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CONTENTS vii
Attend to the Cultural Context 104

Final Thoughts on Interviewing 104
Summary 105
Collaborattve Activities 105
1'1 Interpersonal Problem Solving 106

• Connections 107
• Learner Objectives 107
• A Case for Collaboration 108
Introduction 108
A Context for Interpersonal Problem Solving 109
Reactive and Proactive Problem Solving 111
Problem Solving and Diversity 111
Deciding Whether to Problem Solve 112
Response to Intervention: A Special Type of Problem Solving 114
Steps in Interpersonal Problem Solving 115
Identifying the Problem 118
Generating Potential Solutions 122
Evaluating Potential Solutions 126
Selecting th e Solution 127
Implementing the Solution 128
Evaluating the Outcome 130
Putting the Problem-Solving Pieces Together 131
Summary 133
Collaborative Activities 133
II Teams 134
• Connections 135
Introduction 136
Team Concepts 137
Characteristics of Teams 138
Developmental Stages for Teams 141
Rationale for and Benefits of Teams 142
Drawbacks of Teams 144
Team Models 144
Disciplinary Relationships on Teams 145
Effectiveness of Teams 156
The Team's Goals Are Clear 156
Members' Needs Are Met 156
Members Have Individual Accountability 156
viii CONTENTS
Group Processes Maintain the Team 157

Team Members Have Leadership Skills 157
Collaboration and Teams 158
Summary 158
II Co-Teaching 160
• Connections 161
Introduction 162
Co-Teaching Concepts 162
Defining Characteristics of Co-Teaching 163
Rationale for Co-Teaching 166
Co-Teaching Approaches 168
One Teaching, One Observing 168
Station Teaching 170
Parallel Teaching 171
Alternative Teaching 172
Teaming 173
One Teaching, One Assisting 175
Co-Teaching and Collaboration 176
The Co-Teaching Relationship 176
Maintaining Collaborative Relationships in Co-Teaching 178
Administrative Matters Related to Co-Teaching 181
Time for Planning 182
Options for Creating Shared Planning Time 183
Summary 186
II Consultation, Coaching, and Mentoring 188

• Connections 189
Introduction 190
Consultation Concepts 190
Characteristics of Consultation 191
Rationale for and Benefits of Consultation 195
Consultation Models 196
Consultation Models in Practice 199
Consultation and Collaboration 200
CONTENTS ix
Coaching 201
Rationale for and Benefits of Coaching 202
Coaching Models 204
Coaching in Practice 205
Mentoring 206
The Impact of Mentoring 207
Issues Related to Indirect Services 208
Understanding of the Professional Relationships 208
Time Allocation for Professional Collaboration 209
Cultural Differences 209
Confidentiality 209
Summary 210
II Difficult Interactions 212

• Connections 213
Introduction 214
Understanding Conflict 215
Causes of Conflic t 217
Th e Influence of Organizational Variables 219
Conflict Response Styles 220
Resolvi ng Conflict Through Negotiation 223
Resolving Conflict Through Mediation 225
Confl ict and Diversity 227
Understanding Resistance 228
Ca uses of Resistance 229
Indicators of Resistance 23 1
Assessing Whether to Address Resistance 233
Persuasion as a Strategy for Responding to Resistance 233
Putting the Pieces Together 237
Summary 238
Appendix 9. 1 240
mParaeducators 244
• Connections 245
Introduction 246
x CONTENTS
Paraeducators in Public Schools 247

Paraeducator Qualifications 24 7
The Number of Paraeducators in Today's Schools 249
Paraeducator Roles and Responsibilities 250
Instructional Responsibilities 251
Noninstructional Responsibilities 252
Ethical Considerations 254
Paraeducators Supplement Instruction 254
Parent Communication and Input 255
The Problem of Proximity 256
Working with Paraeducators 256
Teaching Paraeducators About Their Roles and Responsibilities 257
Planning with Paraeducators 260
Assigning Responsibilities to Paraeducators 260
Communicating with Paraeducators 262
Supervising Paraeducators 263
Paraeducators and Collaboration 264
Summary 264
Ill Families 266

• Connections 267
Introduction 268
Understanding Families 269
Family Systems Theory 270
Family Life Cycles 272
Culturallnfluences 278
Unique Factors and Barriers to Collaboration 281
Facilitating Family Participation in Decision Making 283
Providing Information to Families 283
Assisting Families to Participate in Student-Centered Meetings 289
Summary 291
I!J Community and Interagency Contexts 292

• Connections 293
CONTENTS xi
Introduction 294
Community Contexts 295
Community Outreach 296
School-Community Partnerships 296
Community Liaisons 297
Interagency Contexts 299
Early Intervention and Preschool Settings 300
Vocational and Community-Based Services 303
Summary 306
II Issues Related to Education Collaboration 308

• Connections 309
Introduction 310
Professional Roles and Responsibilities 311
Working with Administrators 311
Working with Specialists from Other Disciplines 314
Working with Other Teachers 315
Systemic Barriers to Collaboration 317
Scheduling for Collaboration 317
Coordinating Services for Collaboration 321
Collaboration in the Electronic Age 322
Emerging Knowledge About Technology 323
Electronic Collaboration Tools 324
Collaboration and Students 325
Peer-Mediated Instruction 326
Technology-Centered Student Collaboration 327
Student-Professional Collaboration 328
Ethics in Collaborative Practice 328

Common Ethical Issues 329
Responding to Ethical Issues 330
Final Thoughts About Professional Collaboration 331
Summary 333
References 334
Name Index 356
Subject Index 371
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Features at a Glance
E-Partnerships
Chapter 1
Collaborating Through Blogging 20
Chapter 2
Using Old-Fashioned Technology to Your Advantage 37
Chapter 3
Using E-Mail Effectively 62
Chapter 4
Gathering Information Through Online Surveys 94
Chapter 5
Technology to Facilitate Problem Solving 115
Chapter 6
Using the Internet to Collaborate with Colleagues 149
Chapter 7
Using Wikis to Plan for Co-Teaching 184
Chapter 8
Virtual Coaching 205
Electronic Mentoring 207
Chapter 9
Skills for Difficult Interactions 221
Chapter 10
Paraeducators on the Web 259
Chapter 11
Families on the Web 288
Chapter 13
Collaboration 2.0? Twitter! 323
RSS: Sorting Through the Avalanche of Internet Information 325
Putting Ideas into Practice

Chapter 1
Working with Diverse Families 4
The Many Faces of School Collaboration 16
Internet Resources for Collaboration 18
Managing Stress 22
Chapter 2
Coming to Terms with Communication Terms 31
What Channel? 35
Perception Is a Selective Process 39
Managing Perceptions 41
xiii
xiv FEATURES AT A GLANCE
Developing Cultural Self-Awareness 43

