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Contents vii
Sport in Educational Institutions 263 Application of Self-Talk 315

Interscholastic Sport 264 Modifying Self-Talk 316
Intercollegiate Sport 267 Mental Imagery to Enhance Performance 317
Girls and Women in Sport 273 Nature of Imagery 318
Minorities in Sport 277 Uses of Imagery 319
Sport for Children and Youth 281 Intervention Strategies 321
Violence in Sport 284
Summary 322
Performance-Enhancing Substances
in Sport 285 Discussion Questions 322
Summary 287 Self-Assessment Activities 323
Discussion Questions 288 References 323
Self-Assessment Activities 288
References 288 CHAPTER 10
Physical Education Pedagogy 325
CHAPTER 9 Physical Education Pedagogy:
An Overview 326
Sport and Exercise Psychology 291 Definition and Scope 326
Sport and Exercise Psychology 292 Historical Development 327
Definition and Scope 292 Areas of Study 328
Historical Development 292 Standards-Based Education 329
Areas of Study 294 Curriculum Development 330
Psychological Benefits of Physical Curriculum Models 333
Activity 296 Skill Themes 334
Benefits 296 Personal and Social Responsibility 334
Mechanism of Effect 297 Teaching Games for Understanding/
Motivation 298 Tactical Games Model 337
Exercise Adherence 300 Sport Education 337
Understanding Behavior Change 300 Fitness Education 339
Promoting Adherence 304 Adventure Education 340
Personality 305 Outdoor Education 341
Nature of Personality 305 Cultural Studies 341
Personality and Sport 306 Assessment and Accountability 342
Anxiety and Arousal 308 Types of Assessment 342
Nature of Anxiety and Arousal 308 Characteristics of Effective Teaching 345
Anxiety, Arousal, and Performance 308 Student Perspectives 349
Goal Setting 310 Differences and Diversity in Physical
Types of Goals 311 Education 349
How Goal Setting Works 311 (Dis)ability 351
Principles of Effective Goal Setting 312 Gender 352
Enhancing Performance through Body Issues 353
Self-Talk 314 Race, Class, and Sexuality 354
Nature of Self-Talk 314 Implications for Exercise Scientists and Sport
Types of Self-Talk 315 Leaders 356
viii Contents
Summary 356 Competencies for Beginning

Teachers 403
Discussion Questions 357
Quality Physical Education 404
Self-Assessment Activities 357 Conducting Quality Programs 404
Teaching Responsibilities 407
References 358
Teaching Careers 408
Teaching in the School Setting 408
P A R T
III Teaching in Nonschool Settings 415
Teaching Certification 419
Careers and Professional
Coaching Careers 419
Considerations 361 Choosing a Coaching Career 420
Benefits and Drawbacks of Coaching 420
CHAPTER 11
Teaching and Coaching 422
Career and Professional Development 362 Coaching Responsibilities 423
Careers in Physical Education, Exercise Securing a Coaching Position 424
Science, and Sport 363 Certification of Coaches 424
Choosing a Career 364 Burnout 427
Maximizing Professional Increasing Your Professional Marketability 428
Preparation 369 Summary 432
Attaining a Professional Position 378
Leadership and Professionalism 383 Discussion Questions 432
Leadership 384 Self-Assessment Activities 432
Professionalism 387
Professional Organizations in Physical References 433
Education, Exercise Science, and
Sport 391
Why Belong to a Professional CHAPTER 13
Organization? 392
Fitness- and Health-Related Careers 435
Professional Organizations 393
Society of Health and Physical Educators Fitness- and Exercise-Related Careers 436
(SHAPE America) 395 Worksite Wellness Programs 438
Commercial and Community Fitness
Summary 396 Programs 442
Discussion Questions 396 Personal Trainers 444
Strength and Conditioning
Self-Assessment Activities 397 Professionals 444
References 397 Rehabilitation Programs 445
Career Preparation 446
Health-Related Careers 450
CHAPTER 12 Athletic Training 450
Health and Weight Management
Teaching and Coaching Careers 399 Clubs and Spas 453
The Teaching Profession 400 Therapy-Related Careers 454
Choosing a Teaching Career 400 Dance Therapy 454
Benefits and Drawbacks Associated Therapeutic Recreation 455
with Teaching 401 Kinesiotherapy 455
Contents ix
Physical Therapy 456

Chiropractic Care 456
P A R T
IV
Increasing Your Professional Marketability 458 Issues, Challenges,
and the Future 487
Summary 460
Discussion Questions 460 CHAPTER 15
Self-Assessment Activities 460 Issues, Challenges, and Future Trends 488
Issues in Physical Education, Exercise
References 461
Science, and Sport Today 489
Leadership in Physical Activity 489
Leadership in Youth Sport 491
CHAPTER 14
The Gap between Research and
Sport Careers 463 Practice 492
Sport Management 465 Challenges 493
Careers in Sport Management 467 High-Quality, Daily Physical
Athletic Administration 467 Education 493
Collegiate Recreation 469 Advocacy 494
Corporate Recreation 470 Achievement of National Health
Sport Facilities Management 470 Goals 498
Sport Retailing 471 Lifespan Involvement for
Career Opportunities in Professional All People 499
Organizations 473 Societal Trends and Current
Sport Tourism 473 Developments 502
Careers in Sport Media 474 Health Promotion and Disease
Sport Broadcasting 474 Prevention Movement 503
Sportswriting and Journalism 475 Education 504
Sport Photography 476 Technology 506
Sports Information 477 Changing Demographics 506
Web Development/Social Media 478 Preparing for the Future 507
Performance and Other Sport Careers 478 The Future 508
Dance 478 Summary 512
Professional Athletics 479
Officiating 480 Discussion Questions 512
Sport Law and Agency 481 Self-Assessment Activities 512
Entrepreneurship 481
Increasing Your Professional References 513
Marketability 483
Summary 484 PHOTO CREDITS C-1
Discussion Questions 484 INDEX I-1
Self-Assessment Activities 484
References 485
Preface
T his is an exciting time to prepare for a career

