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Etextbook PDF For Indigenous Peoples Within Canada A Concise History Fourth Edition All Chapter Scribd Ebook PDF
Etextbook PDF For Indigenous Peoples Within Canada A Concise History Fourth Edition All Chapter Scribd Ebook PDF
Questions
to Consider 154
RecommendedReadings 154
9 TheBritish
Alliance
of181214
ChapterOutline 155
Learning Outcomes 155
Disruptionsfrom the Peaceof Paris 157
TheFirstNationsDefendthe Canadas 157
Tecumseh 158
GainsandLosses 161
TheEndofTecumsehs Movement163
Questions
to Consider 165
RecommendedReadings 165
10 TheIndianProblem:
Isolation,Assimilation,
andExperimentation
ChapterOutline 166
Learning Outcomes 166
Assimilatingthe Vanishing Indians 168
ModelVillages Would
ImmerseIndigenous Peoples
in Euro-CanadianCulture 169
The GreatestKindnessWeCanPerform 171
MoreThanLandLostto ColonialInterests 172
Indian Administrations 173
Questions
to Consider 181
RecommendedReadings 182
viii Contents
11Towards Confederation
for
Canada,TowardsWardship
forIndigenous
Peoples
Chapter Outline 183
Learning Outcomes183
White MansBurden orIndigenous Burden? 185
Who
Is anIndian? 187
MoreLand Surrenders 189
Wardsofthe State 191
The WestCoastandthe Tsilhqotin War 193
TheMtis Challenge195
ConfederationBrings Centralizationand Western
Isolation 197
RedRiverTakesa Stand 200
Questions
to Consider 203
RecommendedReadings 203
12 TheFirstNumberedTreaties,
Police,
andtheIndianAct
Chapter Outline 204
Learning Outcomes 204
TheVaried MeaningsofTreaty 206
Treaties One,Two,andThree:Ontarioand ManitobaLandSurrendered 206
TheLiquorTrade 211
Clearingthe Wayfor EuropeanSettlementTreaties Sixand Seven 213
Assimilationthrough Legislation:The1876Indian Act 214
An UpwardSpiralof Regulation 216
Questions
to Consider 219
RecommendedReadings 21
Contents ix
13 TimeofTroubles
ChapterOutline 220
Learning Outcomes 220
NowThatthe BisonAre Gone 222
TheTrials ofthe Mtis Continue 223
ThisIs OurLife,ThisIs OurLand 227
LoomingPreventableDisaster 228
ArmedResistance
in the West 232
Immediate Consequences 236
Afterthe Conflict 238
Questions
to Consider 239
RecommendedReadings 239
14 Repression
andResistance
ChapterOutline 240
Learning Outcomes 240
MoreConsequences
for the Cree... 242
... andforthe Mtis 243
Assimilationthrough Education 245
TheRightto Choosea Chief 252
TheBattleoverReservedLands 254
Questions
to Consider 257
RecommendedReadings 257
15 Tightening
theReins:
Resistance
Grows
andOrganizes
ChapterOutline 259
Learning Outcomes 259
AssimilateThem andThey Ceaseto Exist? 261
MoreSocialEngineering:ResidentialSchoolsand Beyond 264
Apologies,Reparations,and Growing
Indigenous Control 266
OrganizedActionand aRevisedIndian Act 26
x Contents
16 Development
Heads
North
Chapter Outline 280
Learning Outcomes 280
Trade and Self-Sufficiency 282
SouthernersCometo the Northto Stay 282
Two ViewsofInuit/Newcomer Contacts 284
NorthernersSeekTreaty 286
ChangingViewsofJurisdiction 290
Nunavut(Our land) Is Born 295
Questions
to Consider 297
RecommendedReadings 297
17 Canadian
Courts
andAboriginal
Rights
Chapter Outline 298
Learning Outcomes 298
TreatyThree andthe St Catherines MillingDecision 300
NearlyThreeCenturies
of Confrontationat Oka 303
Hunting,Fishing,and OtherResourceClaims 309
TurningPointsandSetbacks 312
Indigenous Peopleswithinthe Canadian CriminalJusticeSystem 314
Questions
to Consider 316
RecommendedReadings 31
Contents xi
18 TheRoad
to Self-Government
ChapterOutline 317
Learning Outcomes 317
The OngoingGovernmentIndigenous Relationship 320
ThePushfor ResourcesUnderscores
the Needfor Self-Government 322
Onthe PoliticalFront 326
NorthernSelf-Government 330
GettingOutofthe WayofSelf-Determination 331
TheRoyalCommissionon AboriginalPeoplesAnnounced 331
Self-Government
in Any Context 335
Concerns,Hopes,andFears 339
Questions
to Consider 342
RecommendedReadings 342
19 Reconciliation
andRevitalization
ChapterOutline 344
Learning Outcomes 344
AnApology 346
Delgamuukw,OralHistory,andLegalSequencing 349
CaledoniaLand Claims 350
TheResidentialSchoolsSettlementAgreement,2007 353
Missingand Murdered
Indigenous Womenand Girls 357
TheUnitedNationsDeclarationonthe RightsofIndigenous Peoples 359
EconomicDevelopment 359
Increased SharingofIndigenous Knowledge 362
Questions
to Consider 365
RecommendedReading 365
Epilogue 367
Glossary 371
Notes 381
Index 42
Maps
2.1 Indigenous population densitiesin 1500ACE 28
2.2 Indigenous culture areas 29
3.1 Transoceanicexchangesfor whichthereis some evidence 45
3.2 Indigenous Peoplesin and near what willbecome Canadaattime offirst contact with
Europeans 49
4.1 Europeanpenetrationof NorthAmerica 65
5.1 Majorcentralandeasterntraderoutes,
first halfofseventeenthcentury 88
