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Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish: [nels bo]; 7 October 1885 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist
who made foundational contributions to understanding
atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also
a philosopher and a promoter of scientic research.[1]
a wealthy Danish Jewish family prominent in banking and parliamentary circles.[4] He had an elder sister,
Jenny, and a younger brother Harald.[2] Jenny became
a teacher,[3] while Harald became a mathematician and
Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national
team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Niels
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothhe proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete ers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based
[5]
and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the Akademisk Boldklub, with Niels as goalkeeper.
atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or
orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain
valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity:
that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream
of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated
Bohrs thinking in both science and philosophy.
Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the
University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr
Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar
Klein, George de Hevesy and Werner Heisenberg. He
predicted the existence of a new zirconium-like element,
which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for
Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the element
bohrium was named after him.
During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism.
After Denmark was occupied by the Germans, he had
a famous meeting with Heisenberg, who had become the
head of the German nuclear energy project. In September
1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested
by the Germans, and he ed to Sweden. From there, he
was own to Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British
mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr
called for international cooperation on nuclear energy.
He was involved with the establishment of CERN and the
Research Establishment Ris of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and became the rst chairman of the
Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957.
Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.[6] In 1903, Bohr enrolled as
an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major
was physics, which he studied under Professor Christian
Christiansen, the universitys only professor of physics at
that time. He also studied astronomy and mathematics
under Professor Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under
Professor Harald Hding, a friend of his father.[7][8]
PHYSICS
his experiments, he had to make his own glassware, creating test tubes with the required elliptical cross-sections.
He went beyond the original task, incorporating improvements into both Rayleighs theory and his method, by taking into account the viscosity of the water, and by working
with nite amplitudes instead of just innitesimal ones.
His essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won
the prize. He later submitted an improved version of
the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[9][10][8][11]
Harald became the rst of the two Bohr brothers to earn
a masters degree, which he earned for mathematics in
April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his.
Students had to submit a thesis on a subject assigned
by their supervisor. Bohrs supervisor was Christiansen,
and the topic he chose was the electron theory of metals. Bohr subsequently elaborated his masters thesis into
his much-larger Doctor of Philosophy (dr. phil.) thesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling
on a model postulated by Paul Drude and elaborated by
Hendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are
considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentzs
model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like
the Hall eect, and concluded that electron theory could
not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The
thesis was accepted in April 1911, and Bohr conducted
his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his
doctorate the previous year.[12] Bohrs thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia
because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicist
Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen would independently derive a theorem from Bohrs thesis that is today known as
the Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem.[13]
2.2
Institute of Physics
September and November of that year.[28][29][30][31] He but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked.
adapted Rutherfords nuclear structure to Max Planck's In the rst paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it
quantum theory and so created his Bohr model of the from his model:
atom.[29]
Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohrs treatment was.[32] Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the
role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with
a nucleus as his starting point,[33][34] he advanced the theory of electrons travelling in orbits around the atoms nucleus, with the chemical properties of each element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the
outer orbits of its atoms.[35] He introduced the idea that
an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a
lower one, in the process emitting a quantum of discrete
energy. This became a basis for what is now known as
the old quantum theory.[36]
RZ =
2 2 me Z 2 e4
h3
Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as a reader in place of Darwin, whose
tenure had expired. Bohr accepted. He took a leave
of absence from the University of Copenhagen, which
he started by taking a holiday in Tyrol with his brother
The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. A negatively charged Harald and aunt Hanna Adler. There, he visited the
electron, conned to an atomic orbital, orbits a small, positively University of Gttingen and the Ludwig Maximilian Unicharged nucleus; a quantum jump between orbits is accompanied versity of Munich, where he met Sommerfeld and conby an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic radiation. ducted seminars on the trilogy. The First World War
broke out while they were in Tyrol, greatly complicating
the trip back to Denmark and Bohrs subsequent voyage
with Margrethe to England, where he arrived in October
1914. They stayed until July 1916, by which time he had
been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the
University of Copenhagen, a position created especially
for him. His docentship was abolished at the same time,
The evolution of atomic models in the 20th century: Thomson, so he still had to teach physics to medical students. New
professors were formally introduced to King Christian X,
Rutherford, Bohr, Heisenberg/Schrdinger
who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous foot[43]
In 1885, Johann Balmer had come up with his Balmer ball player.
series to describe the visible spectral lines of a hydrogen
atoms:
P(1s)
P(2s)
P(3s)
1
1
2
22
n
for n = 3, 4, 5, ...
