sensitivity
signal
Fernánde plethysmograp of 90% is
20 Respiration acquisition.
z et al., hy belt achieved
Invasive belt
2019) by system.
is used for
signal
acquisition.
Wearable
Uses both
strap used.
signals and
Respiration
their
signals
combinatio
(J. Kim & Polar H7 Strap calculated
ECG n and
Shin, 6 type wearable from ECG
Respiration achieved
2019) ECG device signals.
an
Virtual
accuracy of
controlled
above 90%
environment
with SVM.
is used.
Presents
Virtual
non-
controlled
InfraRed invasive
(Kiashari environment
camera for method for
et al., - Respiration is used.
thermal Respiration
2020) Environment
imaging detection
al Factors
and 90%
can affect
accuracy

18
 are data
achieved acquisition.
SVM. Sudden
movements
during
driving can
affect data.
Electrodes
are placed at
the backside
Data is
of the shirt
acquired in
(YUDA et Respiration for data
7 Hexoskin real
al., 2020) ECG acquisition
environme
that makes
nt.
driver
uncomfortabl
e.
Signals
The acquired
acquired in
Signals are
real
used for
environme
classification
nt when
(Leem et HR purpose.
- IR-UWB radar driver is
al., 2017) Respiration Mobile
stationary
usage is
or moving.
detected in a
Mobile
specific
usage is
region.
detected.
Signals are
collected to
make three
datasets
Invasive
one in real
electrodes
environme
are used for
nt and two
(Vicente signal
Two lead ECG in virtual
et al., 30 ECG acquisition
electrodes environme
2016) that makes
nt.
driver
Achieved a
uncomfortabl
96% and
e.
80%
positive
predicted
value

19
 Invasive
Standard
chest strap
dataset
is used for
from
signal
PhysioBan
acquisition
k website is
that makes
used.
Zephyr driver
(Gupta et Threshold
- BioHarness ECG uncomfortabl
al., 2017) based
chest strap e.
system is
Threshold is
designed.
set on the
System
average of
alerts
ECG signals
driver by
when driver
alarm.
is awake.
KNN
achieves Invasive
an electrodes
accuracy of used for
95% while signal
an acquisition
autoencod that makes
(Bhardwaj Electrodes er achieved driver
et al., 10 attached to ECG 96.6% uncomfortabl
2018) chest accuracy. e.
Data Signal
acquired in acquired in
real time virtual
environme environment
nt with no with sleep
sleep deprivation.
deprivation.
Signals
acquired in
virtual
Random
controlled
forest
(Gwak et EEG-1200 ECG environment.
16 showed an
al., 2018) WEB-7000 EEG Attachable
accuracy of
devices are
81.4%.
used for
signal
acquisition.

20
3 Material and Methods/Model and
Equations/Modelling

3.1 Data Acquisition

Real time data acquisition is the key aspect in the development of any system.
Chest movement of subjects was recorded by UWB radar maintaining a chest
height and a distance of one meter. Subjects was asked to rest for five minutes
prior to data collection. Two experiments were carried out in this study, one for the
validation of the method proposed to estimate the rate of respiration from the
movement of the chest and the other for the detection of drowsiness using the rate
of respiration acquired. Details of the hardware’s used in the data acquisition and
validation experiment is given below.

3.1.1 Impulsive Radio Ultra-Wide Band Radar

Impulse Radio Ultra-Wideband (IR-UWB) radar is an evolving technology. It was

first used by US army in 1973 and marketed by Time domain and Xtreme Spectrum
companies in late 1990's (Brown et al., 2017; Ghavami, Michael, & Kohno, 2007).
The US-based Federal Communication Commission (FCC) assigned UWB signals
a bandwidth of 7.5 GHz (Brown et al., 2017). A frequency of 3.1-10.6 GHz is
covered by this bandwidth and a signal is termed as UWB if it has a bandwidth of
500 MHz (Brown et al., 2017). UWB signals have high data rates and low power
transmission levels. Due to the propagation of pulses of very short duration, IR-
UWB radar produces high bandwidth signals. IR-UWB radar transmits up to 10
million nano-pulses per second to gather useful information that allows the
identification and tracking of micro-movements and vibrations, such as breathing