7.1 Proclamationline of1763 123
12.1 Areascoveredbytreaties and agreements 208
13.1 NorthwestRebellion,
1885 235
14.1 First Nationreservesandsettlements,and Canadianpopulation distribution 253
15.1 Mtis settlementsin Alberta 275
16.1 Historic
Inuit occupationsof ArcticCanada 285
17.1 Kahnawake,Oka,MercierBridge 305
18.1 Majorcomprehensive claim areas 323
18.2 Principal
industrialdevelopmentareasandeffectsonIndigenousPeoples 32
Publishers
Preface
Asstated in a 2011 headline ofThe Globe and Mail, Olive Dickason wrote the book (quite lit-erally)
on Indigenous Peoples history within Canada.This edition is one of the legacies of that
original project.
Wehave undertaken this edition with Olives goals in mind: to continue to demonstrate that
an Indigenous history is not only possible but is a worthwhile endeavour; to challenge the as-sumptions
about the legitimacy and benevolence of colonization that so often inform the writ-ing
ofsettler-colonizers; and,through concrete historical data,to support and provide evidence
for Indigenous land claims and Aboriginal rights in whatis now Canada.
Withthis focus, the early chapters of this text underscorethe diverseand complex societies
and cultures that existedin North America before European colonizers arrived, and they pro-vide
support for the argument that First Nations were,and are, nations, with rights to the land
they lived on.This book, then, illustrates the rationale behind Indigenous leaders engaging in
trade, military agreements, and, eventually, treaty negotiations with settler-colonial govern-ments.
Ensuing chapters provide evidencethat Indigenous Peoplesretained their autonomous
spirit as wellastheir right to and desirefor self-determination throughout all ofthe interactions
between Indigenous and European nations, despite the efforts of the settler-colonial nations.
The final chapters summarize and evaluate the most recent efforts of Indigenous Peoples to
exercise self-determination, to have land claims respected, and to seek reconciliation for the
harms perpetrated by the settler-colonial governments. The goal has been to ensure that read-ers
new to the discipline recognize that these issues are ongoing; at the same time, Indigenous
Peoples within Canada: A Concise History serves as a straightforward resource of background
context for those who arein the process of tackling these issues, whether politically or socially,
at the national level or within their own lives.
Atthe time Olivefirst wrote,she wasunder the constraints of the academic worlds expec-tations
and biases. While we do not aim to be fully free of the constraints of the discipline of
history (and its reliance on documents), the interdisciplinary drive of Indigenous Studies de-partments,
which has beengaining momentum and attention acrossthe country, hasallowed
for movementand improvement in the study of Indigenous history that has been along time
coming.
Withthis edition, weare ableto do some of the things Olive wasunableto do at the time
offirst publication, such as adding origin stories to the history of time immemorial, and, as
much as possible, using autonyms for all Indigenous groups and individuals throughout the
text. Wehave also benefited from extensive and excellent reviewer feedback that has helped
usto improve some of the representations throughout the book, which, while at the time the
xiv Publishers Preface
were written werecutting-edge by virtue of beingincluded at all, wecan nowidentify (with the
benefit of new scholarship and the clarity of hindsight) as problematic and in need of change.
Wehave also revitalized the art program throughout, giving preference to the work of
Indigenous artistsincluding photographers, illustrators, and designersover historical pho-tos
taken by Europeans without clear consent (although a very few historical photos remain,
becauseof their historical importance and power).The inclusion of this art is meantto fur-ther
incorporate Indigenous perspectives on the history being recounted in these pages. It is
also a reminder, throughout the text, that this historical legacy is still being experienced by
Indigenous people today.
Unfortunately, this focus on Olives goals, as well as ongoing evidentiary shortcomings in
the discipline of Indigenous history, meansthat some gaps could not be addressed with this re-vision,
asto do so would require usto write an entirely different book. In particular, weremain
aware of the lack of coverage around the lifeways of Indigenous women, and we hope that other
books with different mandates will be able to take on this vital project as more material becomes
available on this important area of history.