in physical education, exercise science, or
sport. Scientific evidence supports the significant
to the field of kinesiology along with the field's
disciplines and subdisciplines. Chapter 1 focuses
on the meaning and scope of contemporary
contribution of physical activity to health, interest physical education, exercise science, and sport.
and participation in sport continues to grow, and Emphasis is placed on understanding the scope
physical education has the potential to help young of the disciplines and committing to professional
people learn to be active for a lifetime. A multi- development. In Chapter 2, students are intro-
tude of opportunities await qualified profession- duced to the philosophy, goals, and objectives of
als dedicated to providing quality experiences for physical education, exercise science, and sport.
participants in their programs. The last chapter in this part, Chapter 3, discusses
We challenge students from the beginning of the health and physical activity levels in our
their careers to commit to ongoing development society, particularly in relation to the changing
and growth as professionals in their disciplines. demographics, wellness movement, and fitness
Students are encouraged to be advocates for physi- and physical activity movement.
cal activity and quality physical education, to value In Part II, the historical foundations of the field
diversity and appreciate its many forms, and to and an overview of some of the subdisciplines are
work toward making opportunities to participate presented. The historical foundations are covered in
in physical activity available to all people through- Chapter 4, including our heritage from other coun-
out their lifespan. We hope that, as young leaders, tries and the significant influences on the growth
they will work collaboratively with other dedicated of the field in the United States. In Chapter 5, an
professionals to address the issues facing us, the overview of motor behavior is provided, including
challenges ahead, and the realization of physical motor learning and motor development. This is fol-
education, exercise science, and sport’s potential to lowed by Chapter 6 on biomechanics and Chapter 7
positively contribute to the lives of all people. on exercise physiology and fitness. In Chapter 8,
an overview of sport sociology is presented, and
Chapter 9 provides information on sport and exer-
Organization cise psychology. Chapter 10, Physical Education
The 15 chapters of this book are organized into Pedagogy, provides information on curriculum,
4 parts. Part I provides students with an orientation teaching, and assessment.
x
Preface xi
Part III, which consists of four chapters, has been made in regard to the meaning and iden-
addresses professional considerations and career tification of the “field.” Since the first edition of
opportunities, including enhancing professional this text, the “field” has referred to physical educa-
marketability. Chapter 11 focuses on professional tion and chapters have been allocated to highlight
development, including professional responsi- numerous subdisciplines within the field of physical
bilities, ethics, leadership, and certification. This education. Over recent years, there has been a name
edition includes information on social media and debate as to what constitutes “the field” since many
its use in networking and securing an internship of the disciplines and subdisciplines did not “fit” or
and/or job. Chapter 12, on teaching and coach- align with physical education. Thus, in this edition,
ing careers, shows how opportunities for these the “field” is now referred to as kinesiology, which
careers have broadened from the school setting is the primary name used by professionals today as
and school-age population to nonschool settings a broad umbrella for careers that have a focus on
and people of all ages. In Chapter 13, employ- human movement. While retaining its depth and
ment opportunities for professionals interested in breadth, the text has been streamlined, and boxes,
fitness- and health-related careers are discussed. tables, and charts used to highlight key concepts.
Careers in sport management, sport communica- The text continues its focus on the role of
tion, performance, and other sport-related careers physical education, exercise science, and sport
are described in Chapter 14. professionals in promoting lifespan participa-
Part IV explores issues and challenges con- tion in physical activity for all people. This text
fronting professionals today and looks ahead to emphasizes the need for culturally competent pro-
the future. The final chapter, Chapter 15, addresses fessionals to work with our increasingly diverse
critical issues, specifically leadership in physi- population. The responsibility of professionals to
cal activity and youth sport, and the gap between serve as advocates for historically underserved
research and practice. Challenges facing profes- populations is stressed; this work is essential if
sionals are identified. Providing high-quality our goal of lifespan involvement in physical activ-
daily physical education, advocacy, achievement ity is to be achieved.
of the national health goals, and lifespan involve- Updated information and statistics are used
ment for all people are significant challenges that to help students stay abreast of developments
merit our attention and commitment. Societal within physical education, exercise science, and
trends and current developments are discussed. To sport. Additional key changes to this edition are
prepare for the future, professionals must be will- highlighted below:
ing to assume the responsibility for the leadership
of our field and work to improve the way in which • The first three chapters have been restructured
we provide services to people of all ages. to provide students with a better introduction to
physical education, exercise science, and sport.
The first chapter covers the meaning and scope
Highlights of This Edition of the field of kinesiology along with its disci-
The 18th edition of Foundations of Physical Edu- plines and subdisciplines, the second chapter
cation, Exercise Science, and Sport continues its outlines a variety of philosophies to provide
dual emphasis on providing students with an over- a framework for goals and objectives, and the
view of disciplinary knowledge and encouraging third chapter has been renamed to emphasize
them to explore the expanding career opportunities. the health and physical activity levels across the
This edition reflects the dynamic nature of the field lifespan in our society and the responsibili-
today and is designed for use in introductory and ties that physical education, exercise science,
foundations courses. Specifically, the most signifi- and sport professionals have in improving the
cant change in this edition is a philosophical shift health of our nation.
xii Preface
• A greater emphasis has been placed on global Successful Features