21
and heartbeat. The IR-UWB radar does not pose any privacy concerns and cannot
be influenced by environmental factors. Radar has no adverse impact on the
human body as the emission capacity of the IR-UWB radar is extremely low. The
IR-UWB radar has advantages over other currently used equipment’s due to its
non-intrusive, non-tackling features and its ability to penetrate a range of materials
or barriers (Rana et al., 2017; Rana, Dey, Brown, Siddiqui, & Dudley, 2018).

During this research X4m300 UWB radar developed and marketed by NOVELDA
headquartered in Oslo, Norway shown in figure 3.1 is used. This UWB radar works

Figure 3.1: X4m300 IR-UWB radar

on the X4 system on chip (SoC) at unlicensed center frequencies of 7.29 GHz or
8.748 GHz working at bandwidth 1.4/1.5 GHz(-10dB), has a configurable frame
size (Novelda, 2020) . UWB radar has a very high resolution spectrum owing to
its short pulse propagation at nanoseconds (D.-H. J. S. Kim, 2020). This sensor
is operated by a highly sensitive XeThru X4 UWB chip, senses the slightest
vibrations and has the best signal-to-noise ratio (Corp, 2020). It has built in TX
(Transmitter) and RX (Receiver) antennas. The Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)
radiated by the radar is far below the limit value set by International Commission
on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) for general population both for the
SAR as averaged over the whole body and over 10 g (Cavagnaro, Pisa, Pittella,
& Propagation, 2013). By keeping the default settings, the built-in firmware
generates Baseband data with each scan resolution containing 27 values that
correspond to a sample of reflected pulses in a window of approximately 9.9
meters in length as shown in Figure 3.2. Here, the x-axis plot is constrained to 3
meters. A Frame Counter is supplied with the Baseband Data. The Frame Counter

22
increases by 1 for each radar frame produced by the X4 UWB SoC radar. Stopping
and starting a profile will not reset the frame counter. Frame counter size is 2^32.
The frame counter wraps up to 0 when it reaches its maximum value. A reset of
the X4 UWB SoC radar or a power toggle of the sensor module will reset the frame
counter (Novelda, 2018).

Figure 3.2: X4m300 radar plot at time of data collection

3.1.2 Pulse Oximeter

It is a compact, non-invasive, lightweight device that can be attached painlessly to

the fingertips, earlobes or toes. It sends light of two wavelengths from the tip of the

Figure 3.3: Pulse Oximeter

23
finger to determine the respiration rate, the oxygen level (SPO2) and the pulse
rate. This is achieved by analyzing differences in the absorption of light in
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood (Gotter, 2017).

Once it finishes assessment it displays the values on the screen as shown in figure
3.3. Since its invention it has given reliable readings of pulse rate, SPO2 and
respiration rate (Gotter, 2017). People with heart and breathing problems may rely
on these readings and carry out the necessary action on abnormal readings.

3.2 Estimation of Respiration

Pre-processing on the acquired chest data is performed. The region below the
curve shown in figure 2 is determined using the trapezoidal process. Trapezoidal
method is a technique used to approximate the definite integral. The Trapezoidal
method is discussed in section 3.2.1. This technique provides a signal containing
heartbeat, respiration rate, and noise such as eye blinking, eyeball movement, and
other ambient movements within the radar range. The approximate area under the
curve as shown in figure 3.4 is stored in vector A.

Figure 3.4: Noisy signal after finding are under the curve

Frequency spectrum of the vector A is obtained by using Fast Fourier transform

24
as seen in figure3.5.

