Personal Identification Techniques

Important Terms:

FINGERPRINT (Dactylograms) - an impression, designed by the ridges on the inside of the end joint
of the fingers and thumb on any smooth surface through the media of ink, sweat or any reagents capable
of producing visibility.

Dactyloscopy (derived from the Latin words Dactyl = finger and Skopien – to study or examine) - the
science of fingerprint identification. It is the study of identification, interpretation, and classification of
fingerprint.

Dactylography - The scientific study and analysis of fingerprint as a means of identification.

- The manual comparison of fingerprint.

Dactylomancy- Is the study of fingerprint for the purposes of interpreting one’s personality.

Dermatoglyphics- the study of the lines, tracings, ridges of the skin of fingers, palms and hands.

Ridgeology- The study of the uniqueness of friction ridge structures and their use for personal
identification.”

Allied Science of Fingerprint:

Chiroscopy (from the Latin word Cheir- a hand and skopien- to examine) - The scientific examination
of the palm of the hand.

Pattern zone of Palmprint

1. Thenar zone- The base of the thumb

2. Hypothenar zone- The base of the little finger
3. Palmar zone- base of the four fingers
4. Carpal delta zone- near the wrist
Other term used in the study of Palm

1. Distal side- towards fingertips

2. Proximal side- towards the wrist
3. Radial side- towards the radius bone or thumb side
4. Ulnar side- towards the side of the ulna bone where little finger rests.

Like fingerprints, the three main categories of palm matching techniques are minutiae-based matching,
correlation-based matching and ridge-based matching.

1. Minutiae-based matching- the most widely used technique, relies on the minutiae points
described above, specifically the location, direction, and orientation of each point.
2. Correlation-based matching- involves simply lining up the palm images and subtracting them
to determine if the ridges in the two palm images correspond.
3. Ridge based matching – uses ridge pattern landmark features such as sweat pores, spatial
attributes, and geometric characteristics of the ridges, and/or local texture analysis, all of which
are alternates to minutiae characteristics extraction. This method is a faster method of matching

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 and overcomes some of the difficulties associated with extracting minutiae from poor quality
images.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Any palm print recognition process has the following major steps:

1. Image pre-processing;
2. Feature extraction and
3. Matching

Pre-processing: The first step in any biometric authentication system after capturing the image is pre-
processing. Pre-processing is used to align different palm print images and to segment the central parts for
feature extraction. Most of the pre-processing algorithms employ the key points between fingers to set up
a coordinate system.

Feature Extraction: Feature plays an important role in image identification and verification. The palm
print contains principal lines that can be used to represent features but these lines are not sufficient to
uniquely represent a person because the principal lines in some people are similar.

Matching the Palm prints: we need to extract some features first. The extracted features are then used
for matching. Some of the feature extraction and matching algorithms are line based, subspace based,
statistical and coding based approaches.

Podoscopy (from the Latin word Podo- the foot and skopien- to examine) - The scientific examination
of the soles of the feet.

Pattern Zone of Footprint

1. Ball pattern zone- base of the big toe

2. Plantar pattern zone- base of the four little toes
3. Calcar pattern zone- the area of heel
4. Tibial side (inner)- the big toe side (Tibial bone)
5. Fibular side (outer)- The little toe side (Fibular bone)
6. Thread area- does not form footprints

FOOTPRINT

The use of bare footprints has been considered for many years as a means of identification. Bare
footprints are a representative of the plantar portion of the foot, not the size of the actual foot.

Footprints from different sources are never identical. The variation in the shape, size, inter- distances of
toes, ball lines, heels creases, accidental damage to the feet etc. The information on foot print morphology
is especially significant because it elucidates the individuality of each person’s footprints.

Evidence that may be examined

Footwear and tire tracks can be deposited on almost any surface, from paper to the human body. Prints
are divided into three types: visible, plastic and latent.
Visible Print – is a transfer of material from the shoe or tire to the surface. This type can be seen by the
naked eye without additional aids. For example, bloody shoe prints left on flooring or tracks left by
muddy tires on a driveway.
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Plastic Print – is a three-dimensional impression left on a soft surface. This includes shoe or tire tracks
left in sand, mud or snow.

Latent – is one that is not readily visible to the naked eye. This type is created through static charges
between the sole or tread and the surface. Examiners or investigators use powders, chemicals or alternate
light sources to find these prints. Examples include shoeprints detected on a tile or hardwood floor,
window sill, or metal counter, or tire tracks detected on road surfaces, drive ways or sidewalks.

How samples are collected

Examiners use several methods for collecting footwear and tire track evidence depending on the type of
impression found. For impression on soil, snow or other soft surfaces, casting is the most commonly used
collection method. For imprints, examiners generally try to collect the entire object containing the
imprint, such as a whole sheet of paper or cardboard with a shoe print.

In the case of impression evidence, general photographs of the evidence location in relation to the rest of
the scene are taken, along with high-resolution images of the individual imprints or impressions.
Examiners may use alternate light sources or chemical enhancers to capture as much detail as possible,
especially with latent imprints.

Poroscopy (from the Latin word Poros- a pare and skopien- to examine)- scientific examination of the
sweat pores of the friction of the skin.

Other related terms:

Forensic - was derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means a market place, a place where people
gathered for public discussion.

Forensic Science - refers to the application of various sciences to law or administration of justice. It is the
application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system.

Fingerprint Expert – It refers to a person having special knowledge in the field of fingerprint science not
known to persons of moderate education and experience in the same field. That when presented and
qualified as a witness, he is adjudged by the court as such.

Criminalistics - is a profession or a field of forensic science that deals with recognition, collection,
preservation and examination of physical evidence for the administration of justice.

Anthropology – deals with the comparative study of human and animal prints.

Fingerprint Pattern – it is a definite design of ridges through their formation and relationship from each
other are divided into three general groups

Real Impresions – These are prints of the finger bulbs and through the use of fingerprint ink are
reproduced on the surface of a fingerprint card or paper.

Polydactylism – the appearance of extra fingers.

Fingerprinting – the process of recording fingerprints through the medium of fingerprint ink

Post Mortem Fingerprinting- recording fingerprints of the dead

Different Methods of Identification

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Tattooing - a mark with indelible design by inserting pigment into punctures in the skin.
- this method of identification was originated in Columbia.

Scarification- this is done through cutting some parts of the body to leave scars or marks, these scars or
marks when healed was used as a means of identification. This was originated in Africa.

Bertillon System- There is two methods of identification which was devised and discovered by Alphonse
Bertillon (Father of Personal Identification). These are:

a. Portrait parle - defined as a rigorous system for verbal description of physical characteristics of the
subject.

- Speaking likeness or based on personal description.

b. Anthropometry ( from Greek anthropos- means "human", and metron- means "measure") refers to
the measurement of the human individual

- identification based on the measurements of the various bony structure of the human body.

Photography- a method of identification which is based on the use of pictures or photographs

DNA-Deoxyribonucleic Acid

a. Blood Samples/Examination – now DNA, comparison of tissues and fibers to determine

cells/chromosomes.
b. Forensic Odontology – scientific study of human dentition for identification or the scientific study
of the structure and diseases of teeth denture comparison and identification
Odontology is the study of teeth.
Forensic dentistry (odontology) is a vital branch of forensic science that involves the application of
dental knowledge, primarily for the identification of human remains. The forensic dentist’s work
includes:

a. the comparison of remains with dental records the comparison with dental records
the evaluation of bite marks (animal or human) the comparison with suspect dentitions;

b. the aging of individuals by the dentition to determine chronological age both in the living and in
the deceased;

c. the evaluation of an individual’s dental/oral injuries to resolve civil (compensation, etc.) or

criminal matters (assault, etc.); and,

d. resolving dental malpractice or negligence issues.

What does a forensic odontologist do?

Odontologists combine the work of a dentist, a forensic scientist and a police investigator. While a
dentist specializes in treating teeth, including filling cavities and removing damaged teeth, while an
odontologist focuses on studying teeth, not treating them. Most odontologists work for local or state
governments as part of the medical examination team. They may travel to crime scenes or accident scenes
and occasionally work outdoors in different weather conditions.

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Here are some of the responsibilities of odontologists:

Evaluate the age of skeletal remains: A forensic odontologist can analyze a skeletal denture and
evaluate its age based on the status of the teeth in comparison with typical dental development.

Testify in court cases: Odontologists may testify in cases related to dental malpractice or other criminal
activity.

Identify bodies: On accident scenes, forensic odontologists attempt to identify victims' remains after
disasters. Their help is crucial when facial recognition or fingerprints is not possible. They recognize
evidence, such as tooth fragments, that may otherwise be overlooked by other medical professionals.

Visit crime scenes: Forensic odontologists assist criminal justice in finding suspects in various cases.
Part of finding suspects involves visiting crime scenes to find teeth and other clues.