Planning for and Evaluating a Communication Event 49
Chapter 3
Body Language Communicates Powerful Messages 60
Strategies for Successful Listening 69
Avoiding Pitfalls in Practicing Empathic Listening 72
Watch Out for Insincere Questions 74
Chapter 4
Conducting Interviews 86
Questioning Yourself 87
Seeking Information in Nonthreatening Ways 92
Generalities Require Closer Examination 93
Funnel Approaches to Sequencing Questions 97
Tips for Sharing Information 101
Quick Tips for Handling Uncooperative Communications 103
Chapter 5
When Problem Solving Is Not the Best Approach 114
Response to Intervention: Technical Problem Solving 116
Problem-Solving Practice 128
Chapter 6
A Checklist for Effective Teamwork 139
Managing Relationships During the Stages of Team Development 143
Three Models of Team Interaction 146
IDEA Guidelines for IEP Team Composition 155
Chapter 7
Starting Off for Success in Co-Teaching 167
Co-Teaching Dilemmas 174
Finding Common Planning Time 185
Making the Most of Common Planning Time 186
Chapter 8
Fidelity of Implementation: A Key to Consultation Effectiveness 194
Response to Intervention Through Consultation 196
Being a Consumer of Consultation, Coaching, or Mentoring 203
Chapter 9
Effective Negotiation 226
Addressing Difficult Interactions in Diverse Groups 228
Using Communication Skills During Difficult Interactions 237
Chapter 10
Delegating Responsibilities to Paraeducators 257
Communicating with Your Paraeducator 262
Chapter 11
Tasks and Functions at Four Family Life Stages 273
Enhancing Successful Transitions 275
Some Parental Concerns About Inclusion 276
Cultural Continua 280
FEATURES AT A GLANCE xv
Chapter 12
Getting the Most from the Pros 297
Ten Key Strategies for Effective Partnerships 298
Being a Valued Member of an Early Intervention or Preschool Team 302
Strategies for Enhancing Collaboration with Vocational Rehabilitation Counselors 306
Chapter 13
Strategies for Developing Administrative Support 313
A Basis in Research
Chapter 1
Does Collaboration Improve Student Achievement? 10
Chapter 3
Smile, if You Want the Full Scoop! 64
Teaching Communication Skills 67
Chapter 4
Some Evidence-Based Information About Questions 89
Chapter 5
Understanding How Bias May Occur in Interpersonal Problem Solving 112
Chapter 6
Successful Teamwork: Facilitators and Barriers 148
General Education Teachers and Pre-referral Teaming 154
Chapter 7
Co-Teaching: Promise Versus Evidence 164
Chapter 8
Demonstrating the Effectiveness of Behavioral Consultation 197
Chapter 9
Conflict in Special Education: Advocates and Due Process 218
Constructive Conflict and Psychological Safety 223
Chapter 10
Paraeducators Supporting Students from Diverse Backgrounds 253
Chapter 11
Family Involvement in and Satisfaction with Special Education Processes 284
Chapter 12
Factors That Affect Successful Interagency Collaboration 301
Chapter 13
Roles and Responsibilities of Novice General and Special Educators 316
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Preface
Collaboration has assumed a prominent role in twenty-first century society. It forms the
foundation of contemporary business models, defines practice in the health occupa-
tions, and, importantly, characterizes the most effective schools. Today's emphasis on
collaboration is not surprising: In a world that is now routinely electronically connected
so that thinking globally is required, and with unimaginable amounts of information
produced and available every day, collaboration has moved from being a luxury to a
necessity. Only by effectively working together can meaningful goals be reached.
Schools reflect what is occurring in our larger society. Diversity has grown expo-
nentially. Knowledge about instructional practices that can improve student outcomes is
more important than ever before, and educators are scrambling to respond to the federal
mandates that require increasingly high standards and a clear trajectory of improving
academic performance for all students, including those with disabilities and other spe-
cial needs. lt is into this complex but exhilarating context that we prepared this seventh
edition of Interactions: Collaboration Skills for School Professionals.
New to This Edition

Given the current climate-in both society and the field of education-we made many
significant changes to Interactions to ensure that it is up to date, accurate, and responsive
to feedback from those w ho teach from and use this book. To achieve that goal, these
are several of the most significant revisions for the seventh edition:
• As collaboration has become more integral to schools, the importance of addressing

diverse professionals has become apparent. In this edition of Interactions, far more ex-
amples and applications are provided for general education teachers, related services
professionals, ESL teachers, and other specialists (e.g., literacy coaches). We still focus
on students with disabilities and the professionals who teach them, but we have tried
diligently to welcome everyone to the concepts and practices of collaboration.
• Our colleagues have told us that they prefer that the building blocks of collaboration-
interpersonal communication skills-be taught before anything else. In response,
we have moved those chapters from the back of the book (Chapters 9, 10, and 11
in the sixth edition) to the front (Chapters 2, 3, and 4 in this edition).
• Even more important, the information contained in the communication skills chap-
ters is one of the most significant changes for this edition. Emphasis in communica-
tion studies has moved toward highly integrated models and our chapters reflect this
notion, especially Chapter 4, which now uses interviewing as a vehicle for building
skills for both asking appropriate questions and making effective statements.
• Perhaps a reflection of collaboration's evolution in schools, the chapter titled "Practi-
cal Matters" in the previous edition was dropped. It's not that topics such as planning
time and scheduling are not important. Instead, those topics have been integrated
with other materials (e.g., the need for common planning time is now addressed in
Chapter 7 on co-teaching). Other topics (e.g., providing professional development)
were left on the editing floor so that other material could be added.
• Yet another major change in this edition is a new chapter on interagency and com-
munity collaboration (Chapter 12) . Based on concepts introduced as a trend in
the final chapter of the sixth edition, this new chapter gives partnerships across
xvii
xviii PREFACE
organizations (e.g., school-university, school-agency) and with the community the

attention they deserve.
• Some topics are not new, but they have been significantly updated. For example,
with response to intervention (RTI) now a common procedure in schools, the chap-
ter on interpersonal problem solving (Chapter 5) has been changed to reflect the
fact that the type of problem solving that occurs in RTI is somewhat different from
the problem solving that has typically characterized collaboration.
• Another chapter that received significant updates is Chapter 6 on teams. The focus
has shifted from types of teams and team theory to practices that help teams more
effectively and efficiently reach their goals.
• One topic with expanded coverage in this edition is electronic collaboration. Fea-
tures related to this topic (called "e-Partnerships") emphasize using technology as a
tool for professional partnerships. Chapter 13 offers additional resources for educa-
tors as they explore the power of the Internet as a vehicle for shared work.
These are not the only changes made to enhance the quality and timeliness of In-
teractions. Case studies at the beginning of each chapter can be the basis for discussion
about the information provided throughout that chapter. Additional information on
student collaboration was added. Many of the features are updated or replaced, and over
250 new references help ensure the material is current. We sincerely hope you'll find the
entire package of revisions helpful.
Overview of the Book