Similarly, the bulk of material covering Inuit and the Mtis hasremained in the later chap-ters,
despitecalls to integrate morecoverage of both throughout. Olives original organization
reflects the wayin whichInuit and the Mtis peopleshave had tofight for Aboriginal rights as
wellas, moregenerally, any attention, consideration, orrespect from the colonizing government
bodies across whatis now Canada. To changethis structure would undermine Olives organiz-ing
principles and would be an undertaking beyondthe scope ofthis new edition.
Wehope that you are ableto read and enjoy this edition for whatit is: aloving treatment of
one of the mostimportant booksin Canadian history, and a dedicated ethnohistorical account
of the Indigenous right to self-determination within what we now call Canada. Wealso hope
that this gives you a solid grounding to better understand the current political climate and
the fast-paced changes happening in politics and in the courts, and that it inspires you to keep
reading in this increasingly vibrant area of scholarship. As a starting point, OUP Canada pub-lishes
a variety of titles in Indigenous Studies; you canfind them all at www.oupcanada.com/
indigenousstudies
Acknowledgements
It is a genuine pleasure to thank publicly and profoundly the many people who helped meboth
with this edition of the text and in a more general way, with the long formation that has given
methe background with which to undertake this task. At the National Archives of Canada
I was assisted over the years by Andr Desrosiers, Gilles Durocher, and Marie Lewis. At the
Section des cartes et plans of the Bibliothque Nationale I was helped by Monique Pelletier. At
the Art Gallery of Hamilton, the Manager of Collections and Research, Christine Braun, was
very helpful.
Historians ofthe Indigenous Peoples within Canada,however,are required to movebeyond
the museumsand galleries and into the communities. For their insights and wisdomI would
like to acknowledge the help generously given to meby Doug Belanger,Joe Tom Sayers, Carol
Nadjiwon, and Roland Nadjiwon of BatchewanaFirst Nation; Mike Cachageeof Chapleau Cree
First Nation;Judy Syrette and Anne-Marie Jones of Garden River First Nation; Butch Elliott
and Germaine Trudeau-Elliott of the Sault Ste Marie Tribe of ChippewaIndians; Elizabeth
Angeconebof MissanabieCreeFirst Nation; Bob Chiblow and Donnie Mcleodof Mississauga
First Nation; GeorgesSioui of Wendakeand the University of Ottawa; Pipe-carrier Lornie Bob
of Atikameksheng Anishnawbek; and Edsel Dodge and Dean Jacobs of Walpole Island First
Nation.
A number of colleagues were also helpful and encouraging. Dr Rose Cameron, Dr Cheryl
Reed-Elder, and Professor Howard Webkamigad all generously told me of their experi-ences
in residential schools, and Howard was, and is, my patient and helpful source for all
Anishinaabe-mowin questions. Cheryl also provided me with many insights into life in the
Western Arctic. Dr Harvey Feit, FRSC, of McMaster University, wasas always patient and gener-ous.
Hisknowledge ofthe people ofJames Bayis extremely valuable. Mygoodfriend Dr William
Hanley at McMaster University has always been a source of encouragement and insight. Over
the years, a number of other scholars took the time to offer meguidance and assistance.Sylvia
Van Kirk at the University of Toronto; Jennifer Brown at the University of Winnipeg; Toby
Morantz and Allan Greerat McGill University; Donald Smith at the University of Calgary;
Patricia Galloway at the University of Texasat Austin; and Trudy Nicksat the Royal Ontario
Museumall have my warmthanks.
This edition underwent several reviews that werevital to its preparation. Mythanks go to
Roland Bohr (University of Winnipeg),Jarvis Brownlea (University of Manitoba), Victoria
Freeman (York University), Sarah Nickel (University of Saskatchewan), Jacqueline Romanow
(University of Winnipeg), Niigan Sinclair (University of Manitoba), and Gregory Younging
(University of British Columbia Okanagan), as well as the reviewers who wished to remai
xvi Acknowledgements
anonymous. Four editors at Oxford University Press were helpful and patient. Caroline Starr,
Amy Gordon, Michelle Welsh,and Richard Tallman worked very hardto improve this text.
Ona personal noteI wouldlike to acknowledge the help and support of myfamily: my par-ents
Graemeand Barbara Newbigging; my wife Kathryn Kohler; and our children Cameron
Newbigging and Janet Newbigging. Finally, I am compelledto notethat I drewinspiration from
two people who deserve mention here: my old friend W.J.Ecclesof the University of Toronto,
whofirst encouraged meto study the history of Indigenous Peoples within Canada, and Karrie
Wurmann, a great childhood friend whose adoptive parents took her every weekto Tlingit
dance classes so that the Tlingit culture of her birth would be able to claim its place alongside
their Irish and German backgrounds. As promised, Karrie, I will send you a copy of this edition
Introduction
Within a generation, First Peoples living within Canada have claimed, or more accurately
reclaimed, a place at the centre of the political, economic, and social history of the country.