learning and global education as the United
States continues to become more culturally To facilitate use by instructors and students, the
diverse, increasing the relevance and impor- following pedagogical aids have been incorpo-
tance for professionals within physical educa- rated into this textbook:
tion, exercise science, and sport to be culturally Instructional Objectives. At the beginning of
competent. each chapter, the instructional objectives and com-
• New information on using social media to petencies to be achieved by the student are listed.
network and advance one's career is included. This identifies for the student the points that will
• New end-of-chapter Discussion Questions be highlighted. Attainment of the objectives indi-
are added to this edition and can be used by cates the fulfillment of the chapter’s intent.
instructors to engage students’ critical thinking Summaries. Each chapter ends with a brief
skills in the classroom. review of the material covered, assisting the stu-
• Several chapters have been restructured dent in understanding and retaining the most salient
based on government reports and policies that points.
have significant applications for professional Discussion Questions. At the end of each
practice, such as Healthy People 2020, The chapter, discussion questions are provided to stim-
Surgeon General’s Vision for a Healthy and ulate critical thinking. Students are encouraged to
Fit Nation, National Physical Activity Plan, share their perspectives with their classmates and
Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans to explore different solutions to the problems and
2012 Midcourse Report, 2010 Dietary issues presented.
Guidelines and MyPlate Recommendations, Self-Assessment Activities. Self-assessment
and the Knight Commission on Intercollegiate activities are presented at the end of each chapter
Athletics Report. to enable students to check their comprehension of
• Since the future of physical education, exercise, the chapter material. More activities using tech-
and sport are closely related to the issues and nology resources and tools are included.
challenges of today, this edition combines these References. Each chapter provides up-to-date
topics in one final chapter. references to allow students to gain further infor-
• Efforts were made to recognize the reorga- mation about the subjects discussed in the chapter.
nization of AAHPERD to SHAPE America Internet Resources. Each chapter begins
(Society of Health and Physical Education); with a Get Connected box, which lists Internet
however, the reorganization process was still sites that provide up-to-date information about
underway as this edition was printed. The relevant topics. The self-assessment exercises
website is under development at this time, and include activities that draw on these Internet
the incorporation of the various associations, resources.
such as NASPE, into the new structure is still Photographs. Carefully chosen photographs,
in process. For upcoming developments, refer many new, have been used throughout the text to
to the current AAHPERD website at: enhance the presentation of material and to illus-
http://www.aahperd.org. trate key points.
Writing Style. Foundations of Physical Edu-
We hope that readers will gain knowledge cation, Exercise Science, and Sport has been
and inspiration through the topics and issues written in a style that students find readable and
discussed in this text. We hope that they will that provides them with important insights into
aspire to be future leaders and agents of change the foundations and the roles of physical educa-
as physical education, exercise science, and sport tion and sport in the world today. Students will
professionals. find substantial information about the career and
Preface xiii
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edgeable, dedicated, and well-prepared profes- electronic review copy (eComp) via e-mail in about
sionals committed to the promotion of lifespan one hour. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today
involvement in physical activity for all people. and register. Experience how McGraw-Hill Create
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xiv Preface
turnaround on revisions, and her editorial work that she will capably handle the responsibility of being
helped shape this edition. Thank you, Andrea! We the lead author on the next edition. I am grateful
would like to thank the professionals at McGraw- for the continued growth of our professional and
Hill, specifically Heather Ervolino and Sara Jaeger personal relationships.
and our editor at Cenveo Publisher Services, Jennifer L. Fisette. This edition is lovingly
Kritika Kaushik. dedicated to my partner, Theresa Ann Walton, and
In closing, the authors would like to acknowl- my son, Quinn, who have brought so much joy,
edge the people who helped support them through- love, and happiness to my life. I am truly grateful
out this endeavor. for their continued support and belief in me, espe-
Deborah Wuest. I’d like to dedicate this cially as I strive to learn and grow as a person and
edition to my daughter, Meriber, who has been professional. I want to also dedicate this edition
supportive throughout this revision and the many in memory of our dog, Chloe, who passed away
that came before. This book is also dedicated to after a beautiful 16 years of life. This book is also
my early-morning writing companions—my cats dedicated to my coauthor, mentor, and friend,
Jake, Rosie, Mia, and Mira, and my dog, Ally Deb, who gave me this amazing opportunity to
Goose. They were great company and, in their collaborate with her on this foundations text. Deb,
honor, a portion of the proceeds of this edition thank you for the abundance of confidence you
will be donated to the SPCA. Lastly, a special have in me and for allowing me to have a voice in
thank-you to my coauthor, Jen, for her continued the decision making and writing processes. I have
enthusiasm for learning, her dedication to the truly enjoyed working and collaborating with you
myriad of details so important in a project like and strengthening our professional and personal
this, her humor that helped put things in perspec- relationships. I greatly enjoyed our weekly phone
tive, and her commitment to the profession. Jen’s chats and discussions, and look forward to future
work ethic is unparalleled, and I am confident that collaborations with Deb.
PA RT
I Nature and Scope

of Physical Education,
Exercise Science,
and Sport
P art I introduces the reader to physical

education, exercise science, and sport.
The first chapter sets the stage for the reader
by providing definitions and an introduction to
and sport. The contribution of physical education,
exercise science, and sport to society and health, and
the critical role of professionals delivering services
to people of all ages are described in Chapter 3.
the specialized areas of study within physical Physical education, exercise science, and
education, exercise science, and sport. How to sport are representative of the growing and
grow as a professional in physical education, expanding field of kinesiology. The growth of
exercise science, and sport concludes Chapter 1. this field is reflected in the expanding knowledge
The second chapter includes the influences of base and the development of specialized areas
various philosophies on programs and provides the of study. The expansion of physical education,
reader with information about the objectives and exercise science, and sport has created a diversity
assessment of physical education, exercise science, of career options for professionals.
1
C H A P T E R
1
Meaning and Scope
O B J E C T I V E S
After reading this chapter the student should be able to—
■ Discuss the nature of contemporary physical education, exercise science,

and sport, and show how it has evolved during the past five decades.
■ Define the following specialized areas of study: sport philosophy, sport
history, sport sociology, sport and exercise psychology, motor development,
motor learning, biomechanics, exercise physiology, sports medicine, physical
education pedagogy, adapted physical activity, and sport management.
■ Clarify the relationship between the discipline and the professions of physical
education, exercise science, and sport relative to the field of kinesiology.
■ Explain the relationship of physical education, exercise science, and sport
to allied fields of study.
■ Describe the different types of research reports and their application to
physical education, exercise science, and sport.
■ Identify social media resources that can inform the practice within the field
of physical education, exercise science, and sport.
T his is one of the most exciting, dynamic times in the history of physical
education, exercise science, and sport. Unfolding before us is the vision
of lifetime involvement in physical activity for all people. This is a powerful
vision, one that is compelling for physical educators, exercise scientists, and
sport leaders who choose to embrace it and extraordinary in its potential to
affect the well-being and quality of life of people of all ages.
Contemporary physical education, exercise science, and sport have
evolved from a common heritage—the traditional program of physical edu-
cation designed to prepare teachers to serve children and youth in the school
setting. Since the 1960s the foundation, scope, and focus of our programs
have grown and changed tremendously. As physical education expanded, new
disciplines of study—exercise science and sport—emerged. As the knowl-
edge base comprising this multidimensional field grew, specialized areas
of study evolved and exciting new career opportunities began to appear for
qualified professionals. Today physical education, exercise science, and sport
2
Chapter 1 Meaning and Scope 3
GET CONNECTED
Newsletters, RSS feeds, and podcasts are just some of the ways to stay abreast of current news, research, and
developments related to physical education, exercise science, and sport.
US Department of Health and Human Services—this site offers access to RSS feeds, podcasts, videos,
and newsletters related to health. There are instructions on the site explaining how to subscribe to and access
each of these media.
http://www.hhs.gov > Watch, Listen, Subscribe to access a wide variety of information on health and
physical activity.
American College of Sports Medicine—ACSM Fit Society electronic newsletter for the general public,
focusing on popular health, sport, nutrition, and fitness topics.
http://www.acsm.org > Fit Society Page > sign up to subscribe.
PELinks4U Newsletter—sponsored by PELinks4U, this website offers a monthly newsletter and articles
on a variety of topics, primarily related to the teaching of physical education and the promotion of active
lifestyles.
http://www.pelinks4u.org > Listservs/Newsgroups > PE-News. Also a directory of e-mailing lists and
newsgroups for sport sciences, athletic training, wellness, and health.
professionals serve people of all ages in a diversity kinesiology, thus, in this text, we will refer to the
of settings. Our influence on participants’ lives is field as kinesiology; however, our specific emphasis
greater today than it was before. will be placed on the disciplines of physical educa-
Welcome to contemporary physical education, tion, exercise science, and sport.
exercise science, and sport within the field of kine- We now know that leading a physically active
siology. Providing an overview of the entire field of lifestyle can help prevent disease and positively
kinesiology is, quite admittedly, a challenge as it contribute to health and well-being throughout the
is expanding rapidly. Specific to this text, we will lifespan. If the health of our nation is to improve,
focus on the growth and knowledge within physical physical education, exercise science, and sport profes-
education, exercise science, and sport. This virtual sionals must make certain that all people have access
explosion of knowledge has led to the develop- to programs, regardless of their age, race, ethnicity,
ment of new areas of study that are highly special- gender, sexual orientation, disability status, income,
ized and discrete and yet, at the same time, highly educational level, or geographic location. This is a
interrelated and vitally connected. The expansion challenge that awaits you as future professionals.
of the former field of physical education has led Physical educators, exercise scientists, and
to considerable debate among professionals that sport leaders need to know how to read scientific
focuses on such issues as the appropriate name for and practitioner-based research. As the field con-
the discipline and how best to define the relation- tinues to grow and change, this knowledge base
ship between scientific research and professional will inform your professional practice and provide
practice. Despite the ongoing debate, the growing a clearer picture of all individuals across the life-
consensus is that the central focus of this complex, span within today’s society. Dramatic changes have
multifaceted field is human movement or, more occurred over the last five decades within physical
generally, physical activity. The current name of education, exercise science, and sport. As we enter
“the field” most notably and frequently used is the next decade in the twenty-first century, new
4 Part I Nature and Scope of Physical Education, Exercise Science, and Sport
Career opportunities in physical education, exercise