Our goal in preparing this edition of Interactions has been to keep the foundation on
which this book has always been based: Interactions contains a measured amount of
theory and conceptual principles heavily seasoned with examples, cases, and applied
activities. It is written specifically to enable readers to quickly use in their professional
settings the knowledge and skills they acquire. We intend for the book to be a useful tool
for preservice educators and practitioners in improving their skills and deepening their
understanding, whether they are engaged in formal instructional settings, study groups,
or independent study. Moreover, because many interaction situations are complex with
many possible variations and outcomes, we have tried to present possibilities yet still
leave the reader thinking critically about personal applications and alternative options.
We have had the good fortune of working and learning with talented teachers, ad-
ministrators, parents, paraprofessionals, and providers of related services as they devel-
oped collaboration skills and specific applications of collaboration. We have benefitted
immensely from our interactions with these diverse educators who are implementing
collaborative practices, and we believe that much of what we have learned is reflected
in the pages of this seventh edition of Interactions. Specifically, we have maintained our
core of information about collaboration concepts and applications, significantly revised
some material from the sixth edition (as noted previously), omitted a few topics that
are a lower priority in today's schools, reorganized the order of the chapters in response
to student and instructor feedback, and augmented the practical applications of the
textbook's ideas.
Chapter 1 presents a conceptual foundation for understanding collaborative inter-
actions and activities as well as the settings and structures that support them. In this
chapter we define collaboration and highlight its benefits and risks. In addition, we
distinguish collaboration from other terms that are sometimes used interchangeably, and
PREFACE xix
we explore the development of collaboration as it relates to special education, including

the current trend to educate students with disabilities and other special needs in general
education classrooms. Also included is the twenty-first century context of collaboration
as it pertains to fields beyond education .
Chapters 2, 3, and 4 introduce the communication skills on which effective col-
laboration rests. Chapter 4 provides an integrated structure for learning and applying
communication skills by focusing on the topic of interviewing.
Chapter 5 builds from the communication skills by introducing the key interaction
process in which those skills are used and the most central process in professional col-
laboration: interpersonal problem solving. It draws on but is differentiated from profes-
sional skills for individual problem solving. Most educational collaborative applications
involve some type of problem-solving process; therefore, the information in this chapter
is integral to all the chapters that follow.
The next three chapters of Interactions explore school services and applications in
which success relies heavily on collaboration. Chapter 6 addresses the topic of teaming,
including ideas for establishing and maintaining teams and problem solving to help
teams work effectively. Teaming is addressed in a pragmatic manner that emphasizes the
nature of teams and how to make them function effectively as well as what to do when
problems arise. Chapter 7 takes up the topic of co-teaching, the service delivery option
in which two educators share instructional responsibility in a single classroom. Among
this group of chapters, this one perhaps signals more than any other the evolution of and
increased interest in professional collaboration. Suggestions for setting up co-teaching
programs and specific information about how such arrangements should function are
provided, as are ideas for the universal co-teaching issue: the need for common planning
time. Chapter 8 presents indirect service models, including consultation, coaching, and
mentoring. Emphasis is placed not only on guidelines for providing these services but
also on receiving them.
Chapter 9 deals with awkward and adversarial interactions by focusing on both con-
flict and resistance. Strategies such as negotiation and persuasion are emphasized. These
require the use of many of the interactive processes and communication skills addressed
in the previous interpersonal communication section of the text. When professionals
implement the collaborative approaches from the preceding three chapters, the value of
the information in this chapter quickly becomes apparent.
Chapter lO represents a shift to a different dimension of collaboration: the unique
circumstances of role-specific collaboration . It focuses on the use of paraeducators in
providing services to students with special needs. This chapter outlines appropriate and
inappropriate roles for paraeducators, professionals' supervisory responsibilities when
working with paraeducators, and issues that may arise when paraeducators are part of an
educational team. Practical ideas for interactions with this valuable group of educators
is a central theme for this chapter.
Chapter l l considers in detail the nature of professional interactions with parents
and families. The chapter reminds educators of the history as well as the current roles
of families in the education of students with disabilities and other special needs, and it
provides an overview of family systems theory. It stresses strategies for effectively inter-
acting with family members, with particular emphasis on families from diverse cultural
groups. More than anything, this chapter focuses on how to ensure that family members
are truly partners in educational decision making for their children.
Chapter 12 is entirely new. We find that collaboration often extends beyond a single
school site and therefore decided that interagency and community collaboration should
receive focused attention in Interactions.
XX PREFACE
Chap ter 13 provides a conclusion to this book by exploring trends and issues related
to collaboration. Collaborative efforts are influenced by the roles of the persons who
collaborate, on a topic explored in the chapter. Other issues are raised as well, including
systemic barriers that may impede collaboration, collaboration in the electronic age,
student collaboration, and the future of collaboration , including ethical matters that
may be encountered.
The features in the seventh edition include most of those from previous editions of
Interactions, and others have been added or revised. The features include the following:
Orienting graphic. At the opening of each chapter is a graphic that depicts

five components of collaboration and their relationship to one another.
The components consist of personal commitment, communication skills,
interaction processes, programs or services, and context. These are components
of the framework described in Chapter l. The components most relevant to the
content are highlighted in the icons at the opening of each chapter.
Connections. Each chapter begins with a section entitled "Connections," which is
designed to assist the reader in understanding how the specific chapter content
relates to material in other chapters and to the overall organization of the book.
Learner Obj ectives. Each Connections section is followed by Leam er Objectives,
which inform the reader about the main purposes of the chapter. The
objectives also help the reader set expectations for what he or she will be able
to do after studying the chapter.
A Case for Collaboration. Instructors have shared with us that realistic cases in
which professional candidates can apply what they are learning are particularly
effective learning tools. In response to this, we have added to each chapter
in this edition a case designed to encourage this application. The case is
introduced at the beginning of the chapter, but it also is referred to several
times as relevan t concepts are introduced. This strategy provides a mechanism
for ongoing class discussion of the material.
Photographs. In the seventh edition, photographs are inserted to illustrate
collaboration in action.
Case materials. Brief case descriptions and vignettes occur throughout the text
to illustrate relevant concepts and principles. These often include descriptions
of specific school situations and extended dialog between professionals or
parents. The goal is to bring the concepts and skills to life for professional
candidates.
Putting Ideas into Practice. In each chapter, additional elaboration of concepts
or skills practice is offered in Putting Ideas into Practice boxes. These boxes
are another means of making written ideas come to life for application in real
school settings.
A Basis in Research. A research base is developing in the area of collaboration
and research-based practices are increasingly necessary. This feature, titled "A
Basis in Research ," highlights pertinent research findings related to the topics
addressed in the chapter.
e-Partnerships. Given the rapidly growing use of technology across disciplines
and across topics, it was inevitable that electronic collaboration should become
part of this book. In nearly every chap ter, you will find a feature that addresses
a technology application. Most focus on the use of technology to facilitate
collaboration .
Chapter summaries. Each chapter concludes with a bullet-point summary in
which the major points addressed in the chapter are recapped. The summaries
PREFACE xxi
are intended to assist readers in reviewing their understanding of the chapter's