Issues long ignored, or worse, hidden, are now the subjects of editorials, news stories, and
investigations on a daily basis. Governments are constantly being called upon to answer hard
questions by people across the country. This shift to prominence is one of the central themes
of this edition of this text. Only by understanding the reasons both for the long-term neglect
and for the recent revitalization can wehope to understand this fascinating history. Only by
understanding the past can we hope to learn both from the mistakesthat were madeand
from the courage and resilience of people who have been doing the hard work of building a
better future.
Welook in vain for asingle causeto explain this re-found prominence; history is too com-plex
to allow for simple solutions. Wecan, however,point to one act of couragethat hasemerged
as a symbol of the determination required to bring change. On 22 June 1990, Elijah Harper
held an eaglefeather aloftin the ManitobaLegislative Assemblyas a powerful protest against a
political systemthat had not beeninclusive in its attempts to changethe countrys constitution.
Political actions and protests are important in raising the profile of causes, but actual change
requires hard work and constant effort. Withthat in mind we mustlook at the contributions of
Indigenous people across Canadasuch as Professor Cindy Blackstock advocating tirelessly on
behalf of children, and Justice Murray Sinclair masterfully leading the Truth and Reconciliation
Commissionif we want to find the real reasons for the revitalization. The goal of this text,
then, is to put all of this in context.
The challenge confronting the authors of this text is twofold. First, the pace of change has
increased exponentially. Evenasthese lines are being written new developmentsare unfolding,
such asthe announcement about the Sixties Scoop payment and the Supreme Court ruling on
what is to become of the evidence presentedto the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.1
Similarly, the implications of important recent rulings are not yet fully understood. For ex-ample,
the 2014 Tsilhqotin case,thefirst legal decisionin Canadian history in which a court
declared Aboriginal title to lands outside of a reserve, hasraised a new set ofissues, and histo-rians
havenot yet hadthe time to understand and explain the various consequences.2 These are
interesting times indeed.
A second challenge concerns language and perspective. Overthe centuries history had
become a documents-based discipline. This was not always the case, of course; the ancient
Greek writer Herodotus, the father of history, undertook his researches based on oral tra-ditions.
Nevertheless, over time, historians have relied on the written record. This has cause
xviii Indigenous Peoples within Canada
etc.) that have been usedpreviously. In these cases,the familiar translated nameis given in pa-rentheses
following thefirst reference.
A second issue concerns spelling. In hisfine study of the community, life, and language
of his great-grandfather, Francis Pegahmagabow,the historian Brian D. McInneslists eight
variations in spelling of the Wasauksingplace name. Interestingly, they contain shades of
meaning: shining rock (twice); white around the shore; something white in the distance;
white stakes you can see in the distance; distant outlook; distant view; and shining light.8
Even when the words are the same, the spellings can differ widely. Many people werecontact-ed
to determine the correct spellings of their various autonyms, but they frequently provided
different spellings. Onesaid he madeit a point of pride to use a different spelling each time he
wrote the word. Another said simply that she did not care how the word wasspelled; how it
was pronounced wasthe important point. Both were making the point that the oral language
should take precedence over the written language. The spellings we provide here are thus an
inevitable compromise.9
Another compromise is to befound in the choice of autonyms themselves. Some peoplestill
chooseto self-identify with the namesthey weregiven by others. For reasons of convenience
some chooseto retain those names as umbrella terms and refer to themselves by a much more
specific autonym. In other cases,the preferred terms remain in dispute,for various reasons.The
mostdifficult word provedto beCree. Manypeopleself-identify as Creeor as a group within
that umbrella term. Wetried to usespecific language wherever possible, but wecould not al-ways
managethis.These kinds of debatesare hardly unique to the Indigenous people, but they
did present a challengein the writing of this edition.The chart below, original to this edition,
should help readersto learn the autonyms.
Wedid not take the decision to useautonyms lightly. More and moreIndigenous people are
using autonyms as a means of reclaiming the past.The opportunity to learn something about
the past by understanding the history of the autonyms is something too important to miss.10
The
clash of oral and written cultures brings about many compromises and this one seemed more
than justifiable. The promotion of language is a vital component in the promotion of the culture
and history of Canadas Indigenous Peoples. On the other hand, timelinesa construct of the
written traditionwere retained.
Finally, it is important to note that this edition carries a new title: Indigenous Peoples
within Canada: A Concise History. In the interests of accuracy and inclusivity, the terms
Indigenous Peoples and First Peoples arethe accepted,general, andinclusive terms for the
collective of the three groups of Indigenous Peoples within Canada:First Nations,Inuit, and
Mtis.The term First Nations is still to befound in the text wherethere is a reference to a
specific First Nation or group of First Nations.The word nation is usedin this text because
it is used by Indigenous people to describe the membersof a distinct community. As men-tioned
above, nation was not originally an Indigenous concept, but it has been embraced
over the centuries andis now widely used.It is also a wordthat the earliest documents usedfor
the same purpose. The United Nations prefers the word Indigenous to Aboriginal, and the
government of Canada has recently changed the name of National Aboriginal Dayto National
Indigenous Peoples Day
Introduction xx
The word Aboriginal is still used whereit is a legal term or part of a name, as in
Aboriginal rights or Aboriginal council. Similarly, band, asin band council, is preferred
to the wordtribe, whichis common in the United States. Ofcourse, older termsIndians,
Natives, Native Americans, and the portmanteau word Amerindianstill appear in
quotations from documents and in the titles of books and reports.Thus, wehaveterms like
Indian Act and Native Brotherhood. Wesincerely hope that Francis Assikinack, Francis
Pegahmagabow, and Olive Dickason would approve of these changes and the spirit in which
they were made.
