Niels Bohr - Wikipedia

10/02/2024, 10:57 Niels Bohr - Wikipedia
Niels Bohr
Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish: [ˈne̝ ls ˈpoɐ̯ ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962)
was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic
Niels Bohr
structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.
Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research.
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of
electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic
nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr
model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He
conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in
terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The
notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy.
Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now
known as the Niels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and
collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and
Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a new zirconium-like element, which
was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered.
Later, the synthetic element bohrium was named after him. Bohr in 1922
During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the Born Niels Henrik David Bohr
Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of the German nuclear 7 October 1885
weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested Copenhagen, Denmark
by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he
Died 18 November 1962 (aged 77)
joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British
Copenhagen, Denmark
mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation
on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment of CERN and the Research Resting place Assistens Cemetery
Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission and became the first Alma mater University of Copenhagen
chairman of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957.
Known for Physics contributions [show]
Bohr magneton
Early life
Bohr model
Niels Henrik David Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the Bohr radius
second of three children of Christian Bohr,[1][2] a professor of physiology at the University Bohr–Einstein debates
of Copenhagen, and his wife Ellen née Adler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking Bohr–Kramers–Slater theory
family.[3] He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald.[1] Jenny became a
Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem
teacher,[2] while Harald became a mathematician and footballer who played for the
Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Niels was a passionate Bohr–Sommerfeld theory
footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Complementarity
Akademisk Boldklub (Academic Football Club), with Niels as goalkeeper.[4] Copenhagen interpretation
Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.[5]
In 1903, Spouse Margrethe Nørlund (m. 1912)
Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major was physics, Children 6; including Aage and Ernest
which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen, the university's only professor
of physics at that time. He also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Awards Nobel Prize in Physics (1922)
Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding, a friend of his more accolades [show]
father.[6][7] Hughes Medal (1921)
Matteucci Medal (1923)
In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by the Royal Danish Academy of
Sciences and Letters to investigate a method for measuring the surface tension of liquids Franklin Medal (1926)
that had been proposed by Lord Rayleigh in 1879. This involved measuring the frequency Foreign Member of the
of oscillation of the radius of a water jet. Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his Royal Society (1926)
father's laboratory in the university; the university itself had no physics laboratory. To
Max Planck Medal (1930)
complete his experiments, he had to make his own glassware, creating test tubes with the
required elliptical cross-sections. He went beyond the original task, incorporating Faraday Lectureship
improvements into both Rayleigh's theory and his method, by taking into account the Prize (1930)
viscosity of the water, and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal Copley Medal (1938)
Order of the Elephant (1947)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr 1/15
ones. His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won Atoms for Peace
the prize. He later submitted an improved version of the Award (1957)
paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the
Sonning Prize (1957)
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[8][9][7][10]
Scientific career
Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn a
Fields Theoretical physics
master's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April
1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the Institutions University of Cambridge
electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, University of Copenhagen
Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's
Victoria University of
thesis into his much-larger Doctor of Philosophy thesis. He
surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model Manchester
postulated by Paul Drude and elaborated by Hendrik Thesis Studies on the Electron
Bohr as a young man Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to Theory of Metals (https://doi.
behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was org/10.1016/S1876-0503(08)
still unable to account for phenomena like the Hall effect, and 70015-X) (1911)
concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals.