primary concepts.
Activities and diso1ssion. Application items are found at the end of each
chapter. At least one application refers to the introductory case, and
consideration has been given to the very real need for candidates to be able
to address the activities during a class session without accessing outside
resources. These exercises also may be used as out-of-class or independent
assignments.
Our text is accompanied by an Online Instructor's Manual and Online Power Point
Presentation, both accessible to you at the Instructor's Resource Center at http://www.
pearsonhighered.com. To access the manual and online PowerPoint slides, go to http://
www.pearsonhighered.com and click on the Instructor's Resource button. Here you will
be able to login or complete a one-time registration for a user name and password. The
manual includes chapter outlines, additional activities and cases, and a test bank. It pro-
vides many more resources for teaching about collaboration than can be placed within
the pages of the book itself.
We hope the seventh edition of Interactions: Collaboration Skills for School Professionals
is useful to you and that you enjoy reading it. We continue to hold to our belief that
collaboration is the foundation on which su ccessful contemporary public sch ools are
based, as well as the most effective means to provide services to students with disabilities
and other special needs. If you are reading this material as a teacher, teacher candidate,
or other preprofessional, we hope this edition of Interactions helps you further under-
stand collaboration as it occurs in your workplace and enables you to refine your skills
as a collaborative educator. If you are an instructor, we hope you find the revisions we
have made useful as you prepare professionals for today's schools.
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, we want to thank all the teachers, administrators, families, related
services personnel, paraeducators, and other school personnel with whom we work for
their wisdom and insights about what it takes to make collaboration a reality. Whether
you are in our classes, in schools where we are working or gathering data, in professional
development sessions we conduct, or are electronic communication partners, we learn a
huge amount from you , directly and indirectly, and we try to apply those lessons in Inter-
actions. We also are indebted to our colleagues who teach coursework on collaboration
and who engage us in fascinating discussions of topics related to contemporary educa-
tion. As we write and edit, we are frequently using your though ts to guide our own. Even
though we cannot name all of you, we hope you see your perspectives reflected in this
edition and know of our appreciation.
We also would like to thank the following colleagues who provided professional
reviews of the sixth edition of Interactions to make suggestions for the seventh edition:
Roberta C. Brack Kaufman, University of South Dakota; Janetta L. Bradley, The Univer-
sity of Tennessee at Chattanooga; Juliet Hart, Arizona State University; Suzanne Kemp,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln; Mary Ann Maslak, St. John's University; and Julie A.
Seguin, California State University-Dominguez Hills. We appreciate the time and care
it takes to review a book and recognize the challenges of fitting an additional commit-
ment into your busy schedules. We appreciate the detailed and insightful comments and
suggestions you provided and we incorporated as many of them as we could into these
pages. We sincerely hope that you can see your influence.
xxii PREFACE
Throughout the development of this edition of Interactions, we received guidance,

encouragement, and advice from the professional staff at Pearson. We appreciate the
efforts of Steve Dragin, our editor, who steered us through the revision process. His
input on everything from chapter topics to cover art was truly instrumental in shaping
the seventh edition. We also want to profusely thank Alicia Reilly, our developmental
editor. Alicia offers the perfect mix of careful attention to detail, gentle reminders about
deadlines, direct communication when something is amiss (like overdue chapters), and
all the positive support and patience that any authors could hope for. We'd also like
to thank j anet Domingo for her leadership in the actual production process, as well as
Karla Walsh and the team at Electronic Publishing Services for their role in making sure
that all the editing, corrections, and other details of moving from manuscript to book
were addressed.
Bruce Brandon (Marilyn's husband) and Fred Weintraub (Lynne's husband) once
more demonstrated the kindness, encouragement, talent, and patience that allow us to
maintain our productive long-distance collaboration. They put up with the long hours
we spent in our respective offices; they helped cover for our neglect of family respon-
sibilities; they listened as we sorted out difficult concepts and fretted about deadlines;
and they helped us maintain a healthy perspective on our work and our lives (at least
to the extent that we will listen and heed their advice). Bruce and Fred probably should
be listed as out-of-field authors for Interactions, given the amount of assistance they pro-
vided. We know we're fortunate (and then some) to have such wonderful spouses. We
don't tell them often enough how much we appreciate their support and help. Thanks,
Bruce and Fred-we know we could not have done this without you.
Marily n Friend
Lynne Cook
INTERACTIONS
Bob Daemmrich I A lamy
Foundations and
Perspectives
Personal Communication Interaction Programs
Context
Commitment Skills Processes or Services
Connections
Collaboration is essential to the practices of effective educators and the culture of suc-
cessful schools. Chapter l begins your journey of the study of collaboration and lays the
groundwork for all the information contained in subsequent chapters. ln Chapter l , you
will learn what collaboration is (and is not) and how it fits into a broader societal context.
You will also find out about the increasing attention collaboration is receiving throughout
education as well as some of the challenges educators face as their collaborative responsi-
bilities increase. Finally, you will be introduced to a framework for studying collaboration
that serves as the organizational structure for this textbook
Learner Objectives
After reading this chapter you will be able to:

l. Define collaboration and describe its critical characteristics, distinguishing it from
related but distinctly different concepts.
2. Outline the importance of collaboration from a broad societal perspective,
including its place in disciplines such as business, health, and human services.
3. Analyze the place of collaboration within contemporary schools in the context
of current legislation and other reform initiatives, including formal and informal
collaborative practices.
4. Outline several challenges that may arise as educators increase their collaborative
activities in schools.
5. Describe a framework for studying collaboration.
1
2 CHAPTER ONE
A CASE FOR COLLABORATION