xxii Indigenous Peoples within Canada
or
Group
(Algonquian)
(Atikamekw
Inuttitut (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian)
Inuktitut Inuktitut Inuktitut Inuktitut Inuktitut
Beothukan
Invialuktun
Language Innu-aimun
(Algonquian)
Language
Cree Cree Cree Cree Cree
Oji-Cree
to
and
Delta)
and and
Bay
Bay
inland
(Banks Maurice
Arctic)
Quebec)
Bay) Bay
and Quebec)
Bay) through
Location
islands
Labrador
Ontario
Labrador) Quebec James
James
(northwestern
to (Saint
central Newfoundland west
Hudson
(Mackenzie Valley,
of
Hudson
Hudsons
Saskatchewan
(approximate)
of Victoria
western
coastal
Western
Eastern
Northern Northern
Geographic through River
Nunatsiavut
Nunavik
adjacent
and Manitoba
Sanikiluaq Nunavut Nunavut
Island
Kuupak Nitaskinan
or
Cree
Cree/
Dorset Inuit; or
(Inuit) Eastern
(Inuit) Naskapi
Inuit Cree Cree
Indians
History) Eskimo
(name the or
Delta Boules
Bay Bay
Red
of Cree;
Swampy Cree
Arctic
Eskimo Swampy de
Eskimo
people) Eskimo Eskimo Eskimo Eskimo Cree/Lowlands
Oji-Cree
last
Main
Exonym Tete
Attikamegue
European James James
Sadlermiut;
(likely
Spellings
Iyyu
applicable)
Inuinnait
Sadlermiut
Omakkowak
(if
Maskkowiyiniwak
Alternate
of
Inuit
Inuit
or
Inuit
Term
Innu Iynu
Inuit
Beothuk Oji-Cree
Sallirmiut
Inuvialuit
Autonym
Kitlinermiut Attikamekw
Group/Band
Mushkegowuk Oupeeshepow
Omushkegowack
Kivallirmiut;
Nunatsiavummiut;
Preferred Nunavimmiut;
Nunavummiut;
Chart Name
applicable)
Alliance/
Confederacy
of
the
Ancient
Paleo
Dorset
(evolved
and
Umbrella
Autonym
the or
Grouping
Michif
Ginjik
Yati
Tlingit
Na-Den
Zhu
cho
Na-Den Na-Den
(Algonquian
?
Tutchone
Dnesulin Tsekehne
French; Witsuwiten Tsilhqotin
Han-kutchin
Tli
(Algonquian)
(Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) Tagish, (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan) (Athabaskan)
Dinjii Lingt,
Cree
and
Anishinaabe-mowin Anishinaabe-mowin
from then
from
Upper
northern
northern
the then
Territories Territories Territories Territories
to to
and
Columbia
Saskatchewan
Valley
and Yukon Yukon Yukon and Yukon
British British British
Lakes
into
River British
Manitoba Manitoba
Yukon
Historically Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest
Ontario
Historically
west
Red
Northern Northern Northern
Great
Carrier
Copper
or
Metis
Cree
People
Han
Interior
Dogrib
People Carrier Tagish Tlingit
Kutchin
Chilcotin
or
Saulteaux
Mtis; Chipewyan
Plains
Beaver
Yellowknives
Skanis
Tha
Nehiyaw
Zaa/Dene
Dakehl-n
Tsekahne
Anihinape
Dane
[or
Dha Tlingit
Ojibwa
Cree
?cho
Mtis
Cree]
Tli Sekani
Gwichin Tagish
Tutchone
Tatsaotine Wetsuweten
Plains
Plains
Interior
TrondkHwchin
n/a n/a
Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy Confederacy
Dene Dene Dene Dene Dene Dene Dene Dene Dene Dene
docu-ments
known
Confederacy
[collective
Athapaskans],
European
Dene Dene
name, as
historical TrondkHwchin
in
xxiv Indigenous Peoples within Canada
or
Group
Unami
Malecite-Passamaquoddy
Language
Mkmawsimk (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian (Algonquian) (Algonquian)
Anishinaabe-mowin
of
New
west-ern Bay
east-ern
now
Scotia
sealing Huron
and Ontario
and and
island
but Vermont
Location
Ontario
and
the
in Lake
Maine,
on
Ontario
Brunswick Jersey
Newfoundland) Lake
(approximate) Brunswick
fishing
southern
New
Missiasik Northeastern Northern
Geographic
Mikmaki Northern
with
Quebec,
stations New
Eastern
Western
History)
(name
Taranteens Algonquians
Etchemin; or
Toudamans;
Abenaki Abenaki
Amikwa Ottawa
Delaware
Nipissing
River Temagami
Eteminquois
Exonym
European
Maliseet;
Micmac; Missiquoi
in
Souriquois;
Ottawa
or
Spellings
applicable) Wabenaki
Wulastukw
Wolastoqiyik
(if
Alternate
of
or
the
Term nations
nations]
(singular Lenape
adjective:
of
of
Odaawak)
as Wabanaki
Mikmaw)
Nipissing
Autonym
Group/Band Wuastukwiuk Omamiwinini Anishnabay
Lenni Teme-agama
including
(pl.:
Mikmaq and
Onontchataronon]
Preferred [group
[group
Name in
Three
Three
to