Figure 3.5: Frequency Spectrum by Fast Fourier Transform

Respiration is obtained by applying a 10th order low pass Butterworth filter with a
cutoff frequency of 0.04 normalized frequency. This filter most of the noise from
the signal giving us respiration signal as shown in figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Filtered Signal

25
3.2.1 Trapezoidal Method

The Trapezoidal method measures the integration over an interval by splitting the
region into more easily computable regions, as shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Trapezoids of Sine function

Integration of N+1 evenly spaced point is as shown in equation below.

𝒃 𝑵
𝒃−𝒂
∫ 𝒇(𝒙) ⅆ𝒙 = ∑(𝒇(𝒙𝒏 ) + 𝒇(𝒙𝒏+𝟏 ))
𝟐𝑵
𝒂 𝒏=𝟏

𝒃−𝒂
= [𝒇(𝒙𝟏) + 𝟐𝒇(𝒙𝟐)+. . . +𝟐𝒇(𝒙𝑵) + 𝒇(𝒙𝑵 + 𝟏)]
𝟐𝑵

𝒃−𝒂
When the spacing between each point is MATLAB uses a spacing of 1 by
𝑵

default. If the spacing between points is not constant, then the equation becomes.

26
 𝒃 𝑵
𝟏
∫ 𝒇(𝒙) ⅆ𝒙 = ∑(𝒙𝒏 + 𝟏 − 𝒙𝒏)[𝒇(𝒙𝒏) + 𝒇(𝒙𝒏 + 𝟏)]
𝟐
𝒂 𝒏=𝟏

where a=x1<x2< ... <xN<xN+1=b, and (xn+1−xn) is the spacing between each
consecutive pair of points.

3.2.2 Butterworth Filter

Reducing noise and interference signals by suppressing frequencies is referred to

the term filtering. Filters with a flat frequency response in the passband are called
Butterworth filters or maximally flat filters. (Elprocus, 2020). This filter is named
after the British Physicist and engineer Stephen Butterworth because he described
these filters first time in his paper “on the theory of filter amplifiers” (Elprocus,
2020). Butterworth filters are used to shape the signal’s frequency spectrum. Cutoff
or Corner frequency of the Butterworth filter is given in the following equation.

1
𝑓𝑐 = 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Figure 3.8: Butterworth filter with Brick Wall Response

27
Frequency response of Butterworth filter is flat as mathematically possible, it is
also called as maximally flat magnitude filter (cutoff frequency without any ripples
between 0Hz and -3dB) (Elprocus, 2020). Quality factor of this type is 0.707 thus,
all high frequencies above the cutoff point drops to zero at 6dB per octave and
20dB per decade in the stopband (Elprocus, 2020). The standard approximation
of low pass Butterworth filter with different filter orders commonly termed as Brick
wall response is shown in figure 3.8.

As the order raises, the filter and the Brick wall response gets closer as seen in
figure 3.8. The frequency response of the nth order of the Butterworth filter is given
by equation.

𝟏
𝑯(𝑱𝝎) =
𝝎 𝟐𝒏
√𝟏 + 𝜺𝟐 ( )
𝝎𝝆

Where,

n represents the order of filter.

ω = 2πf

𝐸𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝜀 is the pass band gain that can be find by the equation given below.

𝐻0
𝐻1 =
√1 + 𝜀 2

Where,

H0 is the maximum pass band and H1 is the minimum pass band.

28
3.3 Validation Experiment

The Pulse Oximeter is used to validate the method of acquiring respiration rate
non-invasively using the IR-UWB radar. Pulse Oximeter is a gadget mentioned in
section 3.1.2 that can be attached to the tip of the finger. For validation, the chest
movement of six subjects of age ranges from twenty-five to thirty years with the
Pulse Oximeter attached to the indexed finger was acquired two times. After
applying the respiration estimation steps on the acquired chest movement. The
number of peaks was estimated from the filtered signal and subsequently dividing
with number of durations in minutes provides respiration per minute (RPM).
Results of the validation process are given in table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Validation Results

Subject Respiration acquired Respiration acquired

by Pulse Oximeter by proposed method

Subject 1 14 15

Subject 2 18 18

Subject 3 16 16

Subject 4 17 17

Subject 5 21 21

Subject 6 12 12

The findings reveal that the suggested method shows correct results five out of six
times.