4
known as the Niels Bohr Institute, it opened its doors on 3
March 1921 with Bohr as its director. His family moved
into an apartment on the rst oor.[44][45] Bohrs institute
served as a focal point for researchers into quantum mechanics and related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when
most of the worlds best known theoretical physicists
spent some time in his company. Early arrivals included
Hans Kramers from the Netherlands, Oskar Klein from
Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary, Wojciech Rubinowicz from Poland and Svein Rosseland from Norway.
Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host
and eminent colleague.[46][47] Klein and Rosseland produced the Institutes rst paper even before it opened.[45]
PHYSICS
hensive survey of what was then known about the structure of the atom, including the correspondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers.[51]
The discovery of Compton scattering by Arthur Holly
Compton in 1923 convinced most physicists that light
was composed of photons, and that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons
and photons. In 1924, Bohr, Kramers and John C.
Slater, an American physicist working at the Institute in
Copenhagen, proposed the BohrKramersSlater theory
(BKS). It was more a programme than a full physical theory, as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively. BKS theory became the nal attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory, in which
quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum
restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic eld.[52][53]
Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using virtual oscillators at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (dierent) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max
Born, Werner Heisenberg and Kramers to explore dierent mathematical models. They led to the development
of matrix mechanics, the rst form of modern quantum
mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of,
and renewed attention to, diculties in the foundations of
the old quantum theory.[54] The most provocative element
of BKS that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically
was soon shown to be in conict with experiments conducted by Walther Bothe and Hans Geiger.[55] In the light
of these results, Bohr informed Darwin, there is nothing
else to do than to give our revolutionary eorts as honourable a funeral as possible.[56]
5
in September 1927, he demonstrated that the uncertainty principle could be derived from classical arguments, without quantum terminology or matrices.[65] Einstein preferred the determinism of classical physics over
the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed. Philosophical issues that arose from
the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely
celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr had
good-natured arguments over such issues throughout their
lives.[66]
In 1914, Carl Jacobsen, the heir to Carlsberg breweries,
bequeathed his mansion to be used for life by the Dane
who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish: resbolig). Harald Hding had been the rst occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish
Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy.
He and his family moved there in 1932.[67] He was elected
president of the Academy on 17 March 1939.[68]
By 1929, the phenomenon of beta decay prompted Bohr
1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, October 1927.
to again suggest that the law of conservation of energy
Bohr is on the right in the middle row, next to Max Born.
be abandoned, but Enrico Fermi's hypothetical neutrino
and the subsequent 1932 discovery of the neutron proHeisenberg rst came to Copenhagen in 1924, then re- vided another explanation. This prompted Bohr to create
turned to Gttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter de- a new theory of the compound nucleus in 1936, which exveloping the mathematical foundations of quantum me- plained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus.
chanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Gt- In this model, the nucleus could be deformed like a drop
tingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed of liquid. He worked on this with a new collaborator,
using matrices. This work attracted the attention of the the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar, who died suddenly in
British physicist Paul Dirac,[58] who came to Copenhagen 1938.[69][70]
for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicist
The discovery of nuclear ssion by Otto Hahn in DeErwin Schrdinger also visited in 1926. His attempt at
cember 1938 (and its theoretical explanation by Lise
explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave
Meitner) generated intense interest among physicists.
mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed
Bohr brought the news to the United States where he
so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it
opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical
represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of
Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939.[71] When Bohr
quantum mechanics.[59]
told George Placzek that this resolved all the mysteries
When Kramers left the Institute in 1926 to take up a of transuranic elements, Placzek told him that one rechair as professor of theoretical physics at the Utrecht mained: the neutron capture energies of uranium did not
University, Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and match those of its decay. Bohr thought about it for a few
take Kramerss place as a lektor at the University of minutes and then announced to Placzek, Lon Rosenfeld
Copenhagen.[60] Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a and John Wheeler that I have understood everything.[72]
university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to Based on his liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr con1927,[61]
cluded that it was the uranium-235 isotope and not the
Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both more abundant uranium-238 that was primarily responsiwaves and particles, and in 1927, experiments conrmed ble for ssion. In April 1940, John R. Dunning demon[71]
the de Broglie hypothesis that matter (like electrons) also strated that Bohr was correct. In the meantime, Bohr
behaved like waves.[62] He conceived the philosophical and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment which
principle of complementarity: that items could have ap- they published in a September 1939 paper on The Mech[73]
parently mutually exclusive properties, such as being a anism of Nuclear Fission.
wave or a stream of particles, depending on the experimental framework.[63] He felt that that it was not fully
understood by professional philosophers.[64]
3 Philosophy
The rise of Nazism in Germany prompted many scholars to ee their countries, either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi
regime. In 1933, the Rockefeller Foundation created a
fund to help support refugee academics, and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation, Max Mason, in May 1933 during a visit
to the United States. Bohr oered the refugees temporary
jobs at the Institute, provided them with nancial support, arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from
the Rockefeller Foundation, and ultimately found them
places at institutions around the world. Those that he
helped included Guido Beck, Felix Bloch, James Franck,
George de Hevesy, Otto Frisch, Hilde Levi, Lise Meitner,
George Placzek, Eugene Rabinowitch, Stefan Rozental,
Erich Schneider, Edward Teller, Arthur von Hippel and
Victor Weisskopf.[81]
In April 1940, early in the Second World War, Nazi Germany invaded and occupied Denmark.[82] To prevent the
Germans from discovering Max von Laue's and James
Francks gold Nobel medals, Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve
them in aqua regia. In this form, they were stored on a
shelf at the Institute until after the war, when the gold
was precipitated and the medals re-struck by the Nobel Michael Frayn's 1998 play Copenhagen explores what
Foundation. Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the might have happened at the 1941 meeting between
Heisenberg and Bohr.[89] A BBC television lm version
foreign scholars departed.[83]
of the play was rst screened on 26 September 2002,
with Stephen Rea as Bohr, and Daniel Craig as Heisen4.1 Meeting with Heisenberg
berg. The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBCs Horizon science documentary series
Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 in 1992, with Anthony Bate as Bohr, and Philip Anthony
to construct an atomic bomb, referring to it in lectures as Heisenberg.[90]
4.2
4.2
Manhattan Project
Manhattan Project
7
Bohr was warmly received by James Chadwick and Sir
John Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept
out of sight. He was given an apartment at St Jamess
Palace and an oce with the British Tube Alloys nuclear
weapons development team. Bohr was astonished at the
amount of progress that had been made.[101][102] Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a
Tube Alloys consultant, with Aage as his assistant.[103]
On 8 December 1943, Bohr arrived in Washington,
D.C., where he met with the director of the Manhattan
Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. He visited Einstein and Pauli at the Institute for Advanced Study
in Princeton, New Jersey, and went to Los Alamos in
New Mexico, where the nuclear weapons were being
designed.[104] For security reasons, he went under the
name of Nicholas Baker in the United States, while
Aage became James Baker.[105] In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaper De frie Danske reported that
they had learned that 'the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr' in October the previous year had ed his
country via Sweden to London and from there travelled
to Moscow from where he could be assumed to support
the war eort.[106]
Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series
of extended visits over the course of the next two years.