The thesis was accepted in April 1911,[11] and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 Doctoral Christian Christiansen
May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.[12] Bohr's thesis was advisor
groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Other academic J. J. Thomson
Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicist advisors Ernest Rutherford
Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen would independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis
that is today known as the Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem.[13] Doctoral Hendrik Kramers
students I. H. Usmani
In 1910, Bohr met Margrethe Nørlund, the sister of the mathematician Niels Erik
Other notable Lev Landau
Nørlund.[14] Bohr resigned his membership in the Church of Denmark on 16 April 1912,
students
and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall in Slagelse on 1
August. Years later, his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married.[15] Signature
Bohr and Margrethe had six sons.[16] The oldest, Christian, died in a boating accident in
1934,[17] and another, Harald, was severely mentally disabled. He was placed in an
institution away from his family's home at the age of four and died from childhood
meningitis six years later.[18][16] Aage Bohr became a successful physicist, and in 1975 was awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics, like his father. A son of Aage, Vilhem A. Bohr, is a scientist affiliated with the
University of Copenhagen[19] and the National Institute on Aging of the USA.[20] Hans became a physician;
Erik, a chemical engineer; and Ernest, a lawyer.[21] Like his uncle Harald, Ernest Bohr became an Olympic
athlete, playing field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London.[22]
Physics
Bohr model
In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from the Carlsberg Foundation, travelled to England,
Bohr and Margrethe
where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done.[23] He met J. J.
Nørlund on their
Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory and Trinity College, Cambridge. He attended lectures on engagement in 1910
electromagnetism given by James Jeans and Joseph Larmor, and did some research on cathode rays, but
failed to impress Thomson.[24][25] He had more success with younger physicists like the Australian William
Lawrence Bragg,[26] and New Zealand's Ernest Rutherford, whose 1911 small central nucleus Rutherford model of the atom had
challenged Thomson's 1904 plum pudding model.[27] Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post-doctoral work at
Victoria University of Manchester,[28] where Bohr met George de Hevesy and Charles Galton Darwin (whom Bohr referred to as "the
grandson of the real Darwin").[29]
Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return,
he became a privatdocent at the University of Copenhagen, giving lectures on thermodynamics. Martin Knudsen put Bohr's name
forward for a docent, which was approved in July 1913, and Bohr then began teaching medical students.[30] His three papers, which
later became famous as "the trilogy",[28] were published in Philosophical Magazine in July, September and November of that
year.[31][32][33][34] He adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to Max Planck's quantum theory and so created his Bohr model of the
atom.[32]
Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.[35] Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the
interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,[36][37] he advanced the theory of electrons travelling in orbits of
quantized "stationary states" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilize the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed
that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its
atoms.[38][39][40][41] He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process
emitting a quantum of discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as the old quantum theory.[42]
In 1885, Johann Balmer had come up with his Balmer series to describe the visible spectral lines of a
hydrogen atom:
where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light and RH is the Rydberg constant.[43]
Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years,
no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from
his model:
The Bohr model of the hydrogen
atom. A negatively charged electron,
confined to an atomic orbital, orbits
a small, positively charged nucleus;
where me is the electron's mass, e is its charge, h is Planck's constant and Z is the atom's atomic a quantum jump between orbits is
number (1 for hydrogen).[44] accompanied by an emitted or
absorbed amount of
The model's first hurdle was the Pickering series, lines which did not fit Balmer's formula. When electromagnetic radiation.
challenged on this by Alfred Fowler, Bohr replied that they were caused by ionised helium, helium
atoms with only one electron. The Bohr model was found to work for such ions.[44] Many older
physicists, like Thomson, Rayleigh and Hendrik Lorentz, did not like the trilogy, but the younger
generation, including Rutherford, David Hilbert, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Max Born and
Arnold Sommerfeld saw it as a breakthrough.[45][46] The trilogy's acceptance was entirely due to its
ability to explain phenomena which stymied other models, and to predict results that were The evolution of atomic models in
subsequently verified by experiments.[47][48] Today, the Bohr model of the atom has been the 20th century: Thomson,
superseded, but is still the best known model of the atom, as it often appears in high school physics Rutherford, Bohr,
and chemistry texts.[49] Heisenberg/Schrödinger
Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He decided to return to Manchester, where
Rutherford had offered him a job as a reader in place of Darwin, whose tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave of absence
from the University of Copenhagen, which he started by taking a holiday in Tyrol with his brother Harald and aunt Hanna Adler. There,
he visited the University of Göttingen and the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conducted
seminars on the trilogy. The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and
Bohr's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October 1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he
had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, a position created especially for him. His
docentship was abolished at the same time, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New professors were formally
introduced to King Christian X, who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player.[50]
Institute of Physics
In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government
and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish.
Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, it opened on March 3, 1921,
with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.[51][52] Bohr's institute served as a focal point for
researchers into quantum mechanics and related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical
physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals included Hans Kramers from the Netherlands, Oskar Klein from Sweden,
George de Hevesy from Hungary, Wojciech Rubinowicz from Poland, and Svein Rosseland from Norway. Bohr became widely
appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.[53][54] Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even
before it opened.[52]
The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium which impressed
Einstein[55][56] but could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from
the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developed heuristics to describe them. The rare-earth
elements posed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically
similar. An important development came in 1924 with Wolfgang Pauli's discovery of the Pauli
exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to
declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with
chemical properties similar to those of zirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered
The Niels Bohr Institute, part of the since 1871 by chemical properties[57]), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemist
University of Copenhagen Georges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called "celtium."
At the Institute in Copenhagen, Dirk Coster and George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving
Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown
element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a
zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they named hafnium (hafnia being the Latin name for Copenhagen),
turned out to be more common than gold.[58][59]
In 1922, Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation
emanating from them."[60] The award thus recognized both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum
mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about the structure of the
atom, including the correspondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behavior of systems described by quantum
theory reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers.[61]
The discovery of Compton scattering by Arthur Holly Compton in 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed of photons
and that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers, and John C.
Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen, proposed the Bohr–Kramers–Slater theory (BKS). It was more of
a program than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. The BKS theory became the final
attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which
quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field.[62][63]
Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using "virtual oscillators" at the absorption and emission
frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born, Werner Heisenberg and Kramers to
explore different mathematical models. They led to the development of matrix mechanics, the first form of modern quantum mechanics.
The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.[64] The
most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only
statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted by Walther Bothe and Hans Geiger.[65] In light of these
results, Bohr informed Darwin that "there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as
possible".[66]
Quantum mechanics
The introduction of spin by George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit in November 1925 was a milestone. The next month, Bohr
travelled to Leiden to attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped in
Hamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli and Otto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had
concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden, Paul Ehrenfest and Albert Einstein
informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem using relativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into
their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan in Göttingen on the way back, he had become, in his own words,
"a prophet of the electron magnet gospel".[67]
Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June

1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum
mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised
that they could best be expressed using matrices. This work attracted the attention
of the British physicist Paul Dirac,[68] who came to Copenhagen for six months in
September 1926. Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger also visited in 1926. His
attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics
impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed "so much to mathematical clarity and
simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum
mechanics".[69] 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, October 1927.
Bohr is on the right in the middle row, next to Max Born.
When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of
theoretical physics at the Utrecht University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to
return and take Kramers's place as a lektor at the University of Copenhagen.[70] Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university
lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927.[71]
Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis
that matter (like electrons) also behaved like waves.[72] He conceived the philosophical principle of complementarity: that items could
have apparently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental
framework.[73] He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers.[74]
In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of the uncertainty principle, presenting it using a thought experiment where an
electron was observed through a gamma-ray microscope. Bohr was dissatisfied with Heisenberg's argument, since it required only that a
measurement disturb properties that already existed, rather than the more radical idea that the electron's properties could not be
discussed at all apart from the context they were measured in. In a paper presented at the Volta Conference at Como in September 1927,
Bohr emphasized that Heisenberg's uncertainty relations could be derived from classical considerations about the resolving power of
optical instruments.[75] Understanding the true meaning of complementarity would, Bohr believed, require "closer investigation".[76]
Einstein preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed.
Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein
and Bohr had good-natured arguments over such issues throughout their lives.[77]
In 1914 Carl Jacobsen, the heir to Carlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as
Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as
an honorary residence (Danish: Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal
Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.[78] He was elected president of
the Academy on 17 March 1939.[79]
By 1929 the phenomenon of beta decay prompted Bohr to again suggest that the law of conservation of energy be abandoned, but Enrico
Fermi's hypothetical neutrino and the subsequent 1932 discovery of the neutron provided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to
create a new theory of the compound nucleus in 1936, which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus. In this model,
the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator, the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who
died suddenly in 1938.[80][81]
The discovery of nuclear fission by Otto Hahn in December 1938 (and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner) generated intense
interest among physicists. Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical
Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.[82] When Bohr told George Placzek that this resolved all the mysteries of transuranic elements,
Placzek told him that one remained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for
a few minutes and then announced to Placzek, Léon Rosenfeld and John Wheeler that "I have understood everything."[83] Based on his
liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr concluded that it was the uranium-235 isotope and not the more abundant uranium-238 that
was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons. In April 1940, John R. Dunning demonstrated that Bohr was correct.[82] In
the meantime, Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment which they published in a September 1939 paper on "The
Mechanism of Nuclear Fission".[84]
Philosophy
Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was "primarily a philosopher, not a physicist".[85] Bohr read the 19th-century Danish Christian
existentialist philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. Richard Rhodes argued in The Making of the Atomic Bomb that Bohr was influenced by
Kierkegaard through Høffding.[86] In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard's Stages on Life's Way as a birthday gift. In the enclosed
letter, Bohr wrote, "It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I
even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read." Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but
mentioned that he had some disagreement with Kierkegaard's philosophy.[87] Some of Bohr's biographers suggested that this
disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard's advocacy of Christianity, while Bohr was an atheist.[88][89][90]
There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science. David Favrholdt argued
that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,[91]
while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure.[92][87]
Quantum physics
There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of
quantum mechanics.[93] Regarding his ontological interpretation of the quantum world, Bohr has
been seen as an anti-realist, an instrumentalist, a phenomenological realist or some other kind of
realist. Furthermore, though some have seen Bohr as being a subjectivist or a positivist, most
philosophers agree that this is a misunderstanding of Bohr as he never argued for verificationism or
for the idea that the subject had a direct impact on the outcome of a measurement.[94]
Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is "no quantum world" but only an "abstract quantum
physical description". This was not said by Bohr, but rather by Aage Petersen attempting to
summarize Bohr's philosophy in a reminiscence after his death. N. David Mermin recalled Victor Bohr (left) and Albert Einstein (right),
Weisskopf declaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, "Shame on pictured on 11 December 1925, had
Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!"[95] a long-running debate about the
metaphysical implication of quantum
Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy of Immanuel Kant had a strong influence on physics.
Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an
important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and
spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.[94] Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of
"classical" concepts like "space", "position", "time," "causation", and "momentum" that one can talk about objects and their objective
existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like "time" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are
merely a refinement of them.[94] Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the
quantum world. Bohr writes:
[T]he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we
refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account
of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with
suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39).[94]
According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum
phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e. logical positivism); Kantianism (or Neo-Kantian models of
epistemology); Pragmatism (which focus on how human beings experientially interact with atomic systems according to their needs and
interests); Darwinianism (i.e. we are adapted to use classical type concepts, which Léon Rosenfeld said that we evolved to use); and
Experimentalism (which focuses strictly on the function and outcome of experiments which thus must be described classically).[94]
These explanations are not mutually exclusive, and at times Bohr seems to emphasize some of these aspects while at other times he
focuses on other elements.[94]
According to Faye "Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions." However, according to Faye,
he did not believe "that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a