of
historical
as
Fires]
Confederacy,
applicable) Wabanaki Wabanaki Wabanaki Wabanaki Wabanaki
Alliance/
the or the
Coast
to
or
as
Umbrella
Grouping
Wabenaki
European
Wabanakhik
Confederacy Dawnland People, Abenaki]
or Atlantic Algonquian
history
[sometimes referred in
Autonym Chart xxv
Meskwaki Meskwaki
Shaawanoki
Myaamia-Illini Myaamia-Illini Myaamia-Illini
(Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian)
Meskwaki-Myaamia
Anishinaabe-mowin Anishinaabe-mowin
in of
and
Lake
now
Huron of
Lake
south
Oklahoma
and Bay River
of
Ontario
south
Lakes Michigan
Lake Lake
Valley,
now
Lake
south
Green
of of Mississippi Mississippi Mississippi
of
Wabash
of
Lake and
Michigan
southern
and
Between West
Wabash
South South Erie
Upper Upper Upper
North and
Historically
and
Osagi
Ojibwe; Pangicheas
Renards Wea
Sac;
Miami
Peoria
Cahokia
Shawnee
Chippewa Outagami
Kickapoo Kaskaskia
Pottawatomi
also
Ojibway; Sauk;
Fox;
Piankashaw;
Ojibwe
sometimes
Bodewadomi
Boodawaadomi and
Ojibway,
of
[group
Osaakii
Osaakiiwaki)
nations]
Kaahokia
Mesquakie Myaamiaki
Meshquakiehaki)
Piankeshaw
Boodwaadmii Giiwigaabaw
Ojibwa
(pl.:
(pl.:
is
of
[in were
the
the
what
[some-times
in
but known
now
Illinois
States
of
Canada]
Illinwek;
is
Wabash Wabash Wabash Wabash Wabash Wabash European
the
what history
Confederacy United involved
America
history
Algonquian
(continued)
xxvi Indigenous Peoples within Canada
or
Group
(Iroquoian
(Iroquoian)
Muscogee
(Iroquoian) (Iroquoian)
Language
(Muscogean)
Onodagegani-gaweode
Language
Oneida
Seneca
in in in in
York
Ontario,
Erie
Lake
Oklahoma
Wahta, and
Quebec
Lake
now and
Grand Grand Grand Grand
(approximate)
Geographic Ontario,
Historically Ontario Ontario Ontario Ontario
Between
the Ontario, the the the
Niagara Niagara Niagara Niagara
Creek
History)
Iroquois
or
(name
Oneida
Mohawk Seneca
Neutrals
Onondaga
Exonym
European Lawrence
Muscogee
St
in
Spellings
applicable)
Onondagega
(if
Alternate
of
or
Term
Onondaga
Onyotaaka
Autonym Chonnonton
Group/Band Onondowaga
Kanienkehaka
Stadakohnans
Preferred
or
Name Six
term
(also
histor-ical
People
or
referred Nations
Iroquois
the Iroquois
or
or
or
n/a n/a
Longhouse]
Mask:k Five
applicable)
Alliance/
under
Confederacy
of
Confederacy to Nations, League,
fall
Iroquois,
[in
nations;
term
referred
under
Umbrella be historical
Grouping
in
Mask:k may
umbrella
to record
Iroquoian-speaking Iroquois
Autonym Chart xxvii
of
in of
now
Lake
the
Valley,
now now now now now
of of
join east
1722. the but
Valley,
south
to
in
Wendake City Wendake City Wendake City Wendake City
but in
but but but but
and
east
River
south River
River
then
north
River
Grand
Moved Historically
Niagara
Peninsula) Peninsula) Peninsula) Peninsula)
(Penetanguishene (Penetanguishene (Penetanguishene (Penetanguishene
the Confederacy the Historically Historically Historically Historically
Ontario
the Carolinas,
Niagara Lake
Historically in
the
of of
of of
Cayuga
Tuscarora
People People
People People
Skarren
Guyohkohnyo
Tahontaenrat
Arendarhonon
Attignawantan
Attigneenongnahac
as
Wendat
Huron
to
record,
or
or
referred
Confederacy]
[in
Haudenosaunee Haudenosaunee
Wendat
historical
Huron
nations
(continued)
Iroquoian-speaking
xxviii Indigenous Peoples within Canada
or
Group
(Iroquoian) (Athabaskan)
(Algonquian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian)
(Algonquian)
Iroquoian
Language
Language
Wendat
Tsuutina
and
Bay
now
now
central
but
Wendake City
Location but
Alberta
Dakota
and
Montana,
Georgian
Montana
Quebec
Manitoba North
Saskatchewan
Central
(approximate)
Southern
(Penetanguishene
Peninsula)
Southern
Geographic Historically
and
Historically Wyoming,
Southern
Peigan
Marsh
Western
History)
Sioux
(name
or
Assiniboine
the
Assiniboine
Crow
of Petun
Blood
Sarcee
Northern
and
Blackfoot
GrosVentre Sioux
Eastern
Exonym
European
Sioux;
People
in
Teton Stoney
Peigan;
as
some-times
Spellings
given
Atsina Nakota
Lakoda
applicable)
