Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Hist. 1012)
General Objective
UNIT TWO: PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS)
UNIT THREE: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH
CENTURY (6 HOURS)
UNIT FOUR: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (6 HOURS)
UNIT FIVE: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (10 HRS)
UNIT SIX: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10
HOURS)
4.4. Rivalry Between the Christian Kingdom and The Muslim Sultanates
5.1. Conflict Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, and After
5.5. Peoples And States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
6.1. The Nature of Interactions Among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the
Horn
The works of chroniclers were trusted by the Kings and the earliest
and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of
Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu
respectively.
They describe about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing, military
exploits, piety and statesmanship.
Did not visit Ethiopia but collected the information from Abba
Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time.
Cont’d…
In the 19thc, August Dillman published two studies on ancient
Ethiopian history.
The most prolific writer of the early 20thce was, however, Blatten
Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.
He published about eight historical works and he also made a better
evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.
Yilma Deressa’s work during this time was also another important
document Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A
History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century).
Cont’d…
The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the
Muslim-Christian conflicts.
In this institute, Richard Pankhurst, the founder, and director, did a
lot of prolific publications in the area of Ethiopian studies.
Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the Journal of
Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research.
Cont’d…
Professionalization of history in other Horn countries is a post-
colonial development.
The Rift Valley runs from Syria to Mozambique… and marking the
separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates
The region is mainly a plateau divided by the Great Rift Valley System and
surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts, and tropical forests along
the periphery.
As they differ in some cases, they also share some common past.
History of the region has been shaped by contacts with the external
world in a number of ways…
The region is surrounded by the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, the Gulf
of Aden, and the Nile River as well as Sudan and Kenya.
The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked the region to the Eastern
Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East.
Cont’d…
The Indian Ocean again to the Near and Middle East, India, and
the Far East.
There are five important drainage systems in the region’s:
1. The Nile River System white Nile (Uganda) & Blue Nile (Ethiopia) flow to
the Mediterranean Sea.
2. The Awash River System links the cool central highland with the hot,
dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression.
3. The Rift Valley Lakes System includes a string of lakes stretching from
Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana
4. The Gibe /Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the
semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya and
5. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and
flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean.
Cont’d…
The Genale River flows to the Indian Ocean but the Juba/Shebelle
disappears in the Somali desert.
Receives periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall except in the area crossed
by rivers
Settlement sparse.
Cont’d…
2. The Central Highland runs from Eritrea all the way to southern
Ethiopia.
Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds, and other small
beings emerged around 800 million BP.
The primates evolved around 200-170 million yrs. BP. and some of
them developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee,
orangutan, gibbon etc.).
Others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).
Cont’d…
Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the
cradle of humanity.
Ethiopian and foreign scholars discovered evidences of these in the
Lower Omo and Middle Awash River Valleys.
The following are some of fossil evidences in Ethiopia:
Chororapithecus (10mln BP)in Anchar (W/ Hararghe) 2007
Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (5.8-5.2mln BP) in Middle Awash
Ardipithicus ramidus (4.2mln BP) at Aramis in Afar 1994
Australopithecines (3.6mln BP) at Belohdelie in Middle Awash
Australopithecus afarensis,Selam (3.3mln BP) at Dikika, Mille, Afar
2000
Australopithecus afarnesis, ( Lucy/Dinkinesh (3.18mln BP) at Hadar in
Afar 1974 ; complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters with a
pelvis looks like bipedal female ..
Cont’d…
There were also fossils discovered in the region:
In Lake Turkana Australopithecus anamensis
At Bouri Middle Awash Australopithecus garhi (2.5mln BP) 1996-
1999
There were different stages Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age.
Examples of these stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
Cont’d…
Bones (3.4mln-11,000BP) were also discovered with stone-tool-
inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tools in the
world) at Dikika in 2010.
Gademotta site in the central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated
back to 200, 000 BP.
In the elevated and wetter parts of Ethiopia and the Horn, people had
been cultivating teff, dagussa, nug, inset, etc.
Cont’d…
Elements of the Neolithic revolution were discovered in different
areas:
Emba-Fakeda (Adigrat) and Aqordat and Barentu (Eritrea)polished axes,
ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures, and animal remains were
discovered.