Attend autopsies: A forensic odontologist might attend autopsies. During this process, tasks include
taking measurements, plastic molds, x-rays and photographs, and then comparing these to the dental
records of missing persons to identify remains.

Analyze bites: Odontologists can identify a bite pattern on the food they find on the crime scene, analyze
it and compare it to the one found on the victim's skin. They also examine bite marks to samples from
suspects and identify the assailant. Odontologists can interpret whether bite marks are offensive or
defensive.

Collect and analyze dental evidence: An odontologist collects dental evidence from different sources
and uses it to identify suspects or victims. They might extract saliva that can be used as evidence or to
provide DNA. Odontologists can also use bite impressions. These pieces of evidence can help to evaluate
the age of an individual and narrow a list of suspects.

Forensic odontologists base their analysis and conclusions on the way teeth wear down with time, how
teeth are arranged in the mouth and the imprints they leave. They also observe dentures, bridges, crowns,
braces and fillings to identify their owner.

Another important area of forensic dentistry is bitemark analysis. Bitemarks can occur during a variety
of human activity including assault, domestic violence, rape, elder abuse, self-defense, sports, accidents,
infanticide, or other homicide.

e. Hair Sampling – DNA examination and comparison of hair.

f. Fingerprint- identification of person through the use of fingerprint. It is considered as the most
positive means of identification.

g. Other methods of Identification:

Gait - the manner or style of walking.

Gait Analysis

- An analysis of each component of the three phases of ambulation is an essential part of the
diagnosis of various neurologic disorders and the assessment of patient progress during
rehabilitation and recovery from the effects of a neurologic disease, a musculoskeletal injury or
disease process, or amputation of a lower limb.

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Gait speed
Analyze gait for purposes of identification

The gait cycle is a repetitive pattern involving steps and strides.

A step is one single step

A stride is a whole gait cycle.
Step time - time between heel strike of one leg and heel strike of the contra-lateral leg.
Step width - the mediolateral space between the two feet.

The demarcation between walking and running occurs when

- periods of double support during the stance phase of the gait cycle (both feet are simultaneously
in contact with the ground) give way to two periods of double float at the beginning and the end
of the swing phase of gait (neither foot is touching the ground)

- The sequences for walking that occur may be summarized as follows: Registration and activation
of the gait command within the
central nervous system.

- Transmission of the gait systems to the peripheral nervous system.

- Contraction of muscles

- Generation of several forces.

- Regulation of joint forces and moments across synovial joints and skeletal segments.

- Generation of ground reaction forces.

The normal forward step consists of two phases: stance phase; swing phase:

1. Stance phase occupies 60% of the gait cycle, during which one leg and foot are bearing most or all of
the body weight

2. Swing phase occupies only 40% of it, during which the foot is not touching the walking surface and the
body weight is borne by the other leg and foot.

In a complete two-step cycle both feet are in contact with the floor at the same time for about 25
per cent of the time. This part of the cycle is called the double-support phase. Gait cycle phases: the
stance phase and the swing phase and involves a combination of open and close chain activities.

Phases of the Gait Cycle (8 phase model):

1. Initial Contact
2. Loading Response 3. Midstance
4. Terminal Stance
5. Pre swing
6. Initial Swing

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7. Mid Swing
8. Late Swing.

Gait Patterns
Antalgic gait a limp adopted so as to avoid pain on weight-bearing structures, characterized by a

very short stance phase.

Ataxic gait an unsteady, uncoordinated walk, with a wide base and the feet thrown out, coming down
first on the heel and then on the toes with a double tap. This gait is associated with cerebellar disturbances
and can be seen in patients with longstanding alcohol dependency.

Parkinsonian Gait (seen in Parkinson’s disease and other neurologic conditions that affect the basal
ganglia). Rigidity of joints results in reduced arm swing for balance. A stooped posture and flexed knees
are a common presentation.

Hemiplegic gait a gait involving flexion of the hip because of foot drop and circumduction of the leg.

Stuttering gait a walking disorder characterized by hesitancy that resembles stuttering; seen in

some hysterical or schizophrenic patients as well as in patients with neurologic damage.

Tabetic gait an ataxic gait in which the feet slap the ground; in daylight the patient can avoid some
unsteadiness by watching his feet.
Diplegic Gait (Spastic gait). Spasticity is normally associated with both lower limbs. Contractures of the
adductor muscles can create a ‘scissor’ type gait with a narrowed base of support. Spasticity in the lower
half of the legs results in plantar flexed ankles presenting in ‘tiptoe’ walking and often toe dragging.

Cerebellar gait – A swaying or staggering manner of walking like that of

Cow’s gait – A manner of walking due to knock knee like that of a cow.
Frog’s gait – A manner of walking resembling that of a frog characterized by hopping from one position
to another.

Modern Methods of Identification

DNA fingerprinting - is a way of identifying a specific individual, rather than simply identifying a
species or some particular trait.

- It is also known as genetic fingerprinting or DNA profiling.

- Invented by Sir Alec’s Jeffreys in 1985

Digital Fingerprinting- Also known as electronic fingerprinting, digital fingerprinting is a contemporary

approach to creating images of fingerprints that can be used for purposes of identification in a number of
settings.

Biometric fingerprinting- is one method that is commonly used to automatically establish the identity of
an individual.

- It is accomplished through either pattern recognition or the identification of minutia features.

AFIS- An automated fingerprint identification system is a type of modern technology that is mostly used
by law enforcement agencies.

Important Personalities:

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Emperor Te’in Shi (BC 246-210)

- The first Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from white jade.

Marcelo Malphigi

- An Italian professor who studied his observation on skin, pores and ridges
- Discovered the two layer of skin the “dermis” and “epidermis”
- He named a skin layer “Malphigian layer”
- Published a book entitled “De Externo Tactus Organo”
- Grand Father of fingerprint

Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712)

- Published a report on ridges and Pores before the Royal Society of London in 1684.
- He laso published a thesis entitled “ Philosophical Transaction” ridges and pores found on
epidermal skin.

Govard Bidloo (1685)

- He described the arrangement of skin ridges, pores on thumbs.

- He writes a thesis entitled “Antomia Humanis Corporis” means the anatomy of human corpse.

Hintz (1751)

- A German who made several writings about Ridge Formations.

Thomas Bewick (1753- 1828)

- A finest engraver who made fingerprints stamps in England

J. C. A Mayer (1788)
- Studied the arrangement of skin and concluded that the skin ridges are never duplicated in two
persons.
- Principle of Individuality
Johannes Evangelista Purkinje (1823)

- A Czech Anatomist at the University of Breslau, Germany

- He named the nine (9) types of fingerprint patterns
- He is known as the Father of Dactyloscopy

Herman Welcker (1856)

- He established the Principle of Permanency by printing his own palm and after forty-one years
he printed again his palm and discovered that his prints did not change

William James Herschel (1858)

- A British Chief Administrative Officer in Hoogly District of Bengal, India; introduced the use of
fingerprint to prevent impersonation among laborers.

Dr. Henry Faulds (1880)

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 - English doctor stationed in Tokyo, Japan. He published the practical use of fingerprints to
identify criminals. He introduced the practical theory of reproducing fingerprints through the use
of greasy materials. Discovered too the presence of skin furrows. He propagated the Principle of
Infallibility.

Francis Galton (1888)

- A British Anthropologist and Biologist who published his study on classification and filing
system using all the ten (10) fingers. He assigned the patterns in to three (3) general types:
ARCHES, LOOPS and WHORLS. He concluded that “no two prints are identical and an
individual’s prints remain unchanged from year to year.”

Edward Richard Henry (1901)

- The first man to successfully apply fingerprints for identification and devised his own system of
fingerprint classification.
- He was known as the Father of Modern Fingerprints

Alphonse Bertillon

- A French Criminologist who devised specific method of identifying criminals through

anthropometric measurements and personal characteristics such as the color of eyes, scars and
body measurements
- Introduced the Bertillon system of identification (Portrait Parle, Anthropometry and Mugshot).
- He is known as the Father of Personal Identification

Gilbert Thompson

- A U.S. Geodetic Surveyor who used thumbprint for camp order on an expedition to New
Mexico. He used his own fingerprints on a document to prevent forgery. This is the first known
use of fingerprints in the United States.

Juan Vucetich

- An Argentinean Police Officer who installed fingerprint the first files as an official means of
Criminal Identification in Argentina. He was known as the father of fingerprints in all Spanish-
speaking countries.

Frederick A. Brayley

- Published the First American book on Fingerprints in Boston by Worcester Press.

Mary K. Holland

- Recognized as the first American instructor in dactyloscopy.

FINGERPRINTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

- 1819- Fingerprint has been used or introduced in the Philippines by Chinese traders
- Mr. Jones- One who first taught fingerprint in the Philippine Constabulary in the year 1900.
- Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Department and Flaviano Guerrero , FBI Washington
gave the first examination in fingerprinting.
- Agustin Patricio- The first Filipino authority in fingerprinting and who topped the examination
on fingerprints given by the New York Police Department.
- Generoso Reyes- First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the Philippine Constabulary.