Piikunii;
(if
Aaptohsipikni
Alternate
of
or
Term
Tina
Knawa)
Aani
Siksikawa) Knaa
Piikani Nakoda
Siksika
Dakhta Lakhta
Tsuu
Autonym Apsalooke
Group/Band
Tionnontat
(pl.:
Ataronchronon
(pl.:
Preferred
Name
People]
European
n/a Blackfoot
Wendat
in
applicable)
Alliance/
[Adjacent
to the
Confederacy] Confederacy]
Confederacy
[known
in
in
history
[collec-tively
Sakwin
[collective
known
Umbrella Tina
Grouping
Blackfoot]
Cree
to
sni-chim with
Plains
isolate Salishan)
isolate
(Siouan)
(Numic)
the
Salishan) Salishan
Na-Den
Salishan)
(an
(an
that
(Tsimshianic)
Salishan
Smalgyax relationship
Kwakwala
language) language)
Tsimshianic
Lekwungen (Coast (Wakashan) (Wakashan) (Wakashan) Note
Hulquminum
(Athabaskan) (Tsimshianic) Nuuchahnulth
Secwepemctsn
Lingt,
(Coast Interior
Shoshone Kutenai XaatKil
S?wx_w7mesh Coast Heiltsuk-Oowekyala
(Interior
Hoochaanq
some
Nisgaa
Nishnawbe-Aski.
the
Island
British British British British
British British of
British British
Superior
(Queen of of
British British Island Island
Islands)
of of
Gwaii
coast coast
Wyoming
Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia
Vancouver
of
text.
under
distinction
grouped
that
Serpent
are
du
retain
here
Tlingit
Bella
Coola to
Tsimshian
Gens
Haida
Nootka used
Nishga
Gitksan Songish
Nanaimo
Kwakiutl listed
Kootenay Shuswap
Squamish
Winnebago Bella
Bella is
or
Coastal
Coast
nations Cree
the
Snakes
of
Plains
Many
term
Cree.
as
preferred
other
Kutenai Xaayda
identify
Shoshoni
all
their
S?wx_w7mesh-xwumixw
so affiliate
as
groups and
later
Cree,
listed
The
Eastern
Confederacy
the
Haida
speakers. the
Nuxalk
Tlingit
Nisgaa Heiltsuk
Gitxsan
Ktunaxa
Songhees from
Shoshone
Hoocaagra Tsimshian
Secwepemc
most
Snuneymuxw
Nuuchahnulth
S?wx_w7mesh
Kwakwakawakw joined
by
distinct
two
are
term
last
but
the
[lan-guage
and
Cree,
preferred
as
Salish
affiliation
n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a is
only] members
listed
so
original
and
Interior
(Cree). the
were
Cree
as
Nihiwak
three
[lan-guage
identify
first
group]
the
Nehiyawak,
also
that
Wakashan
Hoocaagra Haida
Shoshone Ktunaxa Salish
Tlingit Tsimshian
*Nehiyaw,
(Nehiyaw) **Note
Dedication
Olive Dickason was proud of the role she played in raising the profile of Indigenous history
within Canada.That pride wasfully justified. Whenshe entered graduate studies in the 1970s,
she found few opportunities for study in her chosenfield. Nevertheless, through courage and
determination she soon established herself on the leading edge of an emerging movement that
hoped to restore Indigenous history to its rightful place at the heart of Canadian history. Others
were also part of this effort, but no one did morethan Olive to bring Indigenous history back
into the mainstream. AsI write this dedication, Indigenous affairs arecertainly at the centre of
the national consciousness.In fact, events have movedso quickly that wehad a difficult time
staying in front ofthem. During the last few months,important Indigenous rulings, legislation,
actions, and hearings havedominated the national news. This would not havebeenasurprise to
Olive.In February of 1991,as we drovethrough a heavysnowstorm along the frozen banks of
the Red River,she predictedthat Indigenous people weregoing tofind their rightful placeatthe
centre ofthe nations past, present, andfuture. Shefurther told methat I had an obligation to do
whatI could to contribute to this movement. Whenwereached Lower Fort Garry,shesaid, You
haveseeninjustice and now you haveto do something aboutit. Some of us have been working
on it but wecant go on forever. She was70 years old then, and in spite of her protest she did go
on to make many morecontributions to help tofight against this injustice. The challenge that
she issued to meis now passed on to you, the reader. In the pages of this text, you willfind ample
evidence of injustice and it is up to you to work together to do something about it.