29
3.4 Drowsiness Detection

The aim of the study was to detect drowsiness non-invasively. That's why, initially
chest movement of the twenty-seven professional drivers of age ranges between
thirty to fifty years, drives more than ten hours daily was acquired using the IR-
UWB radar as shown in figure 3.9. Considering the safety of assets and the drivers
a test bed was setup in an empty room at Manthar transport company Sadiq Abad,
Punjab, Pakistan. An ethical approval was designed and signed by each
participant and briefed about the test.

Figure 3.9: Driver sitting in front of the Radar

A minimum distance of 1-meter at chest height is maintained. The chest movement

of each participant was recorded for five minutes using the radar. Initially 27
participants data were taken before and after 10 long hours’ drive and stored in
different folders (Drowsy/Fresh). Frequency of radar was

Number of frames in 1 second =20

Number of frames in 1 minute =1200

Total number of frames in 5 minutes=5*1200=6,000

30
3.4.1 Image Based drowsiness detection

In this experiment previously stored files of chest movement were converted into
grey scale images using MATLAB built in function mat2grey. This function takes
the matrix as an argument and transforms it to a pixel depending on the minimum
and maximum values in the file. Values less than minimum are clipped to 0 while
values less than maximum are clipped to 1. A grey scale image of chest movement
can be seen in figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: Grey Scale image of Chest

movement

These greyscale images were stored into the corresponding Directories

(Drowsy/Fresh). Different machine learning (ML) models trained and tested on this
dataset. Result of these ML models can be seen in the result section.

3.4.2 RPM Based Drowsiness detection

In this experiment RPM is derived from the previously recorded chest movement
of drivers stored in separate directories by applying estimation of RPM steps listed
in section 3.2 and dividing number of peeks by number of minutes. The extracted
RPM along with their labels i.e., fresh and drowsy was stored. A structured dataset

31
was maintained with RPM and age of subjects (drivers) along with labels (Fresh,
Drowsy). Different machine learning (ML) models trained and tested on this
dataset. Result of these ML models can be seen in the result section.

3.5 Machine Learning Models

Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence that gives computer the
ability to learn and improve without being explicitly programmed. The primary
objective of ML is to allow the machine to learn automatically on the basis of
observations without human interference. Different ML models were trained on the
acquired data to get better results in drowsiness detection.

3.5.1 Support Vector Machine (SVM)

SVM is a supervised ML model that uses kernel trick to transform dataset. In this
algorithm, each data object is plotted as a point in n-dimensional space (where n
is the number of features in the dataset) with the value of each feature being the
value of a specific coordinate. An optimal boundary is set between outputs based
on these transformations. This model can be used for both regression and
classification (SETHI, 2020). It is also flexible where it can be designed using
different kernel functions that can be specified for the decision function. Three main
parameters along with parameters used in this manuscript are given in table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Parameters of SVM

Parameter Name Values of parameters Values of parameters

that can be set used during training in
this system

Kernel Linear, rbf, poly, sigmoid, Linear

precomputed

32
 C Any float value 1.0

Gamma Scale, auto or any float Scale

value

Degree Any integer value 3

Decision function shape ovo/ ovr Ovr

3.5.2 Extra Tree Classifier (ETC)

Extra tree classifier is an ensemble ML model. It creates a large number of DT’s

from training data. ETC is an ensemble of decision tree uses majority voting of
decision trees for prediction. Decision tree has low bias and high variance and
averaging the result of many DT’s decreases the variance maintaining that low
bias. ETC has two main differences than other tree-based ensemble methods are
that it splits nodes by choosing cut-points fully at random and that it uses the whole
learning sample (rather than a bootstrap replica) to grow the trees. Decision trees
performs better on numerical/categorical data. ETC randomly samples the
features at split point of each decision tree (Brownlee, 2020). The tuning
parameters of ETC used in this manuscript are tabulated below.