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 - Isabela Bernales- First Filipina Fingerprint technician
- People of the Philippines vs. Medina- First conviction based on fingerprinted leading judicial
decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence.
- Plaridel Education Institution- now known as the Philippine College of Criminology, the first
government recognized school to teach Science of fingerprint and other Police Science.
- May 19, 1945- The PNP crime laboratory was created following the end of the Second World
War. It started as a section of G2 division of Military Police command or AFPWESPAC. Then
known as the Fingerprint Record Section, it grew into a branch as other vital units of the
Philippine Constabulary were added including Photography, questioned document, Ballistics, etc.

Fingerprints and Friction Skin

Fingerprints – is an impression design by the ridges on the inside of the last joint of the finger or thumb
on any smooth surface through the media of an ink, sweat or any reagents capable of producing visibility.

Phalange of Fingers

1. Terminal phalange/phalanx- the end joint/tip of fingers

2. Middle phalange/phalanx- the middle portion of fingers
3. Proximal phalange/phalanx- the base portions of fingers

Principles of Fingerprint Identification

1. Principle of Individuality – States that there are no two persons having the same fingerprints. It
is based on statistical probability that it would be impossible for any two persons to have similar
fingerprints.

2. Principle of Permanency / Constancy – States that one’s ridges are fully develop their general
arrangement remains the same throughout life.

3. Principle of Infallibility – States that fingerprint is a reliable positive means of identifications.

The Friction Skin and its Components

THE SKIN

The skin is part of INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM of the body that weight about 4.5 to 5 kg in an average
built adult male and has a total width at approximately two (2) square meters. It will usually appear with a
thickness of 1.4 to 4.0 mm, however, skin which are regularly rub against the object is thicker than the
other parts.

Friction skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet
covered with minute ridges and furrows and without pigment or coloring matters.

- It is called as papillary or epidermal ridges.

Components of Friction Skin

a. Ridge surface – Is that component of the friction skin that actually forms the fingerprint
impression.

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 (1) Ridges – are tiny elevation or hill like structures found on the epidermis layer of the skin
containing sweat pores. It appears as black, lines with tiny white dots called pores in an inked
impression Furrows – are the canal like impression or a depression found between the ridges
which may be compare with the low area in a tire thread. They appear as white lines in an inked
impression.
b. Sweat Pores - is a small opening found anywhere across the ridge surface but is usually found
near the center. Sometimes called an “islands which colors white in plain impression and it’s
considered as individual as the fingerprints

c. Sweat Duct -is a long-host like structure that serves as the passage way for the sweat that exists
as its mouth, the pore.

d. Sweat Glands- are that glands found in the dermis layer of the skin which is responsible for the
production of the sweat (watery substance).

KINDS OF SWEAT GLANDS

1. Eccrine Glands – these are found in all parts of the body and are the only sweat glands found on
the palms of the hands and the soles of this feet.

2. Apocrine Glands – those are found in the pubic area, mammary and anal areas.

3. Sebaceous Glands – these are located on the forehead, chest, back and abdomen with an oily
secretion called sebum.

FUNDAMENTAL LAYERS OF THE FRICTION SKIN

A. Epidermis - the outer covering of the skin
2 Main Layers of the epidermis
Stratum Corneum- the outer layers
Stratum Mucosum- immediately beneath the covering layers

Five Subdivisions:

1. Corneus layer- stratum corneum

2.Transparent layer- stratum lucidum
3.Granucar layer- stratum grabulosum
4.Malphigan layer- stratum spinosum
5. Generating layer- stratum basale

B. Dermis - the inner layer of the skin containing blood vessels, various glands and nerves. It is where the
dermal papillae are found.

Dermal Papillae - are irregular blunt pegs composed or delicate connective tissues protruding and
forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes and soles of the feet.

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C. Subcutaneous layer (Hypodermis)- the innermost layer of skin that also contains blood vessels,
connective tissues, nerves, and fat lobules (a rounded division or projection of an organ or part in the
body, especially in the lungs, brain or liver.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

Fingerprint are resolved into three (3) large general groups of patterns:

1.ARCH- 5%
a. Plain Arch
b. Tented Arch
2. LOOP- 65%
a. Radial Loop
b. Ulnar Loop
3. WHORL- 30%
a. Plain whorl
b. Central Pocket Loop
c. Double Loop
d. Accidental Loop

Interpretation

Pattern area is that part of a loop or a whorl in which appear the delta, core and the ridges with which we
are concern in classifying fingerprints.

Type lines- are the two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge or tend to surround the pattern area.

- Typelines are not always two continuous ridges in fact they are more often found to be broken
when there is a definite break in a typeline the ridge immediately outside of it is considered as its
continuation

Divergence is the spreading a part of two lines which have been running parallel or nearly parallel

Focal points-within the pattern area of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal points which are used to
classify them.

Delta is that point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest the center of the divergence of the typelines.
It may be:
a bifurcation
an abrupt ending ridges
a dot
a short ridge
a meeting of two ridge
a point on a long ridge
Rules in Delta Location

1. The delta may be located at bifurcation which does not open towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta equally close to the point of
divergence, the bifurcation is selected.
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3. When there is a series of bifurcation is opening towards the core at the point of divergence of the two
type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type lines toward the core,
but at the nearer end only.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area below the divergence of the type lines, the delta must be located at
the end nearer to the core.

Core-The approximate center of fingerprint impression. It is also known as Inner Terminus.

Rules in Core Location

1.The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

2.When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulders of
the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.

3.When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or not.

4.When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the shoulders,
the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center rods, the two center rods being treated
as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.

Ridge Characteristics

Bifurcation is a single ridge that divides itself in two or more branches. it is sometimes called as fork,
making its impression.

Converging ridges- is a ridge formation characterized by a closed angular end and serves as a point of
convergence (meeting of two ridges that were previously running side by side

Diverging ridges-two ridges that are flowing side by side and suddenly separating or spreading apart.

Enclosure or lake or eyelet a ridge that divides into two branches and meets to form the original ridge.

Ending ridge-refers to an end point of a ridge, or a ridge with abrupt ending.

Islands or dots-a ridge that resembles a dot, fragment or a period.

Recurving or looping ridge- is a kind of ridge formation that curves back in the direction from which it
started. it looks like a hairpin.

Sufficient recurve-is a recurving ridge complete its shoulder and is free from any appendage.

Appendage- is a ridge found at the top or at the summit of a recurving ridge.

Rod or a bar- is a short ridge found inside the innermost recurving ridge of a loop type pattern.

Obstruction ridge -is a short ridge found inside the innermost recurving ridge that spoiled the inner flow
towards the center of the pattern.

Creases- Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running traversely or formed side by side, across
the print causing puckering of the ridges.
Puckering--As growth go, some or several ends of the ridges curls slightly.
Staple- Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
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Spike- An ending ridge at the center of a pattern, which forms the upthrust.
Spur – is where the ridge path divides and one branch comes to an end (leg is shorter).

Ridge bridge (cross) – is a connecting ridge

between two ridges.

Double bifurcation – is a bifurcation where one of the ridge paths bifurcates.

Trifurcation – is when two bifurcations develop next to each other on the same ridge, a unique
formation.

Opposed bifurcation – are bifurcations found on both ends of a ridge.

Ridge crossing – is the point where two ridges cross each other forming an “X” formation.
Overlap – is where two ridges ends meet and overlap on a bias.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERN

Arch Pattern
Plain Arch – the ridge enters on the either side of the impression and flows out or tend to flow out to the
other side with a rise or wave in the center.
Plain Arch is the simplest of all fingerprint patterns, and it is easily distinguished.

Tented Arch most of the ridges enter upon one side of the impression and flow out o tends to flow out
upon the other side, however the ridges at the center don’t.

Three Types of Tented Arch

1. The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle i. e. 90 or less.
2. The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an up thrust. It is an ending ridge at any length
rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane at least 45 or more.
3. Approaching the loop type – possessing two of the three basic characteristic of the loop, but lacking the
third element.
LOOP TYPE PATTERN
A Loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enters or either side of the
impression, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to the core, and terminate
or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression from whence such ridge or ridges
entered.

Requisites of a Loop
a. It must have a delta
b. It must have a core
c. It must have a ridge count across the looping ridge of at least one.
d. It must have a sufficient recurved

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Radial Loop - a fingerprint pattern in which the downward slant or ridge flow from the little finger
toward to the radius bone.

Ulnar Loop - a fingerprint pattern in which the downward slant or ridge flow from the radius bone
toward to the little finger.