A Day in the Life ...
H olmes County School District prides itself on its efforts related to collaboration. At the district level, administra-
tors meet regularly, and any initiative considered is examined in terms of its impact on all students, including
those who are high achievers, those who are average, those who struggle to learn, those who are English learners,
and those who have disabilities. Principals are held accountable for fostering a collaborat ive cult ure in their schools,
and applicants for any job in the district are asked a number of questions about working with others, even when it is
difficu lt. Here are examples of professionals' typical days and their col laborative roles in their schools.
Ms. Maharrin is a middle school social studies teacher. In addition to her daily teach ing responsibilities, she is a
member of her school's leadership team, and so today she attends a team meeting from 7:30 to 8:15am to discuss
several issues, including t he staff development plan for t he next school year. At lunch, Ms. Maharrin arranges to meet
with Mr. Newby, the school psychologist, to design an intervention for the new student from Somalia who is expe-
riencing considerable frust ration in the classroom. Ms. Maharrin knows the upcoming field trip will be the primary
topic for discussion during her team preparation period, and during her individual preparation period she needs to
call two parents. After school, she plans to meet with her assistant principal, Mr. O kolo, to discuss the peer t utoring
program the university interns wou ld like to establish. At the end of the day, Ms. Maharrin wryly thinks to herself that
on days like today teaching her students seems t o be the smallest part of her j ob-something she never would have
imagined when she entered the teaching profession 19 years ago.
Mr. Mendez is a second-year student support teacher (SSD at Hawthorne High School. Mr. Mendez begins each
day touching base with his colleagues in the math department and working on paperwork. Once classes begin at
7:50am, he spends the morning co-teaching two sections of Algebra I and teaching one section of a study skills
class that has a math emphasis. During his preparation period, he meets with two students and the counselor about
problems the student s are experiencing in their classes. He also prepares d irections for the paraprofessional who
is assigned to support Matt, a student wit h significant physical disabilities, in a biology class and a geometry class.
Mr. Mendez has time in his schedule for his assessment and individualized education program (IEP) writing respon-
sibilities, and this afternoon begins with an annual review and transition planning meeting for one of the students
on his caseload. After school, he works on lesson plans, meets briefly with Ms. Meyers, the social studies teacher
with whom he cochairs the school's response to intervention (RTI) team, and makes a parent phone ca ll. Mr. Mendez
considers himself an advocate for students on his caseload, but he also knows that he influences teachers' th inking
about student s who are at risk. He finds that he must pay close attention to the personalities of the teachers with
whom he works; if he establishes a strong working relationship with them, students are the beneficiaries.
Mrs. Lee is a literacy coach at River Bend Elementary School. Her primary responsibility is to assist teachers,
especially those in the first two years of their teaching careers, to increase student achievement in reading and writ-
ing . Her job usually does not include directly teaching students unless it is to model a technique or demonstrate a
strategy. Thus, Mrs. Lee spends her time observing in classrooms, meeting with teachers individually and in small
groups, advising the principal about needs she identifies related to literacy, conducting staff development on spe-
cific strategies and approaches, and analyzing and sharing literacy dat a with school staff members. She also works
closely with the school's parent advisory group to help fami lies foster literacy at home. Sometimes Mrs. Lee misses
her days as a t eacher with its clear patterns and t he joy of seeing her students succeed, but she also knows
that she helps more students now by working with all the teachers and families and that her current job
brings a different kind of satisf action.
FOUNDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 3
Introduction
Of all the complex tasks facing educators today, none is as demanding or as critical as creat-
ing a school culture of collaboration because it is a foundation of collaboration that enables
all the other work of educators to be successful. To accomplish this goal, each person who
works in schools must have the disposition, knowledge, and skills to collaborate. For exam-
ple, each of the professionals just described has adult-adult interactions as a significant job
responsibility. Ms. Maharrin, whose primary responsibility is instruction, also is expected
to work with colleagues and parents. Half of Mr. Mendez's teaching occurs in partnership
with general education teachers in that setting. Mrs. Lee's job illustrates the emphasis today
on improving student outcomes. School leaders have realized that teachers need support
in their classrooms in order to ensure that all students access the general curriculum and
reach high standards. Taken together, these professional interactions illustrate three critical
points for understanding the premise of this text.
First, collaboration has become an integral part of today's schools (e.g., Barth, 2006;
Conderman & johnston-Rodriguez, 2009; DuFour, DuFour, & Eaker, 2008). In the past,
educators who were not very effective in working with other adults were often excused
with a comment such as, "But she's really good with students." Although working effec-
tively with students obviously is still the most important aspect of educators' jobs, it is not
enough. Everyone in schools-including special and general education teachers, adminis-
trators, related services providers, and other specialists-needs the knowledge and skills
to work with colleagues, paraprofessionals, and parents. This is true in early childhood
programs, in elementary schools, and in middle and high schools. It is true in schools that
are still regarded as traditional in terms of programs and services as well as in those leading
the way in educational innovation. Part of the reason for the importance of collaboration is
the general trend of expanding and increasingly complex responsibilities, which are more
realistically addressed when professionals pool their talents (e.g., Hindin, Morocco, Mott,
& Aguilar, 2007; Kochhar-Bryant, 2008; Martinez, 2010). Part of it is legislation setting
high standards for academic achievement and clear accountability systems for all students
(e.g., Love, 2009; U.S. Department of Education, 2010), and part of it is the continued
trend toward inclusive practices (Santoli, Sachs, Romey, & McClurg, 2008; Smith, 2007).
Second, examples of professionals' collaborative activities demonstrate that such
interactions occur both formally and informally. School leadership teams, middle school
teams, co-teaching teams, teams that meet to discuss students who are struggling to
learn, and consultative meetings are representative of the growth of formal structures and
activities in schools that rely on collaboration for success. Models emphasizing collabora-
tion such as these are described in detail later in this text. Meetings between teachers to
respond to immediate student needs and phone calls to parents are examples of informal
collaboration. Both types of collaboration are important. However, informal collaboration
often occurs whether or not a context for collaboration has been fostered and whether or
not any formal structures for collaboration are in place. Formal collaboration typically
requires that strong leadership has ensured that a collaborative school culture-one that
values collegial interactions-has been created.
Third, this text is based on the belief that collaboration is the common thread in
many current initiatives for school reform (McCoach et al., 2010). Collaboration is crucial
as educators move to implement RTI practices, differentiate instruction, meet standards
of accountability for student achievement as measured through high-stakes testing, and
design and implement local professional development strategies. Likewise, collaboration
is crucial as professionals work with the parents and families of their increasingly diverse
4 CHAPTER ONE
PUTTING IDEAS INTO PRACTICE ~