Gobodara rock shelter (Axum) Agricultural stone tools.
Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana domesticated cattle,
chickpeas, and vegetables.
Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar Stone tools used for cutting.
Lake Basaka (Matahara) domesticated cattle, etc.
3. Peopling of the Region
However, there is some degree of unity where there are two super
language families spoken in the region Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-
Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic
Has three sub-divisions Cushitic, Semitic, and Omotic
Cushitic northern, central, eastern, and southern Cushitic
Northern Beja (in Northern Eritrea bordering Sudan).
Central Agaw (Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen).
Eastern Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya,
Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali,
Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
Southern Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
Semitic Northern and Southern Semitic
NorthernGe'ez, Rashaida (Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (Eritrean Lowland);
Tigrigna (Eritrea and Tigray).
Southern Transverse :- Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane, Zay,
Outer:- Gafat (extinct),Gurage,and Mesmes (endangered ).
Cont’d…
Omotic includes the following…
Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi,
Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
B. Nilo-Saharan
Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo,
Suri and Uduk.
Language classification did not remain static .
Factors- like population movements, warfare, trade, religious and
territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense
linguistic processes that forced languages to be affected.
In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of
extinction while others thrived over time
2. Settlement Patterns
Population distribution and settlement pattern in the region is the
result of long historical processes.
Since earliest times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited
the area between the Red Sea in the east and the Blue Nile in the
west.
The Kushites, the dominant group in the region, also expanded from
Sudan to Tanzania beyond the HoA.
The Semitics, the second dominant, also settled the northern, north-
central, northeastern, south-central, and eastern parts of Ethiopia
and the Horn.
Cont’d…
The majority of the Omotic people live in the southwestern parts of
Ethiopia along the Omo River except for the Shinasha (in B-Gumuz)
and Ma’o (in Wallagga).
There could be pure pastoralists but this is not always true in the
case of farming with no cattle.
Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with
northern Sudan.
4. Religion and Religious Processes
Introduction
The people of the region practiced four different types of religion:
Indigenous, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
1. Indigenous Religion
Communalities of Indigenous Religion:-
Refers to belief systems and practices native to the region, and have been followed
by local people for centuries.
Such religious practices believe in Supreme Being but special powers are attributed
to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.
there were/are intermediaries b/n the society and the spirits
Some major indigenous religious groups
Among the Oromo people, Waqeffanna is a common religion and believes in the
existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa, whose power is manifested through
Ayyana.
There are so many spirits that the Oromo worship and some of these are:
Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit),
Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit),
Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit),
Balas (victory spirit),
Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),
Gijare/Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),
Jaricha (peace spirit), and
Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.
Cont’d…
The Oromos also believe that the dead exists in the form of ghost
called Ekera.
The people are also known in Irreechaa festivity celebrated during
autumn and spring seasons every year.
According to these people, Qaalluu is a revered expert that link
between the ayyaanaa and the believers.
There were senior Qaalluu-Abba-Muda(who conducted anointment)-
Jila-pilgramage
Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at
center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life,
active (Luba) and those in post-active life respectively.
Cont’d…
The Hadiyas believe in a Supreme Being called Waa, whom they believe
created the World.
Kambata also accepts Negita or Aricho Magano- Sky God-, and religious
officials known as Magnancho.
Gedeo Mageno with thanks giving ceremony Deraro
Konso Waaq/Wakh
Gojjam Agaw Diban (Sky God)
Gurage Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and
Damwamwit (health goddess).
Yem Ha’o (Sky God).
Wolayta God-Tosa/Spirit-Ayana
Different forms of spirit Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice
spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa
(emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo
spirit) etc.
Cont’d…
Konta Docho.
Kafficho called their God Yero/ Spirit Eqo.
The father of all spirit dochi or dehe-tateno.
Harvest spirit Kollo.
Earth and area spirit Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively.
Boro-Shinasha people: Their God Iqa
The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven)
Believe that God comes through rain, lightning and Thunder,
They believe rainbow as a necklace of God
Generally, there are so many things that makes indigenous religious
practices similar across the different ethnocultural groups in the
region.
An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices
and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of
mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
2. Judaism
Considered as a covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with ancient Hebrew
community.
This has been practiced by the people of Ethiopia and the Horn before Christianity.