science, and sport range from teaching in the school
setting to instructing in nonschool settings, such as
leading group exercise classes in a community or
corporate fitness setting.
and more exciting opportunities and challenges

await us.
CONTEMPORARY PHYSICAL
EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE,
AND SPORT PROGRAMS
Personal trainers work with clients in health clubs
The proliferation of physical education, exercise and in their homes. Adults seeking the conve-
science, and sport programs during the last five nience of working out at home boosted the sales
decades has been remarkable. Programs have of home exercise equipment to $4.5 billion a year,
expanded from the traditional school setting to up from $990 million in 1990.2 Walkers, joggers,
community, home, worksite, commercial, and med- bikers, and swimmers join the millions who meet
ical settings. School-community partnerships bring the daily requirement of including 30 minutes of
sport instruction and fitness programs to adults in physical activity into their lives.
the community and offer increased opportunities Corporations offer employees comprehen-
for youth involvement. Community recreation pro- sive onsite health promotion programs, encom-
grams offer a great variety of instruction and sport passing a wide range of fitness activities as well as
activities for people of all ages and abilities, such as cardiac rehabilitation and nutritional counseling.
tennis, golf, gymnastics, and karate clubs. Many worksites offer smoking cessation, stress
Health club membership is booming. Today, management, and occupational safety courses to
over 50.2 million people belong to a health club, their employees, who find it convenient to fit these
compared with only 20.7 million in 1990.1 Mem- health-enhancing opportunities into their busy
bership by people 55 years and older increased schedules. Hospitals sponsor cardiac rehabilitation
by over 300% during the past 15 years. Members programs and increasingly offer fitness programs to
take advantage of a myriad of fitness classes and community members. Sports medicine clinics treat
participate in resistance and cardiovascular train- injured sport and fitness participants of all ages, no
ing and in one-on-one nutritional counseling. longer limiting their practice to the elite adult athlete.
skill and fitness development is accompanied

by an increased knowledge and understanding
of physical activity. High schools offer students
the opportunity to choose from several different
activities for their physical education program.
Some instruction may take place in the commu-
nity, increasing the range of activities that can be
offered to students and encouraging students to
use the community facilities during their leisure
time. Courses in anatomy, exercise physiology, and
athletic training may be included in the curricu-
lum, further developing students’ understanding
People of all ages enjoy athletic competition.
and appreciation of physical activity. Intramu-
ral programs afford students of all skill levels the
opportunity to compete against their classmates.
People of all ages are seeking out sport Interscholastic athletics offer highly skilled boys
opportunities in many different settings. Youth and girls the chance to compete against students
sports involve more than 25 million children a from other schools.
year. Approximately 7.7 million athletes participate At the collegiate level, young adults enroll in
in interscholastic sports and over 560,000 partici- courses in martial arts or tennis, work out at fit-
pate in intercollegiate sports.3–6 Sport events such ness centers, join group exercise classes, and take
as the Empire State Games, AAU basketball, part in recreational sports programs. Intercolle-
Senior Games, marathons, Tough Mudders, and giate athletic programs for men and women con-
master’s swimming competitions involve millions tinue to expand, involving more participants and
of adults in sport competitions. Community rec- attracting greater interest from the public.
reational leagues for basketball, softball, soccer, People are engaging in physical activity in
and volleyball provide increased opportunities for record numbers. There is increased public recog-
participation. Sport events such as the Super Bowl, nition that being active is good for your health.
the Olympics, the World Cup, and the National Several national reports, such as Healthy People
Collegiate Athletic Association basketball tour- 20207 and The Surgeon General’s Vision for a
nament capture the enthusiasm of millions of Healthy and Fit Nation,8 present overwhelming
spectators. Girls and women are participating in evidence that people of all ages can improve their
sports and physical activities in record numbers. health and quality of life by including moderate
School physical education programs focus amounts of physical activity in their daily lives.
on promotion of lifespan involvement in physi- Although most people know that physical activ-
cal activity. Students learn the skills, knowl- ity is good for them and participation in physical
edge, and attitudes that will enable them to education, exercise science, and sport programs
participate in various physical activities through- is at an all-time high, a closer look at the par-
out their lives. Elementary school physical ticipation by children, adolescents, and adults
education programs focus on helping children reveals much cause for concern.
attain competency in the fundamental motor Despite the documented health benefits of
skills (e.g., throwing and catching) and move- physical activity, 40% of adults engage in no
ment concepts (e.g., balance) that form the foun- leisure-time physical activity.7 Young children
dation for later development of specialized and adolescents are more active than adults are,
games, sport, fitness, and dance activities. (See but their activity levels decrease with age. Only
Chapter 5.) As children progress through school, 15.3% of high schoolers met the recommendation
General called for individuals and groups across