Plain whorl - this is a pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one ridge makes a turn
through one complete circuit, an imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch or cross at least
one of the recurving ridges within the pattern area. The pattern could be a spiral, oral circular, oval or any
variant of a circle. The plain whorl consist of the simplest form of whorl construction and is the most
common of whorl sub-division. It is designated by the symbol w. Both for general classification and
extension purposes.

Central Pocket Loop- is a pattern in which some of the ridges represent the pattern known as loop, but
where one or more of the ridges within such loop or those surrounding the core recurved somewhat like
spiral, so as to be at right angle to a line drawn through its axis, thereby forming the second delta.

Double Loop - consist of two separate loop formation with two separate and distinct set of shoulders and
two deltas.

Accidental Whorl - is a pattern in which two or more of the different types of patterns are represented.

REAL OR TRUE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS AND DATA BASE MAKING

A. What are real Impressions?

Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of the fingerprint ink on the surface of the paper
through any coloring materials, which will produce visibility.

B. Two methods of producing impressions:

1. Rolled Impressions – requires that the thumb be rolled away from the center of the
subject’s body.
2. Plain Impressions – requires that the fingers be taken or printed simultaneously, then the
thumbs without rolling.

Equipment in taking fingerprint/ Other Laboratory Materials

1. Fingerprint ink roller = 6” x 2” in diameter- refers to an instrument used for spreading the ink
into the slab or inking plate.
2. Card holder- refers to a gadget used for clipping the fingerprint card to avoid movement of the
card during printing.
3. Inking plate or glass slab = 6” x 14”- refer to a piece of metal or a plane glass with as much as
1/4 thick and 6 or more inches long where the fingerprint ink is distributed for printing.
4. Fingerprint ink- an especially manufactured ink for purposes of taking fingerprints.
5. Hand and slab roller cleaner
6. Fingerprint card- refers to a piece of card used for recording the ten fingerprints. The usual size
is 8"x8".
7. Fingerprint table = 38” x 40”- a table intended for taking fingerprints
8. Rubber Gloves- used to protect the technician finger from leaving his own prints on the object or
15
 scene.
9. Post Mortem Equipment- refers to a set of equipment consisting of hypodermis syringe , spoon,
tissue builder, tissue cleaner, etc. Used for taking prints of dead person.
10. Fingerprint Pointers- used for pointing the ridges in the conduct of ridge counting.
11. Forensic Optical Comparator- an equipment use to compare two fingerprints at the same time.

C. Methods of recording real impressions

1. Slab and Roller Method – placing ink on the slab and spreading it
2. Porelon Pad Method – use inking pad
3. Print Matic Method – the roller itself bears the ink then rolled over the slab

D. Rules to observe in taking legible F/Ps

1. Cleanliness of equipment/washing of hands before fingerprinting

2. The right kind and correct amount of ink
3. Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab
4. The subject’s hands must be relaxed
5. Proper distance of the subject from the glass slab/proper alignment
6. Even pressure to be applied
7. The fingers must be rolled from one side to the other
8. The inking and printing must reach the first joint of the finger
9. The thumb must be rolled towards the body and the other fingers away from the subject’s body
10. The subject’s fingers must be controlled to prevent twisting
11. Speed of the rolling finger
12. Check up after fingerprint printed - Check prints if appropriately printed or not in accordance
with the following guidelines:
a. If printing column are incorrect
b. Rolling condition, sufficient or not
c. Printing condition, thick or thin
d.Unevenness? Irregularity? Aberration?
e. No oversight, no mistake on note/remarks

13. Cause of Mistake on Fingerprint Sampling – Noted common mistakes or failures of law
enforcement officers in taking fingerprint sampling are:

a. Aberration of printing of the fingerprint

b. Ink too much thick
c. Too fast rolling speed
d. Press to hard
e. Rotation is not smooth, as they roll the finger on the paper

E. Fingerprint System – is an arrangement, which in order to effectively utilize fingerprints in

criminal investigation, provides for their systematic collection, classification, arrangement, custody and
use.

* Two (2) Sub-systems:

1) Ten (10) Fingerprint System – include the ten (10) fingerprints in cards taken upon lawful arrest.
This is to confirm the identity and the criminal history of the arrested person.

16
 2) Single Fingerprint System – fingerprints of suspect collected one by one. This is to deduce the
identity of the criminal through his latent fingerprints. Under this system, the prints of all the ten
(10) fingers are kept one by one in custody as basic material.

* Methods and Effects on the Use of Single Fingerprint System

a) Positive deduction of suspect’s identity – This is to deduce the

identity of a suspect by comparing a latent fingerprint with the single fingerprint card.
b) Designation Inquiry – This is an inquiry made, whenever a suspect has come to the fore with respect
to a case for which the scene finger prints have been forwarded from the police station, i.e., to the
fingerprint center by designating the name with whom comparison is needed.

c) Under-name Fingerprints – Fingerprints impressed under a signature on an application for pawning

or any other official document. Criminals often disguise themselves in transactions involving documents
but the fingerprints impressed on the document will reveal the true identity of the person.

d) Identification of other crimes – Latent prints when matched to the fingerprints establishes absolute
identity.

* Preparation and Custody of Fingerprint Materials

Since fingerprint materials are permanently kept in custody and utilized as the basic materials of
the fingerprint system, they should be correctly prepared and kept in custody:

1) Preparation of fingerprint materials

a) Fingerprint the suspect immediately upon arrest

b) Take palm prints too
c) Employ the rolled and plain impressions method

2) Impressions of Fingerprints – To make correct classifications possible, all impressions must be

made correctly and clearly

3) Methods of Impressing

a) Rolling Impressions – done by fully rolling the fingers from one side to the other

b) Flat or Plain Impressions – done in order to make sure whether or not rolling impressions
are correctly impressed unto the specified column. In impressing, it must be up to the
middle phalange.

c) Palm print impressing – is to impress palms unto the palm print impression column.
Impress it fully with extended palms.

4) Impressing Techniques

a) General Technique or Ordinary Impressing –

⮚ Position of Impresser/Operator – the impressing plate is on the left side of the table while the glass
plate or cardholder is on its right side.

17
 ⮚ Positions of Persons – The Impressing attendant or operator is on the left side while subject is on
the right side of the operator and about 20 cm off/away from the impressing table

b) General Rules in Impressing

1) Maintain impressing implement – cure of glass plates and roller from dust
2) Wash fingers thoroughly
3) Dry the fingers before impressing
4) Apply proper amount of ink
5) Don’t double impress
6) Don’t forget flay impressing

c) How to thin ink –

⮚ Place small amount of ink, thin the ink evenly with a pallet and a roller, The roller is rolled one way
leaving the glass plate after every stroke, the ink can be thinned quickly and evenly.

⮚ Density of Ink – the amount of ink needed for impression per person is the volume of a match head.

⮚ Impressing – Subject is advised to look to the front or side, without stiffening his hand.

d) Extra-ordinary Impressing

⮚ Excessively sweating fingers – apply formalin alcohol liquid to each finger, then print;

⮚ Finger with stiff joints – Impress after shaking the subject’s hand grasped by the wrist up and down
several times to smoothen the joint movement.
⮚ Fingers with stiff surface skin, coarse fingers, and fingers suffering from dermatophytosis – wrap
fingers in a steamed towel for several minutes then impress

G. Fingerprint Impressing Techniques on a dead body

* Problems and practices in fingerprinting the Dead

⮚ Climate conditions

⮚ Subject factors

⮚ Nature of the surface

1. Fingers soon after death – those who died recently

* Clean finger bulbs using a gauge containing alcohol; roll fingerprint roller with ink on fingers
and cut fingerprint card to a proper size and impress it on the fingers.

2. Stiff fingers in a cleansed fist – those who died for a longer period, in
which cases difficulty is experienced due to, pronounced stiffening of the fingers or already at the stages
of decomposition?

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 * Use spatula or finger stretcher to stretch fingers then impress with use of roller and ink

3. Blanched (grown pale) and wrinkled fingers

* Fingers without percolate (strained)– wipe them with a piece of cloth/gauge with alcohol, soften
them thoroughly with your fingertips, stretch wrinkles and then impress.

* Fingers with percolate – use molding process after drying with lycopodium powder

In order to obtain fingerprint impressions from silicon molds, strippable paint or cortex shall be
used. This technique is as follows:

⮚ The molded silicon rubber shall be stretched and split

⮚ Its circumference shall be pinned up

⮚ Strippable paint or cortex shall be thinly applied to it with a small flat brush and then be dried with
a dryer
⮚ After repeating this operation several times, the mold shall be stripped of the film, which shall be
round, the operator’s finger be applied with ink and then be impressed.

4.Fingers with Peeled-off surface skin

* When the true skin is exposed, take photograph after applying ink to the true skin.

5. Fingers of charred body

* In case it is feared that they will disintegrate even by the slightest touch or move their
photographs shall be taken as they are.

6. Mummified or Adipocered ( fat from decomposition tissues) Fingers

* Take their mold with silicon, make films with strippable paint or cortex, and impress.