Robert Oppenheimer credited Bohr with acting as a scientic father gure to the younger men, most notably
Richard Feynman.[107] Bohr is quoted as saying, They
didn't need my help in making the atom bomb.[108] Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution
to the work on modulated neutron initiators. This device
remained a stubborn puzzle, Oppenheimer noted, but in
early February 1945 Niels Bohr claried what had to be
done.[107]
Bohr with James Franck, Albert Einstein and Isidor Isaac Rabi
Later years
ACCOLADES
6 Accolades
See also: List of things named after Niels Bohr
Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received the Hughes Medal
in 1921, the Matteucci Medal in 1923,[129] the Franklin
Medal in 1926,[130] the Copley Medal in 1938, the Order of the Elephant in 1947, the Atoms for Peace Award
in 1957 and the Sonning Prize in 1961.[129] The Bohr
models semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark
9
on 21 November 1963 with a postage stamp depicting
Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the dierence of any two hydrogen energy levels: h = 2 1
. Several other countries have also issued postage stamps
depicting Bohr.[131] In 1997, the Danish National Bank
began circulating the 500-krone banknote with the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.[132][133] An asteroid, 3948
Bohr, was named after him,[134] as was a lunar crater
(Bohr (crater)),[129] and bohrium, the chemical element
with atomic number 107.[135]
Bibliography
Bohr, Niels (2008). Nielsen, J. Rud, ed. Volume
1: Early Work (19051911). Niels Bohr Collected
Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-44453286-2. OCLC 272382249.
(2008). Hoyer, Ulrich, ed. Volume 2: Work on
Atomic Physics (19121917). Niels Bohr Collected
Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-44453286-2. OCLC 272382249.
(2008). Nielsen, J. Rud, ed. Volume 3: The
Correspondence Principle (19181923). Niels Bohr
Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 9780-444-53286-2. OCLC 272382249.
(2008). Nielsen, J. Rud, ed. Volume 4: The
Periodic System (19201923). Niels Bohr Collected
Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-44453286-2. OCLC 272382249.
(2008). Stolzenburg, Klaus, ed. Volume
5: The Emergence of Quantum Mechanics (mainly
19241926). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-53286-2. OCLC
272382249.
(2008). Kalckar, Jrgen, ed. Volume 6:
Foundations of Quantum Physics I (19261932).
Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
ISBN 978-0-444-53286-2. OCLC 272382249.
(2008). Kalckar, Jrgen, ed. Volume 7:
Foundations of Quantum Physics I (19331958).
Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
ISBN 978-0-444-53286-2. OCLC 272382249.
(2008). Thorsen, Jens, ed. Volume 8:
The Penetration of Charged Particles Through Matter (19121954). Niels Bohr Collected Works.
Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-53286-2.
OCLC 272382249.
8 See also
9 Notes
[1] Cockcroft, J. D. (1963). "Niels Henrik David Bohr.
1885-1962. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society 9: 3653. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1963.0002.
[2] Politiets Registerblade [Register cards of the Police] (in
Danish). Copenhagen: Kbenhavns Stadsarkiv. 7 June
1892. Station Ddeblade (indeholder afdde i perioden).
Filmrulle 0002. Registerblad 3341. ID 3308989.
[3] Pais 1991, pp. 4445, 538539.
[4] Pais 1991, pp. 3539.
[5] There is no truth in the oft-repeated claim that Niels Bohr
emulated his brother, Harald, by playing for the Danish
national team. Dart, James (27 July 2005). Bohrs footballing career. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 26
June 2011.
[6] Niels Bohrs school years. Niels Bohr Institute. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
[7] Pais 1991, pp. 9899.
[8] Life as a Student. Niels Bohr Institute. Retrieved 14
February 2013.
[9] Rhodes 1986, pp. 6263.
[10] Pais 1991, pp. 101102.
[11] Aaserud & Heilbron 2013, p. 155.
[12] Pais 1991, pp. 107109.
(2008). Peierls, Rudolf, ed. Volume 9: Nu- [13] Kragh 2012, pp. 43-45.
clear Physics (19291952). Niels Bohr Collected [14] Pais 1991, p. 112.
Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-44453286-2. OCLC 272382249.
[15] Pais 1991, pp. 133134.
10
9 NOTES
[44] Aaserud, Finn. History of the institute: The establishment of an institute. Niels Bohr Institute. Archived from
the original on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 11 May 2008.
[45] Pais 1991, pp. 169171.
[46] Kennedy 1985, pp. 9, 12, 13, 15.