the United States to assist Americans in balanc-
ing healthful eating with regular physical activity.
for aerobic capacity and 51% met the muscle- Ensuring daily, quality physical education in the
strengthening activity recommendation.7 In 2000, schools, incorporating more physical activity into
the US government issued the report Promoting daily life, and increasing opportunities for physi-
Better Health for Young People through Physi- cal activity at worksites were among the action
cal Activity and Sports.9 According to the report, priorities.
“Physical inactivity has contributed to an unprec- In 2013, with poor diet and physical inactivity
edented epidemic of childhood obesity that is identified as the second leading cause of prevent-
currently plaguing the United States.” Too many able death in the United States, the Centers for
children and youth are inactive, unfit, and over- Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Division
weight, placing them at increased risk to develop of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity again
many chronic diseases. called for America to get active and eat healthier.
In the United States, the prevalence of over- Numerous initiatives developed by the CDC
weight and obesity among children, adolescents, and Department of Health and Human Services
and adults has risen at an alarming rate during encourage Americans to increase the amount of
the past 30 years. Concerned that health problems physical activity in their lives and to make health-
associated with overweight and obesity could ier dietary choices.10 These public health initia-
reverse many of the nation’s recent health gains, tives reflect the important role of physical activity
the US Surgeon General in 2010 issued a Vision in health, not only in terms of quality of life but in
for a Healthy and Fit Nation.8 The Surgeon leading a longer, healthier life.
Further examination of health status and phys- of people of all ages and abilities—has created a
ical activity patterns in the United States reveals wide array of career opportunities for students
health disparities and fitness inequities among dif- interested in these exciting professional areas.
ferent population groups. Age, socioeconomic sta- Employment opportunities range from the tradi-
tus, race, ethnicity, gender, educational attainment, tional career of teaching physical education and
and geographic location were found to influence coaching in the schools to sport instruction and
physical activity levels. Inactivity is greatest among fitness-related careers in community and com-
women, minorities, the economically and educa- mercial facilities. Increasingly common are career
tionally disadvantaged, people with disabilities, opportunities in cardiac rehabilitation, athletic
and the aged.7 These populations have less access training, and worksite health promotion. Careers
to services and face other barriers to the adoption in sport marketing, sport management, and sport
and maintenance of physically active lifestyles. communication are growing in popularity.
Their limited opportunities for physical activity The main challenges facing professionals are
adversely affect their health, their quality of life, increasing the level of physical activity by people
and, ultimately, their lifespan. across the nation and addressing inequities in
Involvement in physical activity should physical activity opportunities. As physical edu-
begin at an early age and continue throughout cation, exercise science, and sport professionals,
one’s life. School physical education programs we must make a greater commitment to reach out
are the primary avenue for helping children and to these populations and involve them in our pro-
youth learn the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to grams. We must address the specific barriers that
lead a healthy, physically active lifestyle. Health inhibit the adoption and maintenance of physical
policy reports recognize the important contribu- activity by different population groups, utilize
tion physical education can make to health and new approaches that are sensitive to the needs
call for daily, high-quality physical education for of increasingly diverse populations, and improve
all students K–12.7 Unfortunately, the number of access by developing quality public programs in
children and youth participating in daily physical schools, recreation centers, worksites, and health
education programs has declined. Daily participa- care settings. All people have the right to good
tion in physical education by high school students health and the opportunity to be physically active
decreased from 42% in 1991 to 25% in 1995, and throughout their lifespan.
rose slightly to 31% in 2011.11–13 Many lifelong As you begin your professional career, make a
habits (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse, smoking, commitment to service. Commit yourself to creat-
lack of physical activity) and many diseases (e.g., ing opportunities for all people—regardless of age,
type 2 diabetes, heart disease) have their roots in income, education, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual
childhood. That’s why it is important to develop orientation, geographic location, or ability—to
positive health habits early in life. Over 50 million enjoy and to benefit from lifespan participation in
students are enrolled in public and private elemen- physical activity.
tary and secondary schools in the United States.14
Imagine the health benefits if each of these stu-
Physical Education, Exercise Science,
dents had access to daily quality physical educa-
tion pre-K–12. Increasing the number of children and Sport Defined
and youth that have the opportunity to participate Physical education, exercise science, and sport
in quality physical education programs on a daily share a common focus—human movement or,
basis is an important priority. more generally, physical activity. Physical activity
The phenomenal growth of physical educa- is the cornerstone of these dynamic professions.
tion, exercise science, and sport programs—the Historically, physical education programs
expansion to new settings and the greater inclusion focused on teaching children and youths in the
HEALTHY PEOPLE 2020-PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OBJECTIVES
• PA-1: Reduce the proportion of adults who engage in no leisure-time physical activity.
• PA-2: Increase the proportion of adults who meet current Federal physical activity guidelines for aerobic
physical activity and for muscle-strengthening activity.
• PA-3: Increase the proportion of adolescents who meet current Federal physical activity guidelines for
aerobic physical activity and for muscle-strengthening activity.
• PA-4: Increase the proportion of the Nation’s public and private schools that require daily physical educa-
tion for all students.
• PA-5: Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education.
• PA-6: Increase regularly scheduled elementary school recess in the United States.
• PA-7: Increase the proportion of school districts that require or recommend elementary school recess for
an appropriate period of time.
• PA-8: Increase the proportion of children and adolescents who do not exceed recommended limits for
screen time.
• PA-9: Increase the number of States with licensing regulations for physical activity provided in childcare.
• PA-10: Increase the proportion of the Nation’s public and private schools that provide access to their
physical activity spaces and facilities for all persons outside of normal school hours (that is, before and
after the school day, on weekends, and during summer and other vacations).
• PA-11: Increase the proportion of physician office visits that include counseling or education related to
physical activity.
• PA-12: (Developmental) Increase the proportion of employed adults who have access to and participate in
employer-based exercise facilities and exercise programs.
• PA-13: (Developmental) Increase the proportion of trips made by walking.
• PA-14: (Developmental) Increase the proportion of trips made by bicycling.
• PA-15: (Developmental) Increase legislative policies for the built environment that enhance access to and
availability of physical activity opportunities.
Source: US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2020: Improving the Health of Americans. Washington, D.C.:
US Government Printing Office, 2010.
school setting. The traditional definition of physi- their optimal development and well-being. In this
cal education reflects this educational focus. Since definition, the term education refers to the ongo-
the 1960s, a tremendous amount of change has ing process of learning that occurs throughout
occurred in physical education. The expansion of our lifespan. Education, just like physical educa-
physical education beyond its traditional realm to tion, takes place in a variety of settings and is not
nonschool settings and the development of pro- limited to a specific age group. Homeschooling,
grams to instruct people of all ages in physical continuing education through distance learning,
activities require a more inclusive, contemporary worksite health promotion programs, and pre-
definition. schools are just some of the expanded settings
Today, physical education is defined as an for education and physical education programs.
educational process that uses physical activity Teachers today may be called instructors, lead-
as a means to help individuals acquire skills, fit- ers, or facilitators. Today’s students span the age
ness, knowledge, and attitudes that contribute to range, from the very young exploring movement
To study physical activity, exercise scientists draw