The Bete-Israel practiced their unique type of religious practice called Haymanot
different from Rabbinic Judaism.
These people trace their origin to the Dan clan of the Israelites -led it is said by sons of
Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah …or
Babylonian Exile
return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932
B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba) …..
Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas
in 6th century A.D.
Bete-Isreal in Ethiopia to an intermarriage between Jewsh immigrants with native Agaws.
Or Bete-Israel are remnants' of old testament followers of orthodox Christianity rather
than Jews who migrated from abroad
3. Christianity
Became state religion in Ethiopia by 334 AD. during Ezana (320-360).
Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
Through time, others also settled on the coastal areas around the
Red Sea and gradually expanded among the pastoralists.
Cont’d…
The Dahlak route played a minor role in the expansion of Islam into
the interior b/c:-
Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum
and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of
Islam was prohibited
Then the Zeila port became important gateway up to the central part
as far as Shewa, Wallo, and Hararge.
The religion strongly established itself on the coastal areas by the 8th
and 9th centuries then expanded to the rest part through traders and
the Muslim clerics.
Sheikh Hussien of Bale was important in the expansion of Islam in
Bale, Arsi, and other southern parts of the HoA.
Sof Umar Cave another Islamic center in Bale.
Cont’d…
Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th century A.D.
through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the
depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.
UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE
HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
Introduction
Since ancient times to the end of the 19th century, people of the
region underwent socio-political, economic, and cultural changes.
One such change was the evolution of states due to agriculture and
trade.
Adulis was the major port of the Aksumite state during that time.
There were other ports like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera)
on the Aden and Serapion (Mogadishu), Nicon (Brava), and Merca on
the Indian Ocean that Aksum had been using.
Cont’d…
Export items from Aksum mainly of natural products such as
ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger,
cassia, and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides,
tortoise shells, and some curiosity animals like apes.
They also import from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia.
Glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places;
Metallic sheets, tools, or utensils of various kinds, oil, and wine from the
Roman Empire and Syria.
Axum also had a link with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia
Minor).
Its King, Zoskales (c. 76-89), used to speak the Greek language by
that time.
Cont’d…
The Axumite external contact resulted in the exchange of ideas, and
material and spiritual culture.
Aksum also had been minting and using coins between the 3rd and
7th centuries made of gold, silver, and bronze that were used for local
and international trade.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i.e., the
Roman Empire, Persia, China, and Aksum) at the time.
Cont’d…
Aksum had strong ships and fleets used for both trading and wars
during those days.
It was during Kaleb (500-35BC) that Aksum expanded overseas but
there were local conflicts between the Christians and the converted
Judaism.
In this conflict, a large number of Christians were killed in Zafar and
Nagran by a local prince Dhu-Nuwas, who was converted to Judaism.
Kaleb got support from the Byzantine king, Justinian (r. 527-65),
against Dhu-Nuwas and defeated and replaced him with Abraha in
Arabia.
Cont’d…
Aksum declined since the 7th century AD. due to internal and external
challenges.
Arabs destroyed Adulis, controlled the Red Sea coasts, and cut off Aksum
from external relations.
This opened the way for a local rebellion from the Beja, the Agaw, and
Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) that finally sealed the collapse of the
Aksumite state
D. Zagwe Dynasty
After the decline of Aksum, the political center shifted southward and
established among the Agaw community.
The Agaw were part of the Aksumite state since ancient times which gave
them an opportunity to participate in assuming different positions.
Territorial extension:
All ancient provinces of Aksum in the north
Northern Shawa in the south
Lake Tana region and northern part of today’s Gojjam in the west and
Red Sea coast in the east
The period was known for the construction of caves, and semi-hewn and
monolithic churches.
Caves eg. Bete-Mesqel.
Semi-hewn eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
Monolithic eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete
Medhanialem.
Among these, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all, and Bete Giyorgis is
the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
This was done by constructing churches based on the model of the Holy
Lands in Israel.
Cont’d…
Finally, the Zagwe Dynasty ended due to internal power struggle
and oppositions from group claiming Solomonic descent.