symbolic representation of the quantum world."[94] Therefore, Bohr's theory of complementarity "is first and foremost a semantic and
epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications."[94] As Faye explains, Bohr's indefinability
thesis is that
[T]he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the
apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as
the actual outcome of the experiment.[94]
Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a "collapse of the wave function during measurements" (and indeed, he
never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr "accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that the ψ-function has only
a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real." Since for Bohr, the ψ-function is not a literal pictorial representation of
reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction.[94]
A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than
what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and a transcendental
reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing
we could say about the quantum world and that "there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute
intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects [...] in addition to the classical ones being manifested in
measurement."[94]
Second World War
Assistance to refugee scholars
The rise of Nazism in Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were
political opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1933, the Rockefeller Foundation created a fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr
discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation, Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit to the United
States. Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the institute, provided them with financial support, arranged for them to be awarded
fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world. Those that he helped
included Guido Beck, Felix Bloch, James Franck, George de Hevesy, Otto Frisch, Hilde Levi, Lise Meitner, George Placzek, Eugene
Rabinowitch, Stefan Rozental, Erich Ernst Schneider, Edward Teller, Arthur von Hippel and Victor Weisskopf.[96]
In April 1940, early in the Second World War, Nazi Germany invaded and occupied Denmark.[97] To prevent the Germans from
discovering Max von Laue's and James Franck's gold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them in aqua regia. In this form, they
were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel
Foundation. Bohr's own medal had been donated to an auction to the Finnish Relief Fund, and was auctioned off in March 1940, along
with the medal of August Krogh. The buyer later donated the two medals to the Danish Historical Museum in Frederiksborg Castle,
where they are still kept.[98]
Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed.[99]
Meeting with Heisenberg
Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct an atomic bomb, referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark
shortly before and after the war started, but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium-
235.[100] In September 1941, Heisenberg, who had become head of the German nuclear energy project, visited Bohr in Copenhagen.
During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside, the content of which has caused much speculation, as both gave
differing accounts. According to Heisenberg, he began to address nuclear energy, morality and the war, to which Bohr seems to have
reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions.[101] Ivan Supek, one of
Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main subject of the meeting was Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who had proposed
trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany.[102]
In 1957, Heisenberg wrote to Robert Jungk, who was then working on the book Brighter than a
Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. Heisenberg explained that he had
visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists, that production
of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts, and this raised enormous responsibilities on the
world's scientists on both sides.[103] When Bohr saw Jungk's depiction in the Danish translation of
the book, he drafted (but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he never understood the
purpose of Heisenberg's visit, was shocked by Heisenberg's opinion that Germany would win the
war, and that atomic weapons could be decisive.[104]
Michael Frayn's 1998 play Copenhagen explores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting
Werner Heisenberg (left) with Bohr
between Heisenberg and Bohr.[105] A television film version of the play by the BBC was first screened at the Copenhagen Conference in
on 26 September 2002, with Stephen Rea as Bohr. The same meeting had previously been 1934
dramatised by the BBC's Horizon science documentary series in 1992, with Anthony Bate as Bohr,
and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg.[106] The meeting is also dramatized in the
Norwegian/Danish/British miniseries The Heavy Water War.[107]
Manhattan Project
In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazis considered their family to be Jewish, since their mother
was Jewish, and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to
Sweden on 29 September.[108][109] The next day, Bohr persuaded King Gustaf V of Sweden to make public Sweden's willingness to
provide asylum to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and the mass
rescue of the Danish Jews by their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the
mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a decisive influence on the
wider events.[109][110][111][112] Eventually, over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden.[113]
When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain, Lord Cherwell sent a telegram to Bohr asking him
to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a de Havilland Mosquito operated by
the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC).[114][115] The Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed
bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers.