Table 3.3: Parameters used to tune ETC

Parameter Name Values of parameters Values of parameters

that can be set used during training in
this system

Number of Any integer value 100

Estimators/Trees

Criterion Gini or Entropy Entropy

33
 Minimum number of Any integer or float value 2
samples
Maximum number of
features to consider Any integer or float value Auto
during classification or auto

3.5.3 Gradient Bosting Machine (GBM)

A method of converting weak classifiers to strong classifiers is called boosting. In

boosting new tree is trained on the modified version of original data. GBM make
decision trees in additive, sequential and gradual manner. It finds the short
comings of weak decision trees based on the gradients in the loss function as
shown in equation.

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑒

Where ‘e’ is the error term in this equation.

Loss function, which is the difference between actual and predict value, indicates
how good a model is performing on the given dataset (Singh, 2018). Parameters
that are used to tune the GBM classifier along with the parameters used in this
manuscript are given in table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Parameters used to tune GBM

Parameter Name Values of parameters Values of parameters

that can be set used during training in
this system

Loss Deviance or Exponential Deviance

Number of estimators Any integer value 100

34
 Criterion ‘friedman_mse’, ‘mse’, friedman_mse
‘mae’

Minimum number of Any integer or float value 2

samples

Minimum samples to be Any integer or float value 1

a leaf node

Maximum depth Any integer Value 5

3.5.4 Logistic Regression (LR)

LR is a ML model that works on the probability. It can also be called as linear

regression but it uses complex cost function called as Sigmoid function. LR limits
its cost function between zero and one. Sigmoid function maps any real value
between 0 and 1. Mathematical representation of Sigmoid function is given in
equation below. It gives an S shaped curve.

1
𝑔(𝑥) =
1 + ⅇ−𝑥

LR returns output class based on the probability when an input is passed through
the prediction (Abbas, 2020). Three main parameters used to tune the LR along
with the parameters used in this manuscript are given in table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Parameters used to tune the LR

Parameter Name Values of parameters Values of parameters

that can be set used during training in
this system

35
 Penalty L1, L2, Elasticnet, None L2 Regularisation (Ridge
Regression)

Solver Newton-cg, lbfgs, Liblinear

liblinear, sag, saga

Maximum iteration Any integer value 100

3.5.5 Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)

A deep neural network (DNN) is an artificial neural network (ANN) with several
layers between the input and output layers. There are various types of neural
networks, but they are all made up of the same components: neurons, synapses,
weights, biases and functions. Artificial neural network (ANN) is characterized as
a neural network or circuit of neurons also known as neural networks or multi-
layer perceptron's. Perceptron can be defined as the predecessor to larger neural
networks. In the ANN perspective, the neurons are a basic computational unit that
has a weighted input signal and generates an output signal using an activation
function.

Figure 3.11: Image showing Different

Layers

36
Each Neuron has a bias that is assumed to be a value of 1.0 and must be weighted.
For example, in that case, a neuron may have two inputs requiring three weights.
One for each input and one for each bias. Weights are typically set to small random
values between 0 and 0.3, but certain difficult initialization schemes can also be
used. MLP examines how simple models of biological brains can be used to solve
difficult computational tasks such as predictive modeling tasks. The focus is to
create reliable algorithms and data structures that can be used to model
complicated challenges. A layer is represented as a row of neurons because they
are organized to form a network, and one network may have several layers. The
architecture of the neurons in the network is often referred to as the topology of
the network.