A. Bizamo
Located south of the Abbay River around today’s Wambara
Founded in the 8th century and had early contact with Damot
B. Damot
The strongest state that expanded its territory into:
Most of south of Abbay,
North of Lake Tana and
East of Didessa
Its prominent king was Motalami
Cont’d…
C. Enarya
One of the Gibe states in southwestern Ethiopia
Its Royal Clan Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso)
Its Kingship divine one Hinnare-Tato was considered sacred.
UNIT FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE
LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
Introduction
The period experienced dynamic political, economic, and socio-
cultural developments that lay the foundation for the formation of
modern Ethiopia in the subsequent years.
The claim that the Solomonic rulers also descended from King Solomon of
Israel is legendary.
The claim was written in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that
associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
In order to strengthen his power in the north, Enderta was given to
his wife Bilen-Saba.
Ifat and Shawa cooperated with the rebellious group in Enderta led
by Yibeka-Igzi resisted Amde-Tsion in 1320s.
Cont’d…
His son became the governor of Tigray, and in 1325, Amde-Tsion
campaigned to Eritrea.
The Muslim sultanates in the southeast and the Omotic states of the
south were brought under the Christian kingdom.
By 1330s, Amde-Tsion fully controlled the trade routes and trading
sources in Ethiopia.
Ewostatewos:
Established his own monastic center in sera’e (Eritrea),
Trained many students until 1337
Taught the strict observance of Sabbath
He faced opposition from the clergy, left for Egypt but also faced the same from
Ethiopians in Cairo.
Cont’d…
After Ewostatewos left the country:
The movement weakened but revived when some of his followers
returned back home from Armenia
His followers dispersed to different monasteries in northern
Ethiopia
The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and
Hamassen.
Some Ewostatonians were imprisoned…
The King and the Abun opposed the movement and established
anti-group under the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-
Se’at Sereqe-Birhan.
Clergies expelled Ewostatonians from their churches
Some were forced to settle in the remote peripheries while some
others sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre-
Bizen, Debre-San, etc.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
Founded by Abba Estifanos
This group also strongly opposed the veneration of St. Mary but were
seriously punished by Zara Yaqob for this purpose.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
Zara Yaqob (r.1434-68) took the following measures to
stabilize and consolidate the EOC:
Settled conflicts among clergies
Made peace with the Ewostatewos
Urged the clergy to preach Christianity in the remote areas
Ordered people to fast on Wednesday and Friday
Encouraged establishing libraries in every church which also
revived religious literature
Adal was founded by the part of the Walasma Dynasty that moved
southeast and settled in Harar in 1367.
After strengthening its power in the new center and Adal another
phase of military campaigns against the Christian Kingdom.
By 1520, they changed their seat to Harar after the defeat of Ahmed
Gragn, then to Awsa (Afar) in 1576/7 following the Oromo expansion.
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
Islam expanded through merchants and preachers.
Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577) were the most notable ones.
There were also market centers that served the Zeila trade route.
4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates
This rivalry was between the Christian kingdom and the Sultanate of Ifat
over the control of the Zeila route and trade items.
The first conflict took place in 1328 when the Muslims organized their
armies to take action against the Christian state.
Later, Ifat was defeated, Sabradin was captured, and Ifat, Fatagar, and
Dawaro were incorporated.
Cont’d…
What Amde-Tsion needed was:
Annual tribute,
Freedom of movement of merchants across the Zeila route.
After the defeat of Ifat, others like Sharka, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani
were also weakened.
After this, the power of Muslim states declined but Adal continued
to challenge the Christian kingdom and killed Tewodros (1412-13)
and Yeshaq which intensified the struggle for predominance.
By the mid-15th century, Zara Yaqob got access to the Red Sea.
Successors of Ba’ede Maryam were weak but still the Muslims opted
for a peace settlement.
Apart from the conflicting relations, the Muslim and Christian states
also had wider socio-economic and cultural interactions.
4.5. External Relations
4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
The Christian kingdom maintained contact both with the Christian
and Arab world countries.
Relation with Christian Europe during this time was influenced by the
legend of the Prester John.
Before the war, the Muslims faced internal strife and disunities and that
called for new leadership.
Then Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, whose origin is obscure, came to
power.
Cont’d…
Born in Hubet between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga, he was brought up by
Muslim kin on the route to Zeila.
He was a devout Muslim but served Garad Abun of Adal as a soldier
before he assumed power.