H. POSTMORTEM FINGERPRINTING – Benefits

1. Permits the surviving spouse to remarry

2. Clears the way for the family to collect life insurance
3. Releases the family from terrible pressure of uncertainty or anxiety
4. In criminal cases, the investigation may be reopened because of identity, and
5. Opens the door for probate of the estate of the diseased

Problems in the Taking of Inked Fingerprints 1. Mechanical Operation

Poor impressions are usually caused by one of the following faults:

1. The use of poor, thin, or colored ink, resulting in impressions which are too light and faint, or in
which the ink has run, obliterating the ridges. The best result must be obtained by using heavy
black printer’s ink, a paste which should not be thinned before using. This ink will dry quickly
19
 and will not be thinned before using. This ink will dry quickly and will not blur or smear with
handling.
2. Failure to clean thoroughly the inking apparatus and the fingers of the foreign substances and
perspiration, causing the appearance of false markings and the disappearance of characteristics.
Windshield cleaner, gasoline, benzene, and alcohol are good cleansing agents, but any fluid may
be used. In warm weather, each finger should be wiped dry of perspiration before printing.
3. Failure roll the fingers fully from one side to the other and to ink the whole area from tip to below
the first fissure. The result of this is that the local points of the impressions do not appear. The
whole finger surface from point to tip and from side to side should appear.
4. The use of too much ink, obliterating or obscuring the ridges. The printer’s ink is used, just a
touch of a tube and to the inking plate will suffice for several sets of prints. It should be spread to
a thin, even film by rolling.
5. Insufficient ink, resulting in ridges too light and faint to be counted or traced.
6. Allowing the fingers to slip or twist, resulting in smears, blurs, and false appearing patterns. The
fingers should be held lightly without too much pressure.

Temporary Disabilities

a. When fingers have fresh cuts, bandaged fingers which will prevent the recording of an
indication in the fingerprint case. The same situation would occur if there were a blister on the
individual’s finger. The blister temporarily disfigures the ridge details.

Solution: When an injury is temporary, the prints, if at all possible, should not be taken until after
the injury has healed.

1. Occupational problems (bricklayers, carpenters, etc.)

Solution: Rub the finger with softening agents-oil, cream, or lotion. It is further
suggested that a very small amount of ink should be used on the inking plate.
2. Excessive perspiration that causes inked impression to be indistinct.
Solution: Wipe the finger with cloth and then immediately ink the fingers and roll it on
the fingerprint card. This process should be followed by each finger. It is also suggested
that possibly the fingers could be wipe by alcohol, benzene, or similar fluid which would
act as a drying agent.
3. When the ridges are very fine like the ridges of the fingers of the baby.
Solution: Use a very little amount of ink and spread a very thin coating of ink on the
glass slab.

Permanent Disabilities

1. Lack of fingers or missing fingers at birth.

Solution: The notation “missing finger at birth” or some similar notations be made in the individual
fingerprint block on the card. A proper notation will prevent the fingerprint card from being returned.

2. Amputated fingers

Solution: Proper notations to this effect in the individual fingerprint block. It is suggested that is the
portion of the first joint of a finger is amputated, the finger should be inked and printed.

3. Bent or crippled fingers and certain deformities

20
 Solution: A notation to this effect should be in the fingerprint card in the proper individual fingerprint
block. However, it is believed that these extreme cases are rare. It is suggested that the special inking
devices used for taking the prints of deceased individuals be used in taking an inked impression of the
bent or crippled fingers.

Deformities

● More than10 fingers

Solution: if a subject has more than 10 fingers, as occasionally happens, the thumb and the next
four fingers to them should be printed, and any finger left over should be oriented in the other
side of the card with a notation made to the effect that they are extra fingers.
● Webbed fingers
Solution: if a subject having two or more fingers webbed or grown together making it impossible
to toll such fingers should be rolled, however, as completely as possible, and a notation to the
effect that they are joined.
● Split thumbs. Thumbs having two nails joints are classified as if the joint toward the outside of
the hand were not present. In other words, the inner joint is used, and no consideration
whatsoever is given to the outer joint.

Fingerprint Classification

Ridge Counting
Refers to the process of counting the ridges that touches or creased an imaginary line drawn
between the core and the delta. This applies only to loops.

Ridge Tracing
The process of locating the ridge continuity that emanates from the left delta toward the right delta;
Consider dropping to the lower ridge to see where it flows in relation to the right delta.
Steps in Classification
1. Recording- Means the taking of fingerprint impressions, either rolled or plain impressions.
2. Interpretation- Means the naming or interpreting a fingerprint pattern
3. Blocking- It means designating by symbol the type of patterns with each finger and thumb it bears and
recording in the space provided for.

4. Classification- It refers to the classification proper, this time interpreting the ten (10) fingerprints. In
general, it is refers to the sorting of things into division or groups for easy location and reference.

Fingerprint Analysis-The process of identifying and distinguishing fingerprint pattern according to their
design and formation.

Classification Formula- It is the result of combining all the patterns of the fingerprints and recording
them in a specific order or manner at the top right of the fingerprint card. It represents the patterns of all
ten (10) fingers of both hand combined.

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Primary Classification- Consist of the numerical value of all whorl patterns and added to the arbitrary
value of one (1) for both numerator and denominator.

Secondary Classification- Compose the type of patterns in the index fingers, which be written in capital
letters. The secondary classification appears just to the right of the fractional numerals, which represents
the primary. It is shown in the formula y capital letters representing the basic types of patterns appearing
in the index of each hand, the right hand being the numerator and the left hand the denominator.

Sub-Secondary Classification- Compose of the ridge tracing and ridge counting of the index finger,
middle finger, and ring fingers, placed to the right of the secondary classification. Only six fingers are
involved: 2,3,4,7,8 and 9.

Major Classification- Composed of the ridge tracing and ridge counting only of both thumbs using the
equivalent tables.

Final Classification- Compose of the ridge counting of both little fingers only. If both are whorls treat it
as loop and proceeded to ridge counting. If the little fingers are that of arch patterns, it is represented by a
dash (-) symbol. This is indicated at the extreme right of the numerator in the classification.

Key Classification- It represents the ridge count of the first loop in an impression beginning at the right
hand excluding the little finger.

LATENT/CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Latent Fingerprints – fingerprints found at the crime scene.

Latent Prints – are those markings, usually rather indistinct left by oily matters or perspiration exuded
from the fingertips upon any substance, which the fingers may have touched.

Scene fingerprints are extremely valuable materials for criminal investigation. It being impressed
carelessly and are perishable, it is necessary to thoroughly observe their impressed condition prior to
collecting and then collect them as soon as possible by selecting a collecting method suitable. In
observing the prints, it is best to observe it OBLIQUELY. In selecting the use of powder, apply the
PRINCIPLE OF CONTRAST, meaning the use of powder that blends with the background color where
the latent prints have been impressed.

Causes of the Markings:

1. Ridges or the raised strip of the epidermis

2. Sweat or perspiration

a. Composition of Sweat

⮚ 98 % - 99% - Sweat gland excreta – is a colorless, transparent substance of neutral or low acidity
(PH4-7) known as moisture or water; and
⮚ 1% - 2% are organic and non-organic matters;

⮚ organic matters are salt, calcium, magnesium, etc. while non-organic matters are urea, lactic acid,
albumin, amino acid and others)

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Sebaceous Excreta – is a colorless, transparent substance consisting of fatty acids, vitamins, etc. Quality
and quantity of excreta vary from person to person.

Life span is influenced by:

⮚ Climate/temperature/humidity

⮚ Physical and mental condition of the subject

⮚ Nutrition or the kind of food the body eat

⮚ Impurities on the skin surface

Two (2) conditions of latent fingerprints at the crime scene:

1. Tangible fingerprint – can be seen by the naked eye; such as markings made by coloring
substance, dust, blood oil, etc.

2. Intangible fingerprint – those invisible prints which cannot be seen by the naked eye. Such as
prints on porous/absorbent materials and other objects.

Classes of Latent/Chance Impressions

1. Visible Prints – prints smeared with colored substances such as blood, ink, grease, dust or
paint. It is preserved through photographs.

2. Semi-visible or Plastic Impressions – impressions caused by plastic materials, such as soap,

melted candles, wax, paraffin and adhesive gums. They are preserved through photographs.

3. Invisible Latent Prints – most common types of impressions and are not seen by the naked
eye. They must be developed through the right kind of powder and/or chemical to make them
visible. They are preserved depending upon the color of the background, observing the
“Principle of Contrast” through a lifting tape (Mechanical process – using black or aluminum
powders.)