The neural network contains Input or Visible Layers, Hidden Layers, and Output
Layers. The input layer is the lowest layer that is used to take information from a
data set. The neural network is drawn with an input layer of one neuron per input
value or column in a dataset. Layers present after the input layer are called hidden
layers. In the network structure, there is a single neuron in the hidden layer that
explicitly outputs the value. The final hidden layer is called the output layer and is
responsible for outputting a value or vector of values that corresponds to the format
needed for the problem. The strength of neural networks derives from their ability
to learn how to interpret your training data and how to better link it to the output
variable you want to predict. In this way, neural networks learn to map.
Mathematically, they are capable of mastering any mapping function and have
proved to be a universal approximation algorithm. The predictive potential of neural
networks is extracted from the hierarchical or multi-layer structure of the networks.
The data structure will choose (learn to represent) features at various sizes or
resolutions and merge them into higher-order features. For illustration, from lines
to line collections to shapes.

Learning the perceptron can be accomplished by adjusting the weights of the

connection after each piece of data is analysed, depending on the amount of

37
performance error relative to the predicted result. This is an example of supervised
learning, which is achieved by backpropagation, the generalization of the least
mean square algorithm in the linear perceptron.

One hidden layer MLP in a function is represented by

Where is the size of input vector and is the size of the output vector ,
such that, in matrix notation?

With bias vectors , weight matrices , and activation

functions and .

The vector

Constitutes the hidden layer. Represents the weight matrix

connecting the input vector to the hidden layer. Each column represents the
weights from the input units to the i-th hidden unit. Typical choices for include
, with

, or the logistic function, with

. yields to faster training. Both

the and are scalar-to-scalar.

The output vector is then obtained as

38
3.5.6 Evaluation Parameters
This section covers the details about evaluation conducted in this research. First
step is the classification to determining the accuracy of classifiers. Experiments
have been performed for various classification models. Accuracy refers how much
our trained algorithm predicts correct labels, for example, if total testing examples
are 100 for drowsy/fresh and models correctly predict 80 examples out of 100 than
accuracy of model will be 80%. Accuracy can be defined by this formula.

TP + TN
𝐴𝐶𝐶𝑈𝑅𝐴𝐶𝑌 =
TP + TN + FP + FN
Here, TP (true positive) is a result where the positive class is correctly predicted
by the model. Similarly, TN (true negative) is a result where the negative class is
correctly predicted by the model. FP (false positive) is an outcome where the
positive class is wrongly predicted by the model. And FN (false negative) is an
outcome in which the negative class is wrongly predicted by the model. Recall is
also known as Sensitivity and can be defined as the ratio of the total number of
correctly predicted positive examples divide to the total number of positive
examples High Recall indicates the classes correctly recognized. The recall is also
known as the completeness of a classifier.
TP
𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐿 =
TP + FN
Precision is also known as exactness of classifiers. Precision can also be defined
as the number of True Positives divided by the number of True Positives and False
Positives.

TP
𝑃𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑆𝐼𝑂𝑁 =
TP + FP

F1 score refers the balance between the precision and the recall. F1score can also
be defined as the harmonic mean of precision and recall.

𝑃𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐼𝑆𝐼𝑂𝑁 ∗ 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐿
𝐹1 𝑆𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸 = 2 ∗
𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐿

39
4 Results and Discussions
4.1 Images Based Drowsiness Detection Results
In this section we will discuss about the results and performance of the different
classifiers. The purpose of this study is to detect drowsiness in driver. Initially chest
movement of 27 professional drivers was converted into grey scale images and
stored in different directories. This data was splitted into training and testing data
with the ratio of 70%-30%. Images were converted to NumPy arrays along with
their label before feeding them to the classifiers. Training set was used to train the
different ML models. The test data was kept unknown to model for evaluation of
classifiers. Different supervised ML algorithms such as SVM, ETC, GBM and LR
used for the classification. Two big problems related to classifiers are over-fitting
and under-fitting. Overfitting happens where the training data is learned too well
by the ML model. The overfit model learns information to the degree that it
influences the performance of the model on unknown data. This indicates that
noise and fluctuations in training data are learned as concepts. The dilemma
emerges where these concepts do not apply to new data (Brownlee, 2016).
Underfitting happens where the ML model does not learn well about training data
and does not generalize to unknown data. The underfit model is not an acceptable
model, because it is apparent that it would have poor efficiency (Brownlee, 2016).
After the successful training of the models previously splitted data for testing was
fed into the trained models for prediction, average training and testing accuracy
along with other precision metrics of different models is shown in table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Evaluation metrics of different ML models