Traditionally told that after the death of the Abun, he left for the
countryside and started calling for devotion to Islamic teaching.
After he assumed power things changed from the need to control the
trade route to territorial annexation for the Afar and Somali pastoralists.
The Muslim pastoralists had the need to expand to the highland areas for
better pasture and water.
Cont’d…
Ahmed Gragn organized the Afar, Harari, Somali, Harla, and other
communities for a common objective and conducted a war over the
Christian kingdom.
Settled their internal differences, mobilized to fight with the Christian
kingdom, was also a guardian of Islamic doctrine from any alien
teaching.
He got acceptance and consolidated his army to fight the Christian
Kingdom.
This time, Libne Dengel was appointed at the age of eleven from the
Christian kingdom.
In the Muslim-Christain confrontations, initially the Christians were
victorious and managed to penetrate into the Muslim territories.
Cont’d…
Later, Gragn controlled Adal, refused to pay tribute to the Christian
kingdom in 1520, and also conducted a military campaign in 1527.
By 1528, Libne Dengel mobilized a large army but failed to withstand the
army of Gragn due to logistic problems and a lack of a common
agenda.
Finally, the Christian army lost the Battle of Shumbura Kure in 1529.
After this, the largest part of the Christian kingdom failed at the hand of
Ahmed Gragn.
Cont’d…
By 1535 Ahmed Gragn controlled from Zeila to Massawa.
She was the daughter of Imam Mahfuz and the wife of Gragn and
encouraged her husband for revenge against the Christian kingdom.
But again in 1542, the Christian army lost the war at Ofla in Tigray, in
which around two-hundred Portuguese armies were killed, and
Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
This time, Seblewongel, the wife of Libne Dengel was said to have
participated in the war in 1542.
Then, Ahmed Gragn developed confidence in his army that they can
push back any force to come but the Christian army remained silent
and got prepared for the final offensive.
Cont’d…
Finally, on February 25, 1543, Ahmed Gragn was defeated and killed in
the war at the Battle of Woyna-Dega.
In 1559, Gelawdwos was killed in a Battle with the armies of Emir
Nur.
The Turks were defeated in the north and territories were regained.
Consequences of the Muslim-Christian War
Human and material destruction
The Muslim-Christian world competition over the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean supremacy
The Jesuit missionaries came with a different doctrine to the EOC about
the nature of Christ.
The EOC accepts the union the divine and human nature of Christ is
inseparable.
Minas and Sartsa Dengle didn’t get time to engage with the
Catholics focusing on local issues.
The Catholics succeeded with Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) but his period
was short for the Jesuits to influence.
Finally, the emperor faced a challenge from including his son, Fasiledas (1632-67)
Cont’d…
This resulted in religious controversy and the loss of many peasants’ lives.
Finally, by 1632, Susenyos resigned in favor of his son, Faselidas, and he:
Reversed Catholicism
Restored the position of the EOC as the state religion
Expelled the missionaries
Punished local converts
Introduced a close-door policy to the west but opened his door to the east
Only James Bruce (1769) and Charles Jacques Poncet (1700) visited
Ethiopia from the west during this time.
Trade route also passed through their territory connecting the Horn.
They were also actors in the conflict but they also dispersed in a
different directions due to the conflict.
However, after 1543, with the defeat of Ahmed Gragn, they returned
back home and their influence did not last long.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
Strongly contributed to the Oromo population movement and
expansion
It organizes the people into age grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities.
Cont’d…
In the system, ten age grades and five classes operated in parallel.
Cont’d…
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
Resulted from the natural and manmade factors
Natural demographic increase and the need for land for human and
livestock
Manmade the influence of the Muslim-Christian war to leave their
homeland for other areas.
Before their expansion, the Oromo were organized into the Borana
and Barentu confederacies.
Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili
of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma, and others established Gadaa centers and
laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and
Religious Diversities
The general condition of the medieval period was a factor in people’s
interaction in the region.
The interaction occurred both during the peace and conflict periods.
During this time, the Oromo population movement and expansion brought
an end to the Muslim-Christian War and the southward expansion of the
Christian kingdom.
Iyasu the Great was assassinated and this led to political instability
and the poisoning of the reigning emperors.