upon scientific methods and theories from many
different disciplines, such as biology, biochem-
istry, physics, and psychology. The application
of science to the study of physical activity led to
rapid expansion of the knowledge base of exercise
science. As the knowledge base of exercise science
grew, so did our understanding of the effects of
physical activity on various systems of the body.
The significant role that physical activity plays in
preventing disease and promoting health became
clearer. Exercise’s value as a therapeutic modality
in the treatment of disease and the rehabilitation
of injuries became better known. (See box for
Exercise physiologists study the body’s short- and definitions of exercise, physical activity, physical
long-term adaptations to exercise.
education, physical fitness, and sport.)
Exercise science is a very broad area of study,
encompassing many different aspects of physi-
skills in a preschool program to the older adults cal activity. Through research, scholars gain new
learning how to play golf through a community insights into how people’s movements develop and
recreation program. change across their lifespan and further expand
Most physical education programs today are their understanding of how people learn motor
based on a developmental model. This model skills. Analysis of the performance of motor skills
purports that physical education, through the using biomechanics leads to improvement in skill
use of carefully structured physical activity, efficiency and effectiveness. Researchers’ explo-
contributes to the development of the whole ration of the limits and capacities of performers
person. Physical education includes the acquisi- has enabled athletes of all abilities to perform at
tion and refinement of motor skills, the devel- higher levels of achievement. The psychologi-
opment and maintenance of fitness for optimal cal effects of physical activity on well-being and
health and well-being, the attainment of knowl- strategies to enhance adherence to exercise and
edge about physical activities, and the fostering rehabilitation programs are some other areas of
of positive attitudes conducive to lifelong learn- study within exercise science.
ing and lifespan participation. As Ziegler states, Sports are highly organized, competitive
“We have a ‘womb to tomb’ responsibility for the physical activities governed by rules. Rules stan-
developmental physical activity for all citizens dardize the competition and conditions so that
throughout their lives.”15 individuals can compete fairly and achieve speci-
Within the last five decades, there has been fied goals. Sports provide meaningful opportu-
an increase in the scholarly study of physical edu- nities to demonstrate one’s competence and to
cation. Research continues to expand our knowl- challenge one’s limits. Competition can occur
edge with respect to the preparation of physical against an opponent or oneself.
education teachers, teacher effectiveness, teaching People of all ages and abilities engage in
methods, improvement of student learning, and sports for enjoyment, personal satisfaction, and
it also provides us with new insights on coaches’ the opportunity to attain victory and/or obtain
and athletes’ behaviors. rewards. The level of competition ranges from
Exercise science is the scientific analysis of recreational sport to elite sport. When sport is
exercise or, more inclusively, physical activity. highly developed, governing bodies regulate sport
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Exercise—physical activity done for the purpose of getting fit that increases energy expenditure above
baseline levels. Exercise is planned, structured, and repetitive. The duration, frequency, and intensity of
exercise can be measured.
• Physical Activity—bodily movement produced by the contraction of the skeletal muscles that
substantially increase energy expenditure above baseline level. A broad term, it encompasses exercise,
sport, dance, active games, activities of daily living, and active occupational tasks.
• Physical Education—subject matter taught in schools that provides K–12 students with opportunities to
learn, have meaningful content and appropriate instruction. Quality physical-education programs focus
on increasing physical competence, health-related fitness, self-responsibility, and enjoyment of physical
activity for all students so that they can be physically active for a lifetime.
• Physical Fitness—capacity of people to perform physical activities; set of attributes that allow individuals
to carry out daily tasks without undue fatigue and have the energy to participate in a variety of physical
activities; state of well-being associated with low risk of premature health problems.
• Sport—well-established, officially governed competitive physical activities in which participants are
motivated by internal and external rewards.
Sources: Adapted from the President’s Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition. Definitions: Health, fitness, and physical activity.
2013 (www.fitness.gov); US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2020 (www.healthypeople.gov); National
Association for Sport and Physical Education. Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education (2nd ed.). Reston,
Va.: Author, 2004; and Coakley, J. Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies (10th ed.). New York, 2009, McGraw-Hill.
and oversee its management. Athletics refers to sport opportunities for minorities, and the con-
highly organized, competitive sports engaged in trol of anxiety by athletes during performance.
by skillful participants. At this level, coaches play Other researchers have directed their attention to
a significant role, athletes are highly skilled, spe- investigating the management of sport and its pro-
cially trained officials ensure the fairness of the motion. The growing popularity of sport and its
competition, records are kept, events are promoted prominent role in our society makes sport a vital
through the media, and spectators assume an area of study.
important role. Sports occupy a prominent posi- The realm of physical education, exercise
tion in our society. science, and sport today embraces many differ-
Since the early 1970s, there has been an ent programs, diverse settings, and people of all
enormous interest in the scholarly study of sport. ages. This recent growth of physical education,
These sport studies have focused on the signifi- exercise science, and sport has been accompa-
cant role of sport in our society, its tremendous nied by an increased interest in its scholarly study.
impact on our culture, and its effects on the mil- This research has led to the development of spe-
lions of people who play sports and the millions cialized areas of knowledge. The subsequent
more who watch and read about them. Scholars increase in the breadth and depth of knowledge
study the philosophical, historical, sociological, provides a foundation for professional practice.
and psychological dimensions of the sport experi- The expansion of physical education, exercise sci-
ence. Examples of areas of investigation include ence, and sport has led to a tremendous growth of
sport ethics, the influence of significant historical career opportunities for enthusiastic and commit-
events on the sport experience, the inequities in ted professionals.
Physical Education, Exercise Science, • Formal associations and opportunities for

and Sport communication among the membership.
• Established opportunities for continued devel-
Corbin16 defines a field as a “combination of a opment and enhancement of professional
well-established discipline and one or more pro- knowledge and skills.
fessions that deliver a social service” and are • A professional code of ethics to govern the
“focused on common goals.” Disciplinarians membership and provide guidelines for service.
engage in research and scholarly endeavors to • Recognition by society for the valuable contri-
advance a knowledge base. This knowledge serves bution to the welfare of citizens.
as a foundation for the professionals who deliver • Dedication to helping others and serving people.
services to people.16 Professionals use this knowl-
edge and their skills to design and deliver pro- Physical educators, exercise scientists, and
grams to meet the unique and changing needs of sport leaders possess a bachelor’s degree and fre-
the people they serve. As we continue to grow and quently pursue advanced study via graduate pro-
become increasingly specialized, we must keep grams in the field. Their professional preparation
sight of our common focus on physical activity. programs include extensive study in the theoretical
Both the professional and disciplinary dimensions aspects of the field, skill development, and often
of the field enrich our understanding and ability to practical experiences that allow them to apply their
promote lifespan involvement in regular physical knowledge and use their skills under the guidance
activity for all people. of qualified professionals. Additional requirements
and certifications may be necessary to engage in
The Profession professional practice.
Today there is increased recognition by soci-
Physical education, exercise science, and sport
ety of the valuable contribution professionals in
can be described with reference to their status
our field make to the lives of others. Our com-
as a profession. A profession is an occupation
mitment to promoting lifespan physical activity
requiring specialized training in an intellectual
for all members of society benefits the health of
field of study that is dedicated to the betterment
the nation. The expansion of physical education,
of society through service to others. Profession-
exercise science, and sport programs to differ-
als provide services to others through the applica-
ent settings and the involvement of people of all
tion of knowledge and skills to improve people’s
ages in our programs offer professionals increased
well-being.
opportunities to serve others and enhance their
Several characteristics help distinguish a pro-
well-being.
fession from occupations that are not a profession,
Our professional emphasis continues to grow
such as a trade or a craft. These characteristics
as our programs expand to teaching or activity-
include:
related careers in nonschool settings, health- and
• An organized and continually expanding body fitness-related careers, and sport-related careers.
of knowledge that forms the theoretical founda- This is particularly true in regard to medical and
tion for practice. health promotion programs as we collectively
• Educational preparation that includes an exten- attempt to combat obesity and hypokinetic dis-
sive course of study focusing on the acquisition eases that are negatively affecting our country.
of knowledge, development of specialized Never before has it been more important for phys-
skills, and attainment of needed competencies. ical education, exercise science, and sport profes-
• Criteria for entry into the profession, which sionals to promote the health and well-being of all
can include participation in an accredited individuals across the lifespan. In doing so, we
program, a certification process, or licensing need to go beyond our program settings and col-
procedures. laborate with the medical and health professions.
More and more individuals with disabilities are engaging