Working with Diverse Families
Collaborating with the parents and family members As a professional educator, you can enhance your inter-
of your students is one of your first responsibilities actions with diverse families by using strategies such as
as a professional educator, and doing this requires an the following:
understanding of the diversity and needs they rep-
l . Be sure to know the correct last name of every
resent. Ray (2005) offers some examples of family
parent, regardless of the family structure.
characteristics or circumstances and challenges that
2. Avoid language that implies that "family" refers
may arise.
only to traditional family structure.
3. Regardless of family structure, offer information to
• Single-parent families may experience a great deal
parents or caregivers on their children's strengths
of stress and isolation, and the children from these
and abilities.
families are more likely than other children to live
4. Avoid making requests that may place parents
in poverty.
in an uncomfortable position related to time or
• Blended families, in which parents have children
money. Some families cannot afford to contribute
from former relationships, may need time to
materials for classrooms, and some parents
bond and to resolve issues related to child
cannot come to conferences during typical school
rearing (e.g., discipline). Sibling rivalry also
hours or on a specific day; therefore, options and
may occur.
alternatives should be offered.
• Multigenerational families, in which grandparents,
5 . Remember that projects and activities that presume
great-grandparents, or other relatives care for
students are part of a traditional family may not
children, may face economic challenges, and the
be appropriate. For example, alternatives should
energy required to raise children may be daunting
be found to creating a family tree and making
for the caregiver.
Mother's Day gifts.
• Foster families are, by nature, temporary,
6 . In some cases-for example, when grandparents
and so the bonds may be a bit different from
or great-grandparents are raising children-you
those in other families; children in foster
may need to explain school procedures if these
families may experience stress because of not
caregivers are unfamiliar with them.
knowing exactly what the next steps in their
lives may be. Most important, all educators should reflect on their own
• Same-sex families often face societal beliefs about nontraditional families and set aside any
discrimination, and some teachers may feel assumptions they may have about them. Being positive
uncomfortable interacting with these parents. with students and families and being alert to and stop-
Legal issues related to topics such as access to ping teasing or bullying of students from these families
school records also may arise. are your responsibilities as a professional educator.
student groups. An initial illustration of this point is captured in Putting Ideas into Practice,
which explores challenges that families may face and ways educators may effectively inter-
act with them. Collaboration also is part of special education through initial referral and
assessment procedures, IEP development, service delivery approaches, conflict resolution,
and parent participation.
This book, then, is about effective interactions. It presents the universal concepts, princi-
ples, skills, and strategies that all school professionals can use to enhance their shared efforts
to educate their students. Although slight variations in practice may occur related to one's
specific area of expertise (teacher, special educator, speech/language therapist, or administra-

tor), learning about collaboration generally is truly an area that brings educators together.
Collaboration Concepts
The term collaboration is something of an educational buzzword. One can easily get the
sense that collaboration is viewed as the preferred approach in nearly any school situa-
tion. It is touted as the mechanism through which school reform can be accomplished
(Anderson-Butcher et a!., 2010; Dufour et a!., 2008; Sagor, 2009) and the instrument
through which diverse student needs can be met (Olivos, 2009; Sm1rez-Orozco, Onaga, &
de Lardemelle, 2010; van Garderen, Scheuermann ,jackson, & Hampton, 2009). Principals
are admonished to use a collaborative leadership style (e.g., Hines, 2008), and teachers are
encouraged to use collaboration to improve student outcomes (e.g., Garrett, 2010; Levine
& Marcus, 2007; Martinez, 2010/2011). Unfortunately, the term collaboration often is care-
lessly used and occasionally misapplied, as suggested in Figure l.l.
Despite all the current discussion about collaboration, definitions of the term have
remained unclear, which has contributed to confusion about its character and implemen-
tation. In fact, some dictionary definitions of collaboration include reference to treason or
working together for sinister purposes! ln education literature and practice, you may find
that collaboration either is used as a synonym for related but distinctly different concepts
addressed elsewhere in this book-including teaming, consultation, co-teaching, and
inclusion-or is not defined at all beyond a sense of working together (e.g., Gleckel &
Koretz, 2008; Kampwirth & Powers, 2012; Sagar, 2009). Because we firm ly believe that
a precise understanding of the term collaboration is far more than semantics, we begin by
carefully defining it. Knowing what collaboration is and is not and how it applies to school
initiatives and other applications can help you articulate your practices, set appropriate
expectations for yourself, and positively influence others to interact collaboratively.
FIGURE 1.1 Some of the many misunde rstandings about colla boration in schools.
At m11 school. we CoL!a.bora.tioft-

rea.L!11 believe tft Collabomtioft is wha.t
tha.t's wha.t we ca.L!
co lLa.bo mtio ft. We colla.bo mte with f10 U ao outsiae oj
our proj essiofta.l
We ta lk all the time. Colla.bom te? pa.reftts. We tr11 to be class. Co-teachif'lg is
aevelopmef'lt
Co-tea.ch? I thought rea.ll11 dea.r if'l our wha.t f10U ao Lft class.
progmm.
those were two terms expecta.tio f1.S j o r
jor the sa.me thif'lg. pa.ref'lt particlpa.tiof'l.
yo- I Fotolia. com lnna Astakhova I Shutterstock vgstudio I Shutterstock kurhan I Shutterslock Christian Schwier I Fotolia.com
6 CHAPTER ONE
Definition
The term collaboration is used frequently in casual conversation, but it also has a technical
definition that characterizes it as a unique professional concept:
Interpersonal collaboration is a style for direct interaction between at least two coequal parties
voluntarily engaged in shared decision making as they work toward a common goal.
Notice that we call collaboration a style. In the same way that writers use various
styles to convey information to readers so, too, do individuals use interpersonal styles or
approaches in their interactions with one another. Some professionals may choose to be
directive when they interact; others may choose to be accommodative or facilitative; still
others may choose to be collaborative. At first glance, referring to collaboration as a style
may appear to detract from its significance by equating it with something ephemeral and
seemingly lacking in substance. However, using this definition enables you to distinguish
the nature of the interpersonal relationship-that is, collaboration-occurring during
shared interactions from the activities themselves, such as teaming, problem solving, or
co-teaching.
As just implied, because collaboration is a style of interaction, it cannot exist in isola-
tion. It can occur only when it is used by people who are engaged in a specific process, task,
or activity. To clarify this point, consider the following: If colleagues mentioned to you that
they were collaborating, would you know what they were doing? Probably not. They could
be collaboratively discussing strategies for supporting a student who has just enrolled at the
school, sharing the responsibilities for an academic lesson in a co-teaching arrangement,
or planning an interdisciplinary unit. What the term collaboration conveys is how the activ-
ity is occurring-that is, the nature of the interpersonal relationship occurring during the
interaction and the ways in which individuals are communicating with one another. Think
about this in relation to Ms. Maharrin, Mr. Mendez, and Mrs. Lee. In what activities are they
engaged? Are these activities likely candidates for collaboration?
Defining Characteristics of Collaboration