Crime Scene Processing Requirements

1. Photographs of the Crime Scene

a. General View
b. Distance shot and close-up shot of latent print
c. Photographs of every object bearing latent prints
d. Photographs of every latent print before lifting

2. Sketch of the Crime Scene

a. Sketch of locality – it gives a picture of the scene of the crime and its environment such as
neighboring buildings and road
b. Sketch of grounds – pictures the nearest physical surroundings like floor plan of the house
c. Sketch of details – describe the immediate scene only

3. Things that may not be done in the crime scene

23
 a. Do not lift without taking photographs
b. Do not lift on small movable object
c. Do not remove object without taking photograph
d. Do not place powder to the entire crime scene
e. Do not develop visible latent print

4. Crime Scene procedures

a. Upon arrival of the crime scene

i. Check for injuries and summon the necessary aid

ii. Secure the crime scene
iii. Question all witnesses
iv. Photograph the entire crime scene
v. Locate pertinent evidence BUT NOT COLLECTING IT YET
vi. Begin the search for fingerprints
vii. Prepare the crime scene sketch and
viii. Collect all the physical evidence

b. Searching for latent prints

“Ken-saku” – is the method of searching activities for finding scene fingerprints and where
they are impressed.

Most scene fingerprints are usually found at the points of Entry, departure and places
ransacked/attacked.
i. Do not remove object from their original position or touch anything unless fingerprints are
developed and lifted
ii. Search for latent print should be in a systematic and intelligent manner
iii. Consider the points of entry, attack and exit
iv. Use correct amount and quality of powder to develop latent print

Evidence preservation of scene fingerprints

v. Whenever scene prints have been found, confirmation by a witness shall be made prior to collection.
vi. Photograph the prints prior to collection – in order to clarify the position of an object and the latent
prints,

- before photographing, label the evidence with the following information:

1) Name of incident
2) Date and hour taken
3) Place
4) Witness/es and signature/s
5) Collector’s affiliation and name

- All prints must be lifted and pasted standing or as if were impressed in a real type of
impressions; each must be numbered in serial order.

vii. A scene fingerprints collection report shall be prepared.

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Various Methods of Developing Latent prints

1. Powder/solid/ or Mechanical Method – reagents which must adhere or stocked to the sweat must
be used. Suitable surfaces for this technique are glass, porcelain, ceramic, pottery, metallic item, plastic
and bamboo. Prints are collected by:

a. Use of lifting material (gelatin paper, lifter, cellophane tape, transparent vinyl tape and adhesive
tapes); and
b. Photographs

Dusting latent fingerprint

Fingerprint dusting powders are available in various colors and chemical compositions to provide
maximum development and contrast. When dusting for fingerprints, use a powder that contrasts in color
to the surface.

To dust for fingerprints, follow these steps:

1. Make sure the brush is clean. Roll the handle of the brush between your palms to separate the
bristles.
2. Shake the powder-can to loosen the powder. Apply the powder lightly to the print, following the
contour lines of the ridges to bring out details
3. Remove all excess powder.
4. Photograph.

Lifting Prints

To lift fingerprints, use a commercially prepared lifter that has both a black-and-white background and a
wide transparent lift tape. Use black lifters for light powders and light lifters for black powders.
To lift on doorknobs and rounded surfaces, use transparent tape so you can see any spots

where the tape is so you can see any spots where the tape is not sticking. Put the tape over the dusted
print. Do not use too much pressure. Work out any bubbles that appear under the tape by applying extra
pressure. When you have lifted the print, transfer it to a fingerprint card.

Common errors in lifting prints

1. Removing too much or too little powder from the ridges.
2. Allowing bubbles under the tape and failing to make two lifts when a second lift would be better that
the first.

Techniques of Powder method:

a) Brushing Method – the brush tip is dipped into a small quantity of powder and lightly brush on the
surface of where latent prints maybe found; thereafter lightly sweep excess powder to clean it; applied to
dry, slippery and sticky surfaces.

b) Use of spray gun – when prints are found on large object, large space, wide area. Ex. Leather,
synthetic, etc.
c) Rolling (rocking) method – place appropriate quantity of powder on an object to be examined, lightly
bend and tilt, spreading out powder all over the object in order that the powder shall adhere to the
fingerprints, the fingerprint is developed by flipping the back side of the object to remove excess powder.
Applied to high quality dried paper.
25
d) Light-striking method or Patting Method – after having the powder adhere to a fingerprint, lightly
strike the object to be examined with a brush tip to which the powder has been applied, the fingerprint is
developed with another brush to which no powder is applied or by air blowing with a blower-brush or a
spray to remove excess powder.

e) Sprinkling Method – white powder – applied on rubber, leather, greasy fingerprint.

Materials for Collection of Latent Fingerprint

Fingerprint powders- refers to the powder used in developing latent prints found at the crime scene.
They are normally found in two; the black and the white or gray, which is applied depending upon the
contrasting background

Fingerprint brushes- used for developing latent prints using non-magnetic powder. There are three
variations of brushes used: the fiber glass, magnetic and feather type.

Fingerprint Lifting Tape- refers to a tape used for lifting developed latent prints which is quite harder
than an ordinary tapes.

Latent Print Transfer Card- refers to a card used in preserving lifted latent prints which is either white
or black in background.

Fingerprint Cameras- use in photographing the developed latent prints.

2. Liquid or Chemical Method – use of reagent on the suspected area and expose the fingerprint
marked there. Take a photo of the exposed fingerprint as the fingerprint sampling is acted.

Chemical or Liquid Method

1. Ninhydrin Solution. It is used to detect latent prints on absorbent materials, white wood, blood
stained fingerprint, paper wrapping of cigarette sticks, etc.
2. Ninhydrin Petroleum Benzine Solution. This is applied on printed materials. The advantage of
this method is the non-destruction of written letters made by ballpen and other ink.
3. TMB (Tetramethyl Benzedrine) Method. With this method, the invisible amount of blood
strained fingerprints can be detected. Fingerprint on kitchen knife and other blades used as
weapon, effectively detected.

Other chemical development of latent prints

1. Collaidal Gold Universal Fingerprint Developer. It is developed at Los Alamos National

Laboratory. This process which is used by the FBI and Secret Services, can effectively develop prints on
plastic, bank checks, counterfeit money, metal and skin, even after cyanoacrylate or ninhydrin have
failed.

2. Amino Black. A dye sensitive to properties of blood and may be used with contaminated/visible prints
involving blood. It has the capability to turn blood proteins to a blue-black color.

3. Crystal violet. It is used to developed latent prints on the adhesive side of the most any kind of tape. It
may also be useful on plastics surfaces. Crystal violet is mixed with water and the tape is soaked in the
solution. The tape is then rinsed with tap water. Any latent print that appears is dyed a purple color. The
results can be enhanced by viewing the treats are under laser illumination.
26
3. Iodine Fuming. It is the oldest and most proven method of developing latent prints on both porous,
particularly paper and nonporous surfaces. If the subsequent use of ninhydrin maybe required, the iodine
fuming should be done first.

4. DFO (1, 8 – diazaflouren – 9 – one). This is a ninhydrin analogue. It reacts with proteins to give a
highly fluorescent red colored product, which is more sensitive than ninhydrin. These red prints may be
immediately visible to the naked eye. DFO developed prints fluoresce under almost all laser alternative
light sources. Ninhydrin may be used in conjunction with the DFO, however, DFO must be used first.

6. Small Particle Reagent (SPR). This is a technique of developing latent prints that have been
immersed in water, as when a perpetrator has attempted to dispose of a firearm used in a crime by
throwing it into a river or lake. It is also used to develop prints on dew – or – rain soaked cars, on surfaces
covered with residue, such as salt from being near the ocean. Developed prints appear dark gray on a light
surface and light gray on a dark surface.

3. GAS METHOD

1. SUPER GLUE OR CYANOACRELATE. The cyano bond’s brand name in the Philippines is mighty
bond. This is applicable to metals, plastics/synthetic resin, painted wood or metal, leather products,
adhesive tape (adherence surface side, not the sticky side), glossy-paper, plywood and skin of the human
body.

Procedures after Developing Prints

1. Photograph where appropriate. Photos should be done with and without scale. If possible, a one
to one photo should be taken.
2. Upon completion of the photography, the decision must be made whether the entire item will be
taken or whether the print will be lifted. Remember, the print is the evidence, not necessarily the
surface that the print was developed.
3. When a lift is made and placed onto a latent fingerprint lift card, the following information should
be present:

● Case/report number

● Date/time

● Scene address

● Person taking the lift

● Type of object

● Place of lift

4. Take elimination prints from victims, and witnesses where appropriate.

5. Care and transportation of the evidence:
o Ensure the chain of custody is recorded to provide accountability.
o It items need to be secured, ensure proper securing item’s by top and bottom, or in a
place least likely to damage the items of fingerprint.

27
 Identification or Comparison

Fingerprint Comparison

It is the process of a careful and a thorough comparison of two or more fingerprints into its ridge
characteristics to establish its similarities or dissimilarities.