in sports. Here athletes are playing quad rugby.
The emergence of new professional opportuni-

ties has created a need for highly qualified pro-
fessionals who possess a high level of skill, an
appreciation and understanding of the needs of an
increasingly diverse population, and a sound grasp
of the knowledge of physical education, exercise
science, and sport. Throughout the remainder of
this text, the term professionals will be used in
place of “physical educators, exercise scientists,
and sport leaders.”
People of all ages are frequenting fitness centers and
health clubs. Many work out on a regular basis. Regular
The Academic Discipline
physical activity contributes to good health and overall
Since the mid-1960s there has been a phenomenal quality of life.
surge in the scientific study of physical education,
which advanced its status as an academic disci-
deeper understanding. This body of knowledge
pline. Henry17 defines an academic discipline as
is worthy of study for its own sake and does not
an organized body of knowledge collectively need to have any immediate application to profes-
embraced in a formal course of learning. The sional practice. Traditional academic disciplines
acquisition of such knowledge is assumed to include biology, psychology, philosophy, history,
be an adequate and worthy objective as such, and mathematics.
without any demonstration or requirement of The seminal point in the development of
practical application. The content is theoreti- the discipline movement occurred in 1964 when
cal and scholarly as distinguished from tech-
Franklin Henry called for the “organization and
nical and professional.
study of the academic discipline herein called
An academic discipline has a focus, a conceptual physical education.”17 His clarion call came at a
framework that provides structure for the field, a time when forces in society were exerting pres-
unique scope in comparison to other fields, and sure for educational reform, improved educa-
distinct scholarly methods and modes of inquiry tional standards, and greater academic rigor in the
leading to the advancement of knowledge and preparation of teachers. Then, physical education
many other academic disciplines were used by

researchers and scholars in the development of
these specialized areas of study. Knowledge and
research methods from the hard sciences of biol-
ogy, chemistry, physics, anatomy, physiology, and
mathematics strongly influenced the development
of the subdisciplines of exercise physiology and
sport biomechanics. Psychology, sociology, his-
tory, and philosophy, often called the social sci-
ences, formed the foundation for the development
of sport and exercise psychology, motor develop-
ment, motor learning, sport sociology, sport his-
Athletic trainer helping athlete with rehabilitation. tory, and sport philosophy. The rehabilitation
sciences, particularly physical therapy, exerted an
important influence on the development of sports
teacher preparation programs focused on the medicine and adapted physical activity. Educa-
application of knowledge and endured criticism tional research significantly affected the devel-
for their lack of academic rigor, their emphasis opment of physical education pedagogy. In the
on the learning of job-related skills, and their subdiscipline of sport management, the influence
focus on performance courses, such as Basketball of management, law, communication, and market-
Fundamentals.18 ing is evident.
Henry’s call for an academic discipline The growth of the subdisciplines broadens
stimulated greater scholarly activity by acade- the scope of the field. Equally important, the inter-
micians at colleges and universities. Developing dependence between these growing areas offers
technologies, theoretical knowledge, and methods us valuable knowledge and greater insight as we
of scientific inquiry from other disciplines were move toward the accomplishment of our goals. The
directed to the study of physical education and 12 subdisciplines are briefly described below.
increasingly to exercise and sport. The discipline Exercise physiology is the study of the effects
of psychology, for example, provided the founda- of various physical demands, particularly exer-
tion for the development of motor learning and cise, on the structure and function of the body.
sport psychology. Sociology laid the groundwork The exercise physiologist is concerned with both
for the growth of sport sociology. The prolifera- short-term (acute) and long-term (chronic) adapta-
tion of research and generation of scholarship led tions of the various systems of the body to exer-
to the development of specialized areas of study, cise. The effects of different exercise programs
commonly called subdisciplines. on the muscular and cardiovascular systems, the
immune system, and the health status of differ-
Subdisciplines within Physical Education, ent population groups such as children and the
Exercise Science, and Sport aged are just some areas of study within the field.
The field of kinesiology consists of 12 subdisci- Clinical exercise testing, design of rehabilitation
plines; (See Table 1.1) many of which fall under programs for postcardiac patients, and planning
the broader professional umbrellas of physi- of exercise programs to prevent cardiovascular
cal education, exercise science, and sport. The disease are among the responsibilities of exercise
cross-disciplinary nature of physical education, physiologists. (See Chapter 7.)
exercise science, and sport is evident from the Sports medicine is concerned with the pre-
names of the subdisciplines. Theories, principles, vention, treatment, and rehabilitation of sports-
scientific methods, and modes of inquiry from related injuries. Athletic trainers’ responsibilities
Table 1-1 Subdisciplines of Physical Education, Exercise Science, and Sport—