Considered alone, the definition we have presented only hints at the subtleties of collabora-
tion. Through our writing (e.g., Cook & Friend, 2010; Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain, &
Shamberger, 2010), our own ongoing collaboration, and our experience facilitating the col-
laboration of others, we have identified several elements of collaboration that we refer to as
defining characteristics, as they more fully explain the basic definition.
Collaboration Is Voluntary It is not possible to force people to use a particular style

in their interactions with others. States may pass legislation, school districts may adopt
policy, and principals may implement programs; but unless school professionals and their
colleagues choose to collaborate, they will not do so. Perhaps the best illustration of this
notion is the increasingly common mandate that professionals collaborate in designing and
implementing programs for students with special needs in general education classes. If you
are familiar with a school where this expectation is in place, you probably also are aware
that some teachers are unwilling to collaborate, regardless of the mandate. For example, a
teacher may spend a significant amount of time complaining about the demands of teaching
certain students, apparently unaware that this is time that otherwise could be spent col-
laboratively designing instruction to help these students succeed. If that individual attends
meetings as required but undermines the reading specialist's, English as a second language
(ESL) teacher's, or special educator's efforts to support students, he or she is not collaborat-
ing in the sense outlined in this chapter. The professional relationship is constrained, the
students are still in the classroom, and the specialist or special educator bears most of the
responsibility for making accommodations. Similarly, a specialist or special educator may

repeatedly express doubts that student needs can be addressed in a general education set-
ting. If this time were spent designing and carefully implementing strategies for supporting
students, the concern could be addressed with data that would support or refute it.
Alternatively, a professional unsure about inclusive practices-whether it be a special
educator, a general educator, a bilingual educator, or another professional-can express
anxiety and uncertainty, but that person also may work closely with others to support
students with special needs. ln essence, schools and other education agencies can mandate
administrative arrangements that require staff to work in close proximity, but only the
individuals involved can decide whether a collaborative style will be used in their interac-
tions. In our work in schools, we sometimes find ourselves emphasizing that there is no
such thing as collaboration by coercion.
Does this mean that people cannot collaborate if programs are mandated? Not at all.
Consider the situation at Jefferson High School, where general education teachers have
been notified that each department will have collaborative planning time for the upcoming
school year and will be expected to develop common assessments, implement consistent
grading practices, and gather data to guide instructional practices. Mr. Turner might say,
"1 understand the need for us to be consistent in our work with students, but I'm not sure
about this. I'm worried that this is going to take away my creativity as a teacher. But if we
all work together, perhaps we can improve our students' achievement." The mandate is
present, but so is the teacher's voluntariness to carry out the mandate, even though he and
others may be voicing objections to it or ignoring it.
As with the other characteristics of collaboration described in this section, it is impor-
tant to think about voluntariness through a lens of cultural diversity. For example, you may
interact with parents from a culture in which school and learning is the business of teach-
ers and administrators, not parents. The typical notion of collaboration may be invalid,
in part because the parents do not adopt the style because it would never occur to them
that this would be appropriate. What are other interactions in which the characteristic of
voluntariness may be affected by cultural differences? How might this affect your efforts at
collaboration with colleagues? With paraprofessionals? With others?
Collaboration Requires Parity Among Participants Parity is a relationship status in

which each person's contribution to an interaction is equally valued, and each person has
equal power in decision making; it is fundamental to collaboration. If one or several indi-
viduals are perceived by others as having significantly greater decision-making power or
more valuable knowledge or information, collaboration cannot occur. To illustrate, think
about a principal's participation on a multidisciplinary team. lf the principal is considered
to have equal, not disproportionately greater, power in the decision-making process, other
team members may disagree with the principal's position, and the team's ultimate decision
may be one the principal did not support. Without parity, it is likely that some team mem-
bers will acquiesce to the principal's preferences because of concern about repercussions
for disagreeing. Another example can provide further illustration: In an interdisciplinary
teaching team, when one content-area (e.g., biology) teacher believes that another (e.g.,
English) does not have expertise to contribute to the instructional planning, parity is
unlikely to develop. Look back at the case at the beginning of this chapter. How could the
concept of parity affect each educator's roles and responsibilities?
As with the notion of voluntariness, a discussion of parity must include consideration
of diversity. For example, several young female special educators from a single school
once shared privately that they were concerned about their roles when co-teaching. In
their culture, younger people are expected to defer to those who are older. They found
that even in their professional environment, their colleagues expected them to take all
8 CHAPTER ONE
direction and to function more as helpers than partners, and they were very discouraged
about changing this, given the strong cultural basis for the situation. Even gender may
sometimes be a factor in establishing parity, with either a male or a female educator per-
ceiving imbalance in the value attributed to the contribution. ln another example, think
about parity when professionals interact with parents from a culture different from theirs.
Who might be perceived as having the power to control the interaction? How might
parents communicate based on their perception of whether their contribution is valued?
Keep in mind that individuals may have parity as they work together on a specific col-
laborative activity even though they do not have parity in other situations. For example,
you may have parity in interactions with a paraprofessional to plan a community-based
activity, but you may interact directively and with appropriately greater authority and
decision-making power when giving instructions to the same paraprofessional about
working with students. Similarly, administrators and staff on a curriculum committee
may have parity; outside of the committee, though, the relationship among the members
may be marked ly different.
Collaboration Is Based on Mutual Goals Individuals who collaborate must share

at least one goal. Imagine a meeting at which a decision must be reached about what
specially designed instruction and related services a student should receive and the
setting in which they should be delivered. In one sense, the mutual goal of designing
an appropriate education program seems to be obvious. In reality, however, at least
two goals may be under consideration. The parents, social worker, and principal might
think that the student should be in a general education setting for most of the day,
whereas the special education teacher, general education teacher, and psychologist
might believe-because of professional literature they have read and their interactions
with the student-that great care needs to be taken before there is any discussion of
placement in a general education setting. ln this case, a collaborative group will look
at the greater goal of designing a program in the best interests of the student and will
resolve their differences. ln a group without a strong commitment to collaboration, the
focus is likely to remain on the apparently disparate goals, and the matter may become
contentious.
Professionals do not have to share many or all goals in order to collaborate, just one
that is specific and important enough to maintain their shared commitment. They may
differ in their opinions about a new student's achievement potential but share the goal of
ensuring that the student participate in the remedial reading program. Their differences can
be set aside as not being essential to the immediate issue. They may agree that a student
with multiple needs coming to the school should spend most of the school day with typical
peers but disagree about who should have primary teaching responsibility for the student,
how appropriate supports should be put in place, and what arrangement should be made
for assessing student progress.
Collaboration Depends on Shared Responsibility for Participation and Decision

Making If you collaborate with a colleague, you are assuming the responsibility of actively
engaging in the activity and the decision making it involves. We have found it useful to dis-
tinguish between responsibility for completing tasks associated with the collaborative activ-
ity and responsibility for the decision making involved in that activity. Shared participation
in task completion does not imply that the individuals involved must divide tasks equally
or participate fully in each task required to achieve their goal. In fact, participation in the
activity often involves a convenient division of labor. For instance, as a speech/language
therapist, you might collaborate with a kindergarten teacher to plan a series of language
lessons for the entire class. You volunteer to outline the concepts that should be addressed
and to prepare several activities related to each. The teacher agrees to locate needed materi-
als and to plan student groupings and instructional schedules for the lessons. In this case,
you and the teacher are both actively participating in accomplishing the task, even though
the division of labor may not be equal.
The second component of responsibility concerns equal participation in the critical
decision making involved in the activity. In the example just described, you and the teacher
had different responsibilities for the task, but to be collaborative you must participate
equally in deciding the appropriateness of and possible needed adjustments in the mate-
rial you prepare, and you are equally responsible for deciding whether the grouping and
proposed schedule are workable.
Individuals Who Collaborate Share Resources Each individual engaged in a collabora-