[47] Hund 1985, pp. 7173.
[48] Kragh 1985, pp. 6164.
[49] Pais 1991, pp. 202210.
[50] Pais 1991, p. 215.
[51] Bohr 1985, pp. 9197.
[52] Bohr, N.; Kramers, H.A.; Slater, J.C. (1924). The Quantum Theory of Radiation. Philosophical Magazine. 6 76
(287): 785802. doi:10.1080/14786442408565262. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
11
[78] Aaserud & Heilbron 2013, p. 110: Bohrs sort of hu- [98] Rife 1999, p. 242.
mor, use of parables and stories, tolerance, dependence on
family, feelings of indebtedness, obligation, and guilt, and [99] Medawar & Pyke 2001, p. 65.
his sense of responsibility for science, community, and,
[100] Jones 1978, pp. 474475.
ultimately, humankind in general, are common traits of
the Jewish intellectual. So too is a well-fortied atheism. [101] Jones 1985, pp. 280282.
Bohr ended with no religious belief and a dislike of all religions that claimed to base their teachings on revelations. [102] Pais 1991, p. 491.
[79] Favrholdt 1992, pp. 4263.
[86] Portal Jutarnji.hr (19 March 2006). Moj ivot s nobelovcima 20. stoljea [My Life with the 20th century
Nobel Prizewinners]. Jutarnji list (in Croatian). Retrieved
13 August 2007. Istinu sam saznao od Margrethe, Bohrove
supruge. ... Ni Heisenberg ni Bohr nisu bili glavni junaci toga susreta nego Carl Friedrich von Weizsaecker. ...
Von Weizsaeckerova ideja, za koju mislim da je bila zamisao njegova oca koji je bio Ribbentropov zamjenik, bila
je nagovoriti Nielsa Bohra da posreduje za mir izmeu Velike Britanije i Njemake. [I learned the truth from Margrethe, Bohrs wife. ... Neither Bohr nor Heisenberg were
the main characters of this encounter, but Carl Friedrich
von Weizsaecker. Von Weizsaeckers idea, which I think
was the brainchild of his father who was Ribbentrop's
deputy, was to persuade Niels Bohr to mediate for peace
between Great Britain and Germany.] An interview with
Ivan Supek relating to the 1941 Bohr Heisenberg meeting.
12
10
REFERENCES
Excerpted from: Bohr, Niels (1949). Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics. In Paul Arthur
Schilpp. Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist.
Evanston, Illinois: Library of Living Philosophers. pp. 208241.
Cockroft, John D. (1 November 1963). Niels Henrik David Bohr. 18851962. Biographical Memoirs of the Fellows of the Royal Society 9: 3653.
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1963.0002.
Favrholdt, David (1992). Niels Bohrs Philosophical Background. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. ISBN
978-87-7304-228-1.
[130] Niels Bohr - The Franklin Institute Awards - Laureate Database. Franklin Institute. Retrieved 21 October
2013.
Gowing, Margaret (1985). Niels Bohr and Nuclear Weapons. In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J.
Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 266277.
ISBN 978-0-674-62415-3.
10
References
Jones, R. V. (1985). Meetings in Wartime and After. In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J. Niels Bohr:
A Centenary Volume. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press. pp. 278287. ISBN 9780-674-62415-3.
Bohr, Niels (1985) [1949]. The Bohr-Einstein Dialogue. In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J. Niels Bohr:
A Centenary Volume. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press. pp. 121140. ISBN 9780-674-62415-3.
13
Kieler, Jrgen (2007). Resistance Fighter: A Personal History of the Danish Resistance. Translated
from the Danish by Eric Dickens. Jerusalem: Gefen
Publishing House. ISBN 978-965-229-397-8.
Kragh, Helge (1985). The Theory of the Periodic System. In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J.
Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 5067.
ISBN 978-0-674-62415-3.
Kragh, Helge (2012). Niels Bohr and the quantum
atom: the Bohr model of atomic structure, 1913
1925. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780-19-965498-7. OCLC 769989390.