By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid
German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour
flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft's bomb bay.[116] During the flight, Bohr did not wear his
flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently did not hear the pilot's intercom instruction to
turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway. He passed
out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the
Bohr with James Franck, Albert North Sea.[117][118][119] Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later,
Einstein and Isidor Isaac Rabi (LR) and became his personal assistant.[120]
Bohr was warmly received by James Chadwick and Sir John Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr
was kept out of sight. He was given an apartment at St James's Palace and an office with the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons
development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made.[120][121] Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the
United States as a Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.[122] On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived in Washington, D.C., where
he met with the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr. He visited Einstein and Pauli at the Institute
for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, and went to Los Alamos in New Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being
designed.[123] For security reasons, he went under the name of "Nicholas Baker" in the United States, while Aage became "James
Baker".[124] In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaper De frie Danske reported that they had learned that 'the famous son of
Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to London and from there travelled to
Moscow from where he could be assumed to support the war effort.[125]
Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years. Robert Oppenheimer
credited Bohr with acting "as a scientific father figure to the younger men", most notably Richard Feynman.[126] Bohr is quoted as
saying, "They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb."[127] Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the
work on modulated neutron initiators. "This device remained a stubborn puzzle," Oppenheimer noted, "but in early February 1945 Niels
Bohr clarified what had to be done."[126]
Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter from Peter Kapitza,
written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden, inviting him to come to the Soviet Union. The letter convinced Bohr that the
Soviets were aware of the Anglo-American project, and would strive to catch up. He sent Kapitza a non-committal response, which he
showed to the authorities in Britain before posting.[128] Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944, but found that "we did not speak the same
language".[129] Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: "It seems to me
Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes."[130]
Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt to convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared
with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, informed President
Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to
the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.[131][132]
When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they
rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and the aide-mémoire of their conversation contained a rider that "enquiries
should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information,
particularly to the Russians".[133]
In June 1950, Bohr addressed an "Open Letter" to the United Nations calling for international cooperation on nuclear
energy.[134][135][136] In the 1950s, after the Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, the International Atomic Energy Agency was created
along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.[137] In 1957 he received the first ever Atoms for Peace Award.[138]
Later years
Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-
elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.[140] At a
memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for King Christian X, who had died in April,
the new king, Frederik IX, announced that he was conferring the Order of the Elephant on Bohr.
This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state, but the king said that it
honoured not just Bohr personally, but Danish science.[141][142] Bohr designed his own coat of
arms which featured a taijitu (symbol of yin and yang) and a motto in Latin: contraria sunt
complementa, "opposites are complementary".[143][142][144]
The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required
considerable financial and material resources. To avoid a brain drain to the United States, twelve
European countries banded together to create CERN, a research organisation along the lines of
the national laboratories in the United States, designed to undertake Big Science projects beyond
the resources of any one of them alone. Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the
facilities. Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site. Pierre
Auger, who organised the preliminary discussions, disagreed; he felt that both Bohr and his
Institute were past their prime, and that Bohr's presence would overshadow others. After a long
debate, Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952, and Geneva was chosen as the site in
October. The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in
Geneva was ready in 1957.[145] Victor Weisskopf, who later became the Director General of CERN, Bohr's coat of arms, 1947. Argent, a
summed up Bohr's role, saying that "there were other personalities who started and conceived the taijitu (yin-yang symbol) Gules and
Sable. Motto: Contraria sunt
idea of CERN. The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough,
complementa ("opposites are
however, if a man of his stature had not supported it."[146][147]
complementary").[139]
Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957,
with Bohr as its chairman. He was also involved with the founding of the Research Establishment
Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and served as its first chairman from February 1956.[148]
Bohr died of heart failure at his home in Carlsberg on 18 November 1962.[149] He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family
plot in the Assistens Cemetery in the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son
Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.[150] On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the
Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many
years: the Niels Bohr Institute.[151][152]
Accolades
Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received the Hughes Medal in 1921, the Matteucci
Medal in 1923, the Franklin Medal in 1926,[153] the Copley Medal in 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award
in 1957 and the Sonning Prize in 1961. He became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1923,[154]
an international member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1925,[155] a member of the Royal Society in 1926,[156] an
international member of the American Philosophical Society in 1940,[157] and an international honorary member of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1945.[158] The Bohr model's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963
with a postage stamp depicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels:
. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr.[159] In 1997, the Danish National Bank began
circulating the 500-krone banknote with the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.[160][161] On 7 October 2012, in celebration of Niels Bohr's
127th birthday, a Google Doodle depicting the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom appeared on Google's home page.[162] An asteroid,
3948 Bohr, was named after him,[163] as was the Bohr lunar crater and bohrium, the chemical element with atomic number 107.[164]
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Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
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Further reading
Aaserud, Finn (February 2002). "Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
21021120546/http://www.nba.nbi.dk/papers/introduction.htm). Niels Bohr Archive. Archived from the original (http://nba.nbi.dk/paper
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Blaedel, Niels (1988). Harmony and Unity: The Life of Niels Bohr. Madison, Wisconsin: Science Tech. ISBN 978-0-910239-14-1.