William Newbiggin
1 Origin
Stories
CHAPTER OUTLINE
In the opening chapter we examine origin stories, taken from across Canada,
how these stories dovetail with what ethnohistory knows thus far about the
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Students will understand the importance of the oral tradition as it ap-plies
to the history of Indigenous Peoples within what has become
Canada.
scientific evidence
2 Indigenous Peoples within Canada
Introduction
Canadianhistory begins withthe First Peoples.Indigenous Peopleshavebeenherefrom time
immemorial1 and havecontributed enormouslyto every aspect of Canadianlife: political,
social,economic,andcultural. Prideof place,however,hasnot meantafair claim on the his-torical
narrativeofthe country.There are manyreasonsfor this butthe mostimportant one
hasto do withthe conflict betweenthe traditional, documents-basedhistory of Eurocentric
historiansandthe oraltraditions ofIndigenous Peopleswithin Canada.Othervariablessuch
as bias,politics, economics,and nationalismalso influenced the incompatibility perceived
to exist betweenclassicallytrained historiansand oraltraditions.2 Scholarshavenowcometo
practisea moreinclusive and useful methodology,whichhas made it possiblefor Indigenous
knowledgeto beincorporated and acceptedinto the historical narrativestaught at Western
institutions.This approachis called ethnohistory. Ethnohistoriansincorporate Indigenous
voicesinto the historical narrative,usingoral history,artwork, materialculture, archaeological
evidence,and etymology assource materials,and incorporate workfrom scholarsin other
disciplinessuch aslinguistics, anthropology,and archaeology.Until very recently, mostaca-demic
historians werenon-Indigenous,but nowIndigenousscholarsare helpingto transform
thefield through their greaterknowledgeofIndigenouslanguagesandaccessto oraltradition
andothercultural knowledge,as wellastheir abilityto exert greaterinfluence byvirtue oftheir
presenceat academicinstitutions. Mostimportantly, moreIndigenouslanguagecoursesare
now being offeredandthefield is beingtransformed aslanguagereassumes its rightful place
MANI
IOYAN
Print
:
Art
Noel
Maxine
Canadian
of
Teaching
courtesy
Ancient Photo
Ancient Teachings by Ioyan Mani (Maxine Noel). Maxine Noel signs her artwork with her Dakota
Sioux First Nation name, Ioyan Mani, which translates as Walk Beyond.
1 | Origin Stories 3
climate.
granted
resources of the land. To demonstrate as: ta?ca?x ?w?t??, which means get into trouble.
4 Indigenous Peoples within Canada
this wehavechosenstoriesfrom all four cardinal directions: east,south, west,and north.The dir-ections
havesignificancein various Indigenous traditions, and areincorporated into a variety of
Indigenous teachings. Asexplained by Elder Betty McKenna,from the Anishinaabenation:
Weseek knowledgefrom those four directions. Weget power from those four dir-ections.
They pull stuff into ourlives. Whenwecall out to them in prayer,they will
bring things to us.The four directions came with creation. Wedidnt. Wewerethe
last thing created.3
The four stories included here begin to illustrate something of the richness and diversity of
Indigenous cultures and offer afoundation upon which we might build a better understanding
of the history of Indigenous Peoples within Canada.
The epistemological significance of the oral tradition cannot be gainsaid. Oral traditions
preserve and promote knowledge and understanding, and the storytellers are the living store-houses
ofthat knowledge.The themes of the stories teachlessons about the world andits neces-sities.
The stories provide insight into ontology, that is, the nature of being, but also about the
meansoftransmitting that knowledgeto future generations.Thus, thoselistening to the stories
are being educated about the world and about how knowledgeis transmitted in the world. One
listens to a story, learns the lesson of the story, and alsolearns how to transmit that lesson to
the next generation through the story.The circle, that mostcentral of all Indigenous Peoples
ontological metaphors,is thus madecomplete.
This is not to suggest, however,that the primary purpose of oral stories is necessarily di-dactic.
To be sure, they teach the listeners about the world and a particular world viewabout
themselvesbut at the same time they entertain and, depending on the story, they can amuse,
strike fear, and otherwise draw on the wide range of human emotions. Indigenous Peoples within
Canada remain strong adherents of oral traditions that have served them well for thousands of
years, and these stories all exemplify the power of the oral tradition. Wecan only do so much
justice to the oral tradition in a written format. For a better experience, werecommend visiting
some of the suggested resources at the end of the chapter.
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.