tive activity has resources to contribute that are valuable for reaching the shared goal. The
type of resources professionals have depends on their roles and the specific activity. Time
and availability to carry out essential tasks may be the critical contribution that one person
offers. Knowledge of a specialized technique may be another's resource. Access to other
individuals or agencies that could assist in the collaborative activity may be a third person's
contribution. If professionals cannot contribute a specific resource, they may be perceived
as less committed to the collaborative goal, and they may encounter difficulty establishing
parity. If you were collaborating with the professionals introduced in the case at the begin-
ning of this chapter, what resources would you expect them to contribute? What resources
would you contribute?
For a different type of situation in which resources are shared, think of working with
parents. For example, sharing resources often occurs when parents and school profes-
sionals collaboratively plan home reward programs for students. The parent is likely
to have access to rewards to which the student responds (e.g., video games, computer
access, special meals, access to a bicycle or car). The special services providers may be
able to recommend the number of positive behaviors the student should display, the
frequency of rewards, and the plan for systematically phasing out the rewards once suc-
cess has been achieved. The program would not be possible without the contributions
that everyone makes.
You may have found that sharing resources is sometimes the key motivator for indi-
viduals to collaborate. In fact, pooling the available-but too often scarce-resources in
schools can lead to tremendously satisfying efforts on behalf of students; at the same time,
it enhances the sense of ownership among professionals. Unfortunately, the reverse also
may occur: A scarcity of resources sometimes causes people to hoard the ones they con-
trol. Collaboration becomes unlikely when that happens. Ultimately, when resources are
limited, the choice becomes this: Come together through collaboration and make the best
of what is available, or fall apart as individuals compete to obtain resources that may even
be inconsequential in terms of value. Or, as Benjamin Franklin is reported to have said at
the signing of the Declaration of Independence, "We must, indeed, all hang together, or
assuredly we shall all hang separately!"
Individuals Who Collaborate Share Accountability for Outcomes Whether the results
of collaboration are positive or negative, all the participating individuals are accountable
for the outcome. Suppose you and several colleagues plan a parent information meeting.
One person arranges for a room, another makes arrangements to provide coffee, and a
third reserves a media projector for the presentation. Shortly before the meeting is to
begin, you realize that no one has remembered to pick up the media projector. In a col-
laborative effort, all the professionals share the resulting need to change the program at
the last minute or to arrange to have someone dash to retrieve the projector. Similarly, if
10 CHAPTER ONE
A BASIS IN RESEARCH
Does Collaboration Improve Student Achievement?
Collaboration has intuitive appeal. That is, it seems to In a review of 23 studies spanning 15 years that
make sense that when school professionals work together, examined school districts that were improving, Shan-
student outcomes will improve and teachers will gain in- non and Bylsma (2004) found that four categories of
creased knowledge and skills. But is there any evidence to themes characterized these districts. In addition to qual-
support such ideas? A number of studies do indicate that ity teaching and learning, effective leadership, and sup-
collaboration makes a difference. Here are some examples. port for system-wide improvement, the authors reported
A study commissioned by the Center for School Im- that clear and collaborative relationships were essential.
provement in cooperation with the Office for Exceptional A nurturing professional culture, clear understanding of
Children, Ohio Department of Education, examined 30 professionals' roles and responsibilities, peer support and
Ohio school districts that had made significant improve- trust, and related characteristics were integral in these
ment in students' reading and math proficiency (Sil- districts.
verman, Hazelwood,&. Cronin, 2009). The researchers Additional research on collaboration is needed to
found that these districts emphasized strong leadership address topics such as the differences in collaborative ac-
that included shared leadership among professionals and tivities between exemplary and struggling schools, ways
principals, a strong collaborative culture and structures to build a collaborative culture when it does not exist,
to support collaboration (e.g., common planning), co- and strategies for sustaining such a culture.
teaching, and a priority on many types of teaming.
a school leadership team is meeting to discuss the results of the monthly student progress
data collected, but one member has not finished compiling his part of the results, the team
is accountable for rescheduling the meeting date or for assisting the member aggregating
the information.
The examples just given relate to the outcomes of the shared work. However, in today's
schools a second type of discussion of outcomes is equally important-that is, outcomes
related to students. One question sometimes asked is whether collaboration makes a dif-
ference for students. The studies described in A Basis i.n Research address that question.
Emergent Characteristics
Several characteristics of collaboration can have multiple functions-they are mentioned
both as prerequisites for as well as outcomes of collaboration. We refer to these as emer-
gent characteristics. These characteristics must be present to some discernible degree at
the outset of collaborative activity, but they typically grow and flourish from successful
experience with collaboration.
Individuals Who Collaborate Value This Interpersonal Style Collaboration is difficult

but rewarding. Professionals who anticipate collaborating must believe that the results
of their collaboration are likely to be more powerful and significant than the results of
their individual efforts, or else they are unlikely to persevere (Brownell, Adams, Sindelar,
Waldron,&. Vanhover, 2006). Typically, success in collaboration leads to increased com-
mitment to future collaboration, and so beliefs and attitudes become increasingly positive.
Two examples from former students illustrate this point. One student reported, "I used
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Interactions: Collaboration Skills for

School Professionals (7th Edition )

Attend to the Cultural Context 104

1'1 Interpersonal Problem Solving 106

Group Processes Maintain the Team 157

II Consultation, Coaching, and Mentoring 188

II Difficult Interactions 212

Paraeducators in Public Schools 247

Ill Families 266

I!J Community and Interagency Contexts 292

II Issues Related to Education Collaboration 308

Ethics in Collaborative Practice 328

Putting Ideas into Practice

Developing Cultural Self-Awareness 43

New to This Edition

• As collaboration has become more integral to schools, the importance of addressing

organizations (e.g., school-university, school-agency) and with the community the

Overview of the Book

we explore the development of collaboration as it relates to special education, including

Orienting graphic. At the opening of each chapter is a graphic that depicts

are intended to assist readers in reviewing their understanding of the chapter's

Throughout the development of this edition of Interactions, we received guidance,

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

A CASE FOR COLLABORATION

PUTTING IDEAS INTO PRACTICE ~

specific area of expertise (teacher, special educator, speech/language therapist, or administra-

At m11 school. we CoL!a.bora.tioft-

Defining Characteristics of Collaboration

Collaboration Is Voluntary It is not possible to force people to use a particular style

responsibility for making accommodations. Similarly, a specialist or special educator may

Collaboration Requires Parity Among Participants Parity is a relationship status in

Collaboration Is Based on Mutual Goals Individuals who collaborate must share

Collaboration Depends on Shared Responsibility for Participation and Decision

Individuals Who Collaborate Share Resources Each individual engaged in a collabora-

Individuals Who Collaborate Value This Interpersonal Style Collaboration is difficult

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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