OCLC 17411890 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17411890).
Feilden, Tom (3 February 2010). "The Gunfighter's Dilemma" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_8493000/8493203.stm).
news.bbc.co.uk. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120721015432/http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_8493000/849
3203.stm) from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2013. Bohr's researches on reaction times.
Moore, Ruth (1966). Niels Bohr: The Man, His Science, and the World They Changed (https://archive.org/details/nielsbohrmanhis00
moor). New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-262-63101-3. OCLC 712016 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/712016).
Ottaviani, Jim; Purvis, Leland (2004). Suspended in Language: Niels Bohr's Life, Discoveries, and the Century He Shaped. Ann
Arbor, Michigan: G.T. Labs. ISBN 978-0-9660106-5-7. OCLC 55739245 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55739245).
Frayn, Michael (2000). Copenhagen. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-413-72490-8. OCLC 44467534 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/44467534).
Segrè, Gino (2007). Faust in Copenhagen: A Struggle for the Soul of Physics (https://archive.org/details/faustincopenhage00segr).
New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03858-9. OCLC 76416691 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76416691).
Vilhjálmsson, Vilhjálmur Örn; Blüdnikow, Bent (2006). "Rescue, Expulsion, and Collaboration: Denmark's Difficulties with its World
War II Past" (http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-vilhjalmsson-f06.htm). Jewish Political Studies Review. 18: 3–4. ISSN 0792-335X (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0792-335X). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130408004115/http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-vilhjal
msson-f06.htm) from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
External links
Niels Bohr Archive (http://www.nbarchive.dk/)
Author profile (https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:bohr.niels) in the database zbMATH
Works by Niels Bohr (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/44167) at Project Gutenberg
Niels Bohr (https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1106823/) at IMDb
Newspaper clippings about Niels Bohr (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/002096) in the 20th Century Press Archives of the
ZBW
Niels Bohr (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/27) on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1922 The Structure
of the Atom
Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 31 October 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives (http
s://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4517-1) – interviews conducted by Thomas S. Kuhn, Leon
Rosenfeld, Erik Rudinger, and Aage Petersen
Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 1 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives (htt
ps://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4517-2)
Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 7 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives (htt
ps://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4517-3)
Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 14 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives (ht
tps://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4517-4)
Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 17 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives (ht
tps://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4517-5)
"The Bohr-Heisenberg meeting in September 1941" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110704121809/http://www.aip.org/history/heisen
berg/bohr-heisenberg-meeting.htm). American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original (http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/
bohr-heisenberg-meeting.htm) on 4 July 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
"Resources for Frayn's Copenhagen: Niels Bohr" (http://web.mit.edu/redingtn/www/netadv/FCintro.html). Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
"Video – Niels Bohr (1962): Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge" (http://www.mediatheque.lindau-nobel.org/videos/31564/atomic
-physics-and-human-knowledge-1962/laureate-bohr). Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings. Retrieved 9 July 2014.
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10/02/2024, 10:57 Niels Bohr - Wikipedia

Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June

Second World War

Assistance to refugee scholars

Meeting with Heisenberg

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