Methods of Comparison of Latent print and Standard Print

1. Ordinary Method – this is the markings of the point of identity, and after another which is drawn to
the margin of the photograph latent and standards prints, designated by numbers arranged in consecutive
order and in clockwise direction.

Kinds of Ordinary Method

Simple Method – the two prints (questioned and standard) are enlarged at same size. The identical points
then be identify by putting a straight line in red ink to the margin. Then the identified ridge characteristics
are numbered in consecutive order. The numbering of points must start with either the delta or core. If
core is assigned to be number 1, the number 2 will be the next ridge characteristics and so on until you
have numbered all the identical points of both the enlargements.

Modified Method – the same process or procedure will be followed as to the simple method except that
instead of assigning numbers to each point, initial letter of the ridge characteristic is indicated. For
example, C for core, D for delta, B for bifurcation and the like.

Drawn Method – in this method, after the straight line is established and the numbers are place about 1
centimeter at the end of the line of the margin, a circle with at least 1 inch diameter is drawn. Inside the
circle will be the drawn ridge characteristic pointed by the line.

2. Osborn Method – the two enlarge photograph which has a size of 8 by 10 inches are divided into
squares, both exactly alike with the square occupying the identical positions on each, and examining them
in their order, square to square, designating the identical points in each square.
3. Seymour Method – this method is done by making first a skeleton, tracing the question prints

and that of the standard print of the suspect, by making comparison. Placed them together by
holding it near reflector or side light or projector. Then make the necessary identification of
each ridge characteristics whether they are the same or not.
4. Pricking Method - make enlargement of the same size of the chance impression and the
suspect standard print. Place the photograph of the standard print over the chance impression in the same
position. With the use of a needle, prick the identical points to determine if they are coinciding with one
another.

Procedures on Fingerprint Comparison and Identification

1. Preliminary Examination – sufficient ridge details

2. Examination Proper – comparison of Q and S
3. Photograph Examination – enlarged the prints

Four (4) Requisites in Comparison of Friction Ridges

1. General Pattern Agreement – eight types of patterns

2. Qualitative Concordance – different ridge characteristics

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 3. Quantitative factors – sufficient number
4. Relationship of Ridge Details – location of the ridges

Comparing Minutiae (Sometimes referred to as Galton’s points)

Many examiners in the USA now follow the so-called ACE-V method of identification –analysis,
comparison, evaluation, and verification.

Analysis. This consists of the objective qualitative and quantitative assessment of the level 1. Level 2 and
level 3 details to determine their proportion, interrelationship, and value to individualize.

Is the print of sufficient quality and clarity for a comparison and identification or elimination?

Comparison. It is the objective examination of the attributes observed during analysis in order to
determine agreement or discrepancies between two friction ridge impressions.

What information is contained within the print? Information such as pattern type, friction ridges, flexion
creases, major ridge deviations, sequence, and how the two compare to the exemplar prints are considered
(Hawthorne, 2009)

Evaluation. Evaluating all the information contained in the latent print, specifically the uniqueness and
individuality of the print, the clarity, and the quality.

Two questions are asked:

1. Is there agreement of the friction skin, flexion path, and configuration?

In the opinion of the expert, is there sufficient volume of uniqueness of details in agreement to eliminate
all possible donors?

2. In the opinion of the expert, is there sufficient volume of uniqueness of details in agreement to
eliminate all possible donors.

Note: if the answer is yes to both questions, an opinion of individualization and identification has been
formed. If the answer is no to one or both questions, an opinion of individualization and identification has
not been formed.

Verification. All work, as in any science, must be subject to review. This portion of the process employs
such peer review. Consultation with another expert to verify the opinion of the original examiner is
undertaken at this point. Should there be disagreement regarding the identification, a third person may be
used for verification purposes.

Three Levels to Complement the ACE-V Method

Level 1. Sufficiency and clarity of information confronting the examiner. Is there enough
information, pattern type, flow and ridge characteristics to ensure the quality of the print is a suitable
print?

Level 2. Spatial relationship and type of characteristics within the pattern are used to determine that
known and the unknown were made by the same individual.

Level 3. Ridgeology and Poroscopy. At this level, the study of the structure of the ridges and the pores
within the ridges is undertaken. Level three information in the latent print is often absent due to the
quality of the print. The lack of level three information does not mean an individualization cannot be

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made. When all the levels of information have been assessed and the ACE-V process has been
undertaken, an appropriate conclusion can be arrived at by the latent print examiner.

Methods of Fingerprint Processing and Identification

FINDER (FINgerprint reaDER System). This is capable of performing latent print searching
automatically. The systems locate minute data, consisting of the location of the fingerprint ridges, ridge
endings or print of bifurcation. The minutiae for a given fingerprint are converted to digital data and then
stored in this form in the fingerprint file. When a latent print is obtained from the crime scene, the
computer locates all identifying minutes. It is then fed to a matcher that compares the latent print to any
number of other known fingerprint patterns.

AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AFIS). This is the modified version

of the FINDER adopted by most States and Countries of law enforcement agencies. AFIS can effectively
compare latent prints with a 300,000 – file database or can match prints in less than 15 minutes. At a rate
of 1,200/second, the machine can search a million fingerprint matches. This machine can also digitalize
fingerprint information to produce inkless fingerprints.

LIVE-SCAN FINGERPRINTING PROCESS. This records, stores, and transmits fingerprints digitally.
This allows police to place a suspect’s fingers on a glass plate, which then read by the special device to
produce a digital image of the prints. This technology has virtually eliminated the taking of poor-quality
inked fingerprints.

LASER FINGERPRINTING – This method also eliminates the mess of inked fingerprints and also
other problems associated with them. One application of this method is that thin chemical pad is attached
directly to the citation book and is used for suspects or drivers without proper identification. It can be
used quickly and easily for taking prints at the scene.

Required Number of Congruent Ridge Details to Establish Admissibility

Philippines – 10-12
USA – 12-14
UK – 14-16

Fingerprint Identification

Two prints must have the same general pattern in order to give a positive identification. They must also
have a certain number of common ridge characteristics. This number can vary depending on how
common the characteristics and how much of the print is available. There are two main methods that are
used for fingerprint identification. Minutiae- based techniques first find the minutiae points then map
their relative placement on the finger to match ridge characteristics. Another is the correlation -based
techniques is able to overcome some of the difficulties of the minutiae - based approach. This technique
requires the precise location of a registration point and are affected by image translation and rotation.

Nature of Ridge Characteristics for Absolute identification

Fingerprints are compared to each other by examining the minutiae to determine whether: -the same
minutiae are present
-the minutiae flow in the same direction
- the minutiae occupy the same relative positions to each other.

Who is an Expert?

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An expert is generally defined as any person who is skilled in specific science, trade or occupation.
Because of this particular knowledge, the expert is qualified to analyze or compare a stated set of facts
and render an opinion base upon those facts. This opinion is permitted because of the expert’s knowledge
which the lay person generally does not possess.

Who is a Fingerprint Expert?

A fingerprint expert is a person who through experience, training, education has a complete knowledge
and skill in science of fingerprints. And if called upon by courts to testify, can externalize that knowledge
and skill in a forceful manner, yet convincing and intelligent manner.

Qualification of fingerprint Expert

It is imperative that the expert be knowledgeable in all phases of fingerprint science, history,
classifications, latent procedures and scientific publications.

Fingerprint experts are also a latent print examiner and use their exceptional knowledge to analyze
finger-foot clues left at a crime scene.

The fingerprint expert offers an expert opinion, based on his training and experience and a thorough
examination of all details of the finger prints, as t whether there is a match or identification. They may be
called on to testify in court as a witness called as Expert Witness

This opinion will be one of the following

- there is a match between two fingerprints

- there is no match between two fingerprints or - the comparison is inconclusive

Identical points necessary to be admitted as fingerprint evidence in court

1. when there are more than 12 evident points and the impression is clear, the identification is absolute. 2.
When there are between 8 and 12 evident points, identification certainly depends upon clearness of the
type and rarity of the type.
3. Presence of the core and delta of the part which is acceptable.

Does the fingerprint Evidence admissible as evidence in court?

After all, fingerprints have been used as evidence in the US courtroom for nearly 100 years. They have
been considered the gold standard of forensic science and are widely thought to be an especially powerful
and indisputable form of evidence.

Admissibility of Fingerprint Testimony

Expert’s testimony as to the identity of thumb marks or fingerprints is admissible. The method of
identifying fingerprints is a science requiring close study. Where thumb impressions are blurred and many
of the characteristic marks far from clear, thus rendering it difficult to trace the features enumerated by
experts as showing the identity of the impressions, the court is justified in refusing to accept the opinion
that a distinct similarity in some respects between the admittedly genuine thumb mark and the questioned
thumb mark is evident.

This method of identification of persons has become a fixed part of our “SYSTEM OF
JURISPRUDENCE”. Proof of the accused found in the place where the crime was committed under such
circumstances that they could only have been impressed at the time when the crime was committed may
be sufficient proof of identity to sustain conviction.