Training Testing
Classifier Precision Recall F1-Score
Accuracy Accuracy

SVM 100 41 Drowsy 0.40 0.33 0.82

40
 Fresh 0.43 0.50 0.50

Drowsy 0.50 0.33 0.40

LR 100 50
Fresh 0.50 0.67 0.57

Drowsy 0.75 0.50 0.60

GBM 100 66
Fresh 0.62 0.83 0.71

Drowsy 0.60 0.50 0.55

ETC 100 58
Fresh 0.57 0.67 0.62
Drowsy 0.52 0.50 0.68
MLP 52 50
Fresh 0.50 1.00 0.67

As, it can be clearly seen from the results that model was overfitting because all
the models were showing 100% accuracy and there is a much difference between
training and testing accuracy. ML models need large number of image data for
generalization so, the data of fifteen more drivers were collected and converted
into images. The Accuracy along with different ML models can be seen in the table
4.2.

Table 4.2: Evaluation metrics after expansion of dataset

Training Testing
Classifier Precision Recall F1-Score
Accuracy Accuracy

SVM 100 69 Drowsy 0.67 0.77 0.71

41
 Fresh 0.73 0.62 0.67

Drowsy 0.62 0.77 0.69

LR 100 65
Fresh 0.70 0.54 0.61

Drowsy 0.67 0.77 0.71

GBM 100 69
Fresh 0.73 0.62 0.67

Drowsy 1.00 0.62 0.76

ETC 100 80
Fresh 0.72 1.00 0.84
Drowsy 0.52 1.00 0.68
MLP 51 53
Fresh 1.00 0.08 0.14

It can be seen from table 8 that as the dataset in extended the gap between the
training and testing accuracy is decreasing. ETC shows better testing accuracy
outperforming other ML models as shown in the figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Comparison of classifiers on images

42
4.2 RPM Based Drowsiness Detection Results

In this section we will discuss about the results and performance of the different
classifiers. The purpose of this study is to detect drowsiness in driver. Initially

Figure 4.2: Scatter Plot Of initial dataset

dataset is maintained with the data of twenty-seven subjects. A scatter plot of the
data is shown in figure 4.2. The data set is divided into training and testing sets in
70% and 30% ratio respectively. The training set was used to train the model and
generalize for the future unknown test points. The test data set, that was kept
unknown to the model, was set aside for evaluating the classifier. Different
supervised ML algorithms including SVM, ETC, GBM with 100 estimators and
maximum depth of 5, LR and a neural network MLP was used for classification of
data.

After the successful training of the models previously splitted data for testing was
fed into the trained models for prediction, average training and testing accuracy
along with other precision metrics of different models is shown in table 4.3.

43
 Table 4.3: Evaluation metrics of ML and Neural Network Classifiers

Training Testing Precision Recall F1-Score

Classifiers
Accuracy Accuracy

Drowsy 1.00 0.50 0.67

SVM 82 73
Fresh 0.75 1.00 0.86

Drowsy 1.00 0.83 0.91

ETC 94 93
Fresh 0.90 1.00 0.95

Drowsy 0.75 0.50 0.60

GBM 94 73
Fresh 0.73 0.89 0.80

Drowsy 1.00 0.50 0.67

LR 80 80
Fresh 0.75 1.00 0.86

Drowsy 0.75 0.50 0.60

MLP 80 73
Fresh 0.73 0.89 0.80

The classification report of any classifier refers the quality of prediction. It includes
the metrics such as precision recall and F1 score. The classification report for
Machine learning algorithms were shown in table 4.3.