Cont’d…
Tekle-Haymanot, the son of Iyasu the Great, was appointed in 1706
but was also assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos in 1711, who was also poisoned
and replaced by Dawit III, again poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in
1721.
Covers the period from the assassination of Iyoas in 1769 to the coming
to power of Tewodros II in 1855.
Then coalition of armed forces from Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo
fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
After his defeat, there was relative stability but several regional lords
emerged where the main centers were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam, and Shewa.
Cont’d…
This time, the “Yejju dynasty”, which was founded by Ali Gwangul
(Ali I or Ali Talaq) in 1786, was the leading power with the center at
Debre-tabor.
The Yejju Dynasty reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-
1825) who fought with Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and
Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
Begins with the period 1800 when most states in the southern half
emerged.
Among these, the Gurage land was an important market center and
political entity where important trade centers such as Soddo and
Aymallel were located.
These developments took place among the Gibe Oromos where five
monarchical states emerged.
i. Limmu-Enarya
The earliest of the Gibe states.
iii. Gomma
Formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who
Then later Abbaa Duulaas took political power from her, and Ose Kobi
(Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler.
After him, Dangila (Abba Magal) enlarged the domain but the process of
state formation ended with Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who formed
the Jimma Kingdom.
Abbaa Jifar II (r.1875-1934) was the most famous of all the Jimma rulers.
Agriculture, trade, iron mining, and smelting were the base of their
economy.
v. Gera
The last to be formed in the Gibe region
These were the Leeqaa states, the Sibu, and the Jaawwii south of
the Abbay River.
D. Ilu
Founded by Chali Shano of the Tume clan leader in the early 19th
century.
Different from practices under the Gadaa system, farmers were forced to pay
crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano (about 15
kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop.
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms
Important Islamic centers and states were established in this area by
the Sudanese traders over Berta and Gumuz people.
the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul, and Khomosha were
established to the south of the Abbay River
the Sheikhdom of Guba emerged to the north of the same river on the
western edge of Gojjam
The first started from Bonga and linked the southwestern with the
northern Ethiopian regions.
The main market centers were BongaHirmata (in Jimma)Saqa (in
Limmu)Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte)Asandabo (in Guduru)Basso-Yajube (in
Gojjam)Yifag and Darita (in Begemider)Gondar
…Gondar Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat)
…GondarAdwaAsmaraMassawa.
…BassoAncharro&DawweAwsaTajuraObbok&Rahe’ita in Djibouti
Trade Routes of Ethiopia and the Horn in the Nineteenth Century
Cont’d…
The second also began from BongaHirmataAgabjaAndode-
ToliSoddoRoggeAliyu Amba or Abdul RasulHarar.
…HararZeila and Berbera (Somalia)Middle East
In these trade interactions, trade items were collected from the
southwest
gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, various
spices, and slaves
Slaves were exported to Arabia, Persia, and India
Import items ironware and the medium of exchange were salt bars
(amole), iron bars, wines, cowries’ shells, beads, pieces of cotton
cloth (abujadi), Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT), etc.
6.2. The Making of the Modern Ethiopian State
Trade, population movements, evangelization, and wars played
important roles in linking people and the making of the modern
Ethiopian state.
Kassa Hailu ended the Zemene Mesafint and assumed power by the
name Tewodros II (1855-68).
Kassa, with his brother, defeated the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in
Eastern Sudan) in 1837.
His war with the Egyptians made him famous in the area which
became a concern to the Yejju Family.
After his death, three power contenders came but Wakshum Gobeze of
Lasta rose to power as Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71).
He was also defeated by Kassa Mircha of Tigray at Assam (near Adwa) in
1871 and Kassa became the King (1872-1889).
Ras Tesema of Gojjam was also appointed to Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.
Cont’d…
Emperor Yohannes IV united the predominantly-Christian
provinces Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam,
Wollo, Shewa, and the Mereb Milash for quite some time.
There were external challenges from the Italians and Egyptians and
also internally from the regional governors to his rule…
B. Territorial Expansion
As indicated above, Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and others
made state building their mission and struggled to achieve that goal.
2
Yet, the most successful was Menilek of Shewa. This was because Menilek
had, among other factors, access to modern firearms.
The control of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build
military muscle as well as the determination of his generals counted for his
successes.