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LEGALITY OF FINGERPRINTS

It is a universal knowledge that fingerprint is the most positive means of personal identification.
As such, fingerprint as evidence is accepted in every court of justice in any part of the globe.

It is an accepted principle that there is no possibility of finding two individuals to possess

identical fingerprints or that nature never duplicates itself in the smallest details.

Pioneers of fingerprints, Galton and Locard believe in the Law of Probability in the duplication of
fingerprints between two individuals. This view however is disputable considering that fingerprints are as
old as mankind. If Adam and Eve, the first man and woman who have populated the earth, have
fingerprints then the probability of duplication of fingerprints among individuals may have been a
possibility. But up to the present time, every police department of the world used Fingerprints as a means
of personal identification; NOBODY has ever found individuals possessing identical fingerprints.

A. USA CASES

1. PEOPLE VS. JENNINGS, Illinois (1911). Illinois Appellate Court first court to pass upon the
admissibility of fingerprint as evidence.

-The US Supreme Court passed upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence stating that person’s
experience on the matter of fingerprint identification may give their opinion; and further said, “there
being no question as to the accuracy or authenticity of the photographs on how fingerprints were
collected, the weight shall be given to the testimony of experts and in issue thereto shall be resolved by
the jury.”

2. STATE VS. CERCIELLO, New Jersey (1914)

The New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals held that the fingerprints found upon a hatchet near the
body of a murdered person are admissible in evidence. The evolution in practical affairs of life whereby
the progressive and scientific tenderness of the age are manifested in every other department of human
endeavor cannot be ignored in legal procedure. It is for those scientific processes, which are the work of
educated and skilled men in their various departments, leaving the weight and effect entirely to the
consideration of the jury.

3. STATE VS. CONNERS (1915)

Where the photographs of the fingerprints were competently reproduced from the balcony post of the
house and even without producing that post in court and because of the expert testimony without
disruption to the continuity of testimony, it is deemed admissible.

4. LAMBLE VS. STATE

This involved the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court was on the opinion
that it was not necessary to produce the door as evidence. The court stated that a photograph of the
fingerprints noted on the door should be sufficient along with the identification of the fingerprint experts
to show of these of the defendant. The court referred to the previous decided cases in State vs. Conners.

5. COMMONWEALTH VS. ALBRIGHT, 101 Pa Sup. CL 317 (1931)

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 A Fingerprint expert testified that the fingerprint on a piece of glass, established to be from a pane in a
door that had been broken to effect entrance to the house was the same as the impression of the
defendant’s left index finger. The expert explained the details of the identity.

The court said, “the papillary lines and marks on the fingers of every man, woman and child possess an
individual character different from those any other persons and that identical characteristics is very
remote.

6. PEOPLE VS. CORRAL

It is well settled principle in law that fingerprints are the strongest evidence of identity of a person. This
doctrine was re-asserted in the case of PP Vs. RESIR (California), in which court stated, “fingerprint
evidence is strongest of identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone to identity of the defendant”.

7. SCHMERBERVS. CALIFORNIA

It was held that the introduction into evidence of fingerprint impression taken without the consent of the
defendant was not an infringement of his constitutional privilege against self-incrimination. The high
court held that it is constitutional to obtain real or physical evidence even if the suspect is compelled to
give blood in a hospital environment, submit to fingerprinting, photographing or measurement, write or
speak for identification, appears in court, stand or walk, assume a stance or make a particular gesture, put
on a cloth that its fits him, or exhibit his body as evidence when it is material.

FINGERPRINT CASES IN THE PHILIPPINES

1.BILANGAWA VS. AMADOR, Court of Appeals No. 37320-b)

A Fingerprint Expert and constabulary Sergeant testified and successfully defended fingerprint evidence
based on eight (8) identical ridge points.

2. PEOPLE VS. MEDINA (59 Phil. 330)

This is the first leading judicial decision in Philippines Jurisprudence on the Science of Fingerprint. The
Supreme Court held, “that evidence as to the correspondence of fingerprints is admissible for the purpose
of identity. That although a portion of the impression on the box was somewhat blurred, it did not
seriously interfere with the comparison of the two fingerprints. It is a settled rule that where the collection
of evidence is not in question, the admissibility is lodged with the court.

V. REASONS WHY FINGERPRINT IS ONE OF THE MOST INFALLIBLE MEANS OF

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

INFALLIBLE – means incapable of error

1) Fingerprints are already formed 3 to 4 months of intra-uterine life and will remain unchanged
throughout life until decomposition of the body sets
2) The patterns formed by the papillary ridges contains peculiar characteristics upon which a person
can always be identified
3) Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept, adopt and utilize
the fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification of a person

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 4) The court and other authorities had taken cognizance of its importance and reliability as a means of
identification.

Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System, or IAFIS,

The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System, or IAFIS, is a national fingerprint and
criminal history system that responds to request 24 hours a day, 365 days a year to help the local, state,
and federal partners and the investigators to solve and prevent crime and catch criminals and terrorist.
IAFIS provides automated fingerprint search capabilities, latent search capability, electronic image
storage, and electronic exchange of fingerprints and responses.

What is included in IAFIS?

Not only fingerprints, but corresponding criminal histories, mug shots; scars and tattoos photos; physical
characteristics, like height, weight, and hair and eye color; and alias.

How big it is?

IAFIS is the largest biometric database in the world, housing the fingerprints and criminal histories for
more than 153 million criminal and civil individuals at the end of July 2020, according to the FBI
monthly fact sheet.

How fast it works?

The average response time for an electronic criminal fingerprint submission is about 27 minutes, while
electronic civil submissions are processed within an hour and 12 minutes.

Five Key Services

1. Ten-Print-Based Fingerprint Identification Services

This consist of the submission of the ten-print fingerprint impressions and corresponding flat fingerprint
impressions.

Criminal Ten-print fingerprint submission: This is an acquired result of an arrest at the city, country, state,
or federal level. The fingerprints are processed locally and then forwarded via electronic transmission to a
state or federal agency system for processing. The mailed ten-print fingerprints cards are converted to an
electronic format in the IAFIS environment.

Civil Ten-print Fingerprint submission: Fingerprints are acquired for background checks for employment,
licensing, or other non-criminal justice purposes were authorized by federal and state law and in
compliance with appropriate regulations. Like criminal fingerprints are processed by local, state, or
federal agencies prior to being submitted to IAFIS for processing.

2. Latent Fingerprint Services

The IAFIS supports both electronic and hard copy submissions of latent prints. It provides the FBI
Laboratory with enhanced search capabilities using databases specially designed for matching latent
fingerprints. Latent fingerprint specialist returns decisions to the requestor and add any unidentified latent
fingerprints and their features to the unsolved latent fingerprint file.

3. Subject Search and Criminal History Services

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The Interstate Identification Index (III) segment of IAFIS is the national system designed to provide
automated criminal history record information. The III stores the criminal history record information of
federal offenders and those offenders established by participating and non-participating III states. Each
record is created through the submission of fingerprint images to IAFIS.

4. Document and Imaging Services Document Services

The IAFIS processes documents associated with criminal history records received in electronic, hard
copy, or machine-readable data formats. These documents include arrest dispositions, and other

updates.
Fingerprint Image Services: IAFIS supplies electronic images of fingerprints to authorized

agencies upon request.

Photo Services: IAFIS has the capability to accept, store, and distribute photos.

5. Remote Ten-Print and Latent Fingerprint Search Services

IAFIS supports remote ten-print and latent fingerprint searches by law enforcement agencies. The result
of remote ten-print and latent searches is returned electronically and include a list of potential matching
candidates and corresponding fingerprints for comparison and identification by the requesting agency.

Inkless prints are non-smear, it will reduce finger slippage in printing and cannot be erased. It also
provides clearer fingerprint patterns with better defined ridges and spaces.

What's the difference between AFIS and IAFIS?

AFIS is the generic term, IAFIS is the name of the FBI AFIS.

REFERENCES

Proceso T. Tubid: Dactyloscopy; Science of Fingerprint Identification and Classification (Manila,

Philippines)

Nabuo Yamauchi: Identification Science of fingerprint 2013

Vinluan and Buenavista: Advance Techniques in Dactyloscopy

Gerado Tumbaga: Notes in Science of Dactyloscopy (Unpublished)

Dr. Jezzrel Vicente: Notes in Dactyloscopy (Compiled Materials-unpublished)

http://www.fingerprint.tk

http://www.google.com.ph/search?q=modern+method+identification

Ariel L. Ayusip; Jesiebel T. Ayusip and

Dionesa R. Beraña- Handbook in

Personal Identification Techniques

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Dr. Edwin Taganas Montalba- Fingerprinting

Dr. Veneranda P Depayso – The Basics of Fingerprint, Palmprint & FootPrint

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