It can be observed from table 4.3 that contains the evaluation metrics of different
ML models trained on this data. ETC outperformed other ML models and does not
prone to overfitting issue. After the ETC, LR shows better results while the other
models are prone to overfitting.

44
After the initial results it is found that the drowsiness can be detected by the
respiration. So, dataset is increased by acquiring the respiration of other fifteen
drivers increasing the number of subjects to a total of forty-two. A scatter plot of
the dataset after expansion the data set is shown in figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Scatter Plot of Dataset after expansion

ML models were trained on the new dataset and an average training and testing
accuracy along with other evaluation parameters of the models shown in table
4.4.

Table 4.4: Average Accuracy of models after Dataset Expansion

Training Testing Precision Recall F1-Score

Classifier
Accuracy Accuracy

SVM 87 87 Drowsy 0.78 0.88 0.82

45
 Fresh 0.93 0.88 0.90

Drowsy 0.56 0.62 0.59

ETC 83 70
Fresh 0.80 0.75 0.77

Drowsy 0.44 0.50 0.47

GBM 98 62
Fresh 0.73 0.69 0.71

Drowsy 0.56 0.62 0.59

LR 98 70
Fresh 0.80 0.75 0.77

MLP 85 70 Drowsy 0.56 0.62 0.59

Fresh 0.80 0.75 0.77

It can be clearly seen from results that SVM performed better on the expanded
dataset. A comparison of accuracies of models on the both datasets is given below
in figure 4.4. It can be seen from the results that the performance of SVM improved

Figure 4.4: Comparison of accuracies on both datasets

46
after the expansion of data while the other models wasn’t performed well. The
testing accuracy of the models were decreased that prone to the overfitting issue.

4.3 Comparison of RPM and Image Based

Drowsiness Detection
Initially chest movement of 27 professional driver was acquired and classified by
both methods. GBM shows better testing accuracy on image-based classification
while ETC outperformed other models on RPM based drowsiness detection. ML
models need a large amount of data for better training. After that dataset was
expanded to the chest movement of 42 professional drivers. SVM and ETC
outperformed other ML models on RPM and image-based drowsiness detection
respectively. The comparison of accuracies of both methods can be seen in figure
4.5.

Figure 4.5: Comparison of Accuracies of Both Methods After and before

Expansion of Dataset

47
5 Conclusion
Driver drowsiness is one of the major causes of accidents that leads to severe
trauma, loss of lives and assets. A non-invasive driver drowsiness detection
system based on the respiration rate was designed. Respiration monitoring system
was validated with the easily available device Pulse Oximeter. After the validation
chest movement of twenty-seven subjects was acquired and RPM is estimated
from this data and converted into grey scale images. A structured dataset is
formed based on the RPM age and labels. Machine learning models are trained
and tested on the dataset. Extra tree classifier and Gradient Boosting Machine
outperformed the other ML models on RPM based and image based, respectively.
After that dataset was expanded and Support vector Machine and Extra tree
classifier outperformed other ML models. In case of grey scale images models are
prone to overfitting issue due to a small number of images. And the from
conversion to classification it is a Blackbox, we do not know what is happening.
Previously, most of the investigators used invasive devices to acquire respiration
rate that cannot be used in real environment. But the proposed system describe
in this manuscript uses UWB radar to acquire the respiration rate non-invasively
and shows better results. This research provides a ground truth for verification and
assessment of UWB to be used affectively for driver drowsiness detection based
on respiration.

5.1 Future Work

In future, this system can be used to produce an alert system for the driver, or the
control of vehicle can be transferred to computer on the detection of drowsiness.
we are also looking forward to collecting data in the vehicles during the driving and
impact of drowsiness on other Physiological signals like heart rate will also be
studied.

48
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