Medawar, Jean; Pyke, David (2001). Hitlers Gift:
The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi
Regime. New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 155970-564-7.
MacKinnon, Edward (1985). Bohr on the Foundations of Quantum Theory. In French, A. P.;
Kennedy, P. J. Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 101120. ISBN 978-0-674-624153.
Pais, Abraham (1991). Niels Bohrs Times, In
Physics, Philosophy and Polity. Oxford: Clarendon
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852049-8.
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic
Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780-671-44133-3.
Richardson, W. Mark; Wildman, Wesley J., eds.
(1996). Religion and Science: History, Method, Dialogue. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780-415-91667-7.
Rife, Patricia (1999). Lise Meitner and the Dawn
of the Nuclear Age. Boston: Birkhuser. ISBN 08176-3732-X.
Rozental, Stefan (1967). Niels Bohr: His Life and
Work as Seen by his Friends and Colleagues. Amsterdam: North-Holland. ISBN 978-0-444-86977-7.
Previously published by John Wiley & Sons in 1964.
Stadtler, Bea; Morrison, David Beal; Martin, David
Stone (1995). The Holocaust: A History of
Courage and Resistance. West Orange, New Jersey:
Behrman House. ISBN 978-0-87441-578-0.
Stewart, Melville Y. (2010). Science and Religion in
Dialogue, Two Volume Set. Maiden, Massachusetts:
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-8921-7.
Stuewer, Roger H. (1985). Niels Bohr and Nuclear Physics. In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J.
Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 197220.
ISBN 978-0-674-62415-3.
Thirsk, Ian (2006). De Havilland Mosquito: An Illustrated History, Volume 2. Manchester: MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0-85979-115-7.
The Conferences at Quebec 1944. Foreign Relations
of the United States. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Oce. 1972. OCLC 631921397.
Wheeler, John A. (1985). Physics in Copenhagen
in 1934 and 1935. In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J.
Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 221226.
ISBN 978-0-674-62415-3.
The Coins and Banknotes of Denmark. Danmarks
Nationalbank. 2005. ISBN 978-87-87251-55-6.
Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2010.
11 Further reading
Aaserud, Finn (February 2002). Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting.
Niels Bohr Archive. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
Blaedel, Niels (1988). Harmony and Unity: The Life
of Niels Bohr. Madison, Wisconsin: Science Tech.
ISBN 0-910239-14-2. OCLC 17411890.
Feilden, Tom (3 February 2010). The Gunghters
Dilemma. news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2 March
2013. Bohrs researches on reaction times.
Moore, Ruth (1966). Niels Bohr: The Man, His
Science, and the World They Changed. New York:
Knopf. ISBN 0-262-63101-6. OCLC 712016.
Ottaviani, Jim; Purvis, Leland (2004). Suspended
In Language: Niels Bohrs Life, Discoveries, and the
Century He Shaped. Ann Arbor, Michigan: G.T.
Labs. ISBN 0-9660106-5-5. OCLC 55739245.
Frayn, Michael (2000). Copenhagen. New York:
Anchor Books. ISBN 0-413-72490-5. OCLC
44467534.
Segr, Gino (2007). Faust in Copenhagen: A Struggle for the Soul of Physics. New York: Viking. ISBN
0-670-03858-X. OCLC 76416691.
Vilhjlmsson, Vilhjlmur rn; Bldnikow, Bent
(2006). Rescue, Expulsion, and Collaboration:
Denmarks Diculties with its World War II Past.
Jewish Political Studies Review 18: 34. ISSN 0792335X. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
12 External links
Physics Tree: Niels Bohr Details
14
Niels Bohr Archive. Niels Bohr Archive. February 2002. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
The Bohr-Heisenberg meeting in September
1941. American Institute of Physics. Retrieved 2
March 2013.
Resources for Frayns Copenhagen: Niels Bohr.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 9
October 2013.
Oral History interview transcript with Niels Bohr
31 October 1962. American Institute of Physics.
Retrieved 2 March 2013.
Video - Niels Bohr (1962) : Atomic Physics and
Human Knowledge. Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings. Retrieved 9 July 2014.
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