Application to Fitness Instruction and Program Leadership
Subdiscipline Types of Questions
Exercise Physiology What frequency, duration, and intensity of exercise will yield health
benefits? How long will it be before participants achieve a significant
difference in their health status?
Sports Medicine What exercises will prevent injury? How should exercise be modified for
hot, humid weather?
Sport Biomechanics What are the correct techniques for weight training? How can I evaluate
a participant’s gait?
Sport Philosophy What is my role as a fitness leader in involving participants in the
program? What is the responsibility of the participants in this
program?
Sport History What societal factors contributed to the fitness movement in the 1970s?
How have cultural beliefs limited the participation of girls and
women in fitness activities?
Sport and Exercise Psychology What are the best strategies to help program participants adhere to or
continue their involvement in the program?
Motor Development What are the developmental needs of the participants? How can the
program be designed to meet these needs?
Motor Learning What are the best practice conditions for learning a skill? How does the
frequency of feedback and praise influence participation?
Sport Sociology What are societal factors that influence the activity choices of the
program participants? What are the societal forces that influence their
participation?
Physical Education Pedagogy What are characteristics of effective teachers? What are guidelines for
most effectively presenting instruction?
Adapted Physical Activity How can the program be modified to meet individual needs or
accommodate individuals with disabilities?
Sport Management What is the best way to promote the program? How can I bring about a
change in policy?
are broader than just administering treatment to program, provides treatment, and oversees the ath-
the injured athlete on the playing field. From the lete’s rehabilitation. (See Chapter 13.)
standpoint of prevention, the athletic trainer works Sport biomechanics applies the methods
with the coach to design conditioning programs for of physics and mechanics to the study of human
various phases of the season, to correctly fit protec- motion and the motion of sport objects (e.g., a
tive equipment, and to promote the welfare of the baseball or javelin). Biomechanists study the effect
athlete, such as counseling the athlete about proper of various forces and laws (e.g., Newton’s laws of
nutrition. With respect to treatment and rehabili- motion) on the body and sport objects. The mus-
tation, the athletic trainer assesses injuries when culoskeletal system and the production of force,
they occur, administers first aid, works collabora- leverage, and stability are examined with respect
tively with the physician to design a rehabilitation to human movement and sport object motion
Biomechanists analyze the mechanical aspects of athletes’ skill performance in order to help
them improve.
(e.g., spinning across the circle to throw a discus). Sport and exercise psychology uses principles
Analysis of movements with respect to efficiency and scientific methods from psychology to study
and effectiveness is used to help individuals human behavior in sport. Sport psychologists help
improve their performance. (See Chapter 6.) athletes improve their “mental game,” that is,
Sport philosophy examines sport from many develop and effectively apply skills and strategies
different perspectives. Sport philosophy encom- that will enhance their performance. Achievement
passes the study of the nature of reality, the struc- motivation, regulation of anxiety, self-confidence,
ture of knowledge in sport, ethical and moral rehabilitation adherence, cohesion, and leadership
questions, and the aesthetics of movement. Sport are among the topics studied by sport psycholo-
philosophers critically examine the meaning of gists. Recently, exercise psychology has attracted
sport for all participants involved and enjoin us to greater attention from researchers. Exercise psy-
question our beliefs and assumptions about sport. chology is concerned with exercise addiction,
Sport philosophers engage in systematic reflec- adherence, and other psychological issues affect-
tion, use logic as a tool to advance knowledge and ing the well-being of people who are physically
arrive at decisions, and seek to understand the active. (See Chapter 9.)
relationship between the mind and the body. Sport Motor development studies the factors that
philosophers debate questions of ethics, morals, influence the development of abilities essential
and values. (See Chapter 2.) to movement. The motor development specialist
Sport history is the critical examination of uses longitudinal studies (i.e., studies that take
the past, with a focus on events, people, and trends place over a span of many years) to analyze the
that influenced the development and direction of interaction of genetic and environmental fac-
the field. History is concerned with the who, what, tors that affect an individual’s ability to perform
when, where, how, and why of sport.19 These facts, motor skills throughout their lifespan. The role of
when placed in the social context of the time, help early movement experiences, heredity, and matu-
us better understand the present and gain insight ration on children’s development of motor skills
regarding the future. (See Chapter 4.) is an important focus of study. Professionals use
Sport psychologists help athletes achieve optimal levels of performance.
theories of development to design appropriate influence of gender, race, and socioeconomic sta-
movement experiences for people of all ages and tus on participation in sports and, more recently,
abilities. (See Chapter 5.) physical activity. Drug abuse by athletes, aggres-
Motor learning is the study of changes in sion and violence, the effect of the media on sport,
motor behavior that are primarily the result of and player–coach relationships interest sport soci-
practice and experience. The effect of the content, ologists. The experiences of the millions of chil-
frequency, and timing of feedback on skill learn- dren involved in youth sport has also drawn the
ing is a critical area of study. Motor learning is attention of sport sociologists. (See Chapter 8.)
concerned with the stages an individual progresses Physical Education Pedagogy can be
through in moving from a beginner to a highly defined broadly to include the study of teach-
skilled performer. The most effective conditions ing and learning in school and nonschool set-
for practicing skills, the use of reinforcement to tings. Physical education pedagogy studies how
enhance learning, and how to use information physical educators and sport leaders provide an
from the environment to modify performance are effective learning environment, achieve desired
investigated by motor learning specialists. Motor learning goals, and assess program outcomes.
control, intimately related to motor learning, is Physical education pedagogy seeks to deter-
concerned with the neurophysiological and behav- mine the characteristics and skills possessed by
ioral processes affecting the control of skilled effective teachers and coaches and how these
movements. (See Chapter 5.) influence student/athlete activity and student/
Sport sociology is the study of the role of athlete learning. Curricular development, its
sport in society, its impact on participants in sport, implementation, and the preparation of teachers
and the relationship between sport and other soci- are major foci in physical education pedagogy.
etal institutions. Sport sociologists examine the (See Chapter 10.)
Physical education pedagogy studies the behaviors of teachers and coaches, identifying
those that contribute to an effective learning environment.
Adapted physical activity is concerned with the and recreation programs, and sporting goods
preparation of teachers and sport leaders to provide sales. (See Chapter 14.)
programs and services for individuals with dis-
abilities. Specialists modify activities and sport to Specialization and Integration
enable people with different abilities to participate. The emergence of subdisciplines led to special-
By federal law, adapted physical educators have a ization by both the academicians and practitio-
role in designing an individualized educational plan ners in the field. The creation of new professional
(i.e., IEP) for students with disabilities so that they societies and scholarly journals provided a forum
can participate to the fullest extent they are able in for professional dialogue, the dissemination of sci-
school physical education. Advocacy to secure ser- entific findings, and the sharing of scholarly work.
vices and leadership to create more opportunities in At colleges and universities, curricular changes
physical education and sport are important aspects were implemented as new courses were developed
of this field. (See Chapters 10 and 12.) and, eventually, new undergraduate majors were
Sport management encompasses the many added, such as those in sport studies, athletic train-
managerial aspects of sport. These include per- ing, and fitness and cardiac rehabilitation. These
sonnel management, budgeting, facility manage- new career options attracted an increasing number
ment, and programming. Other aspects of sport of students, and the number of graduates of these
management are law, policy development, fund- programs soon exceeded the number of graduates
raising, and media relations. Knowledge from this from the traditional teaching program. The gradu-
area can be used by professionals in many differ- ates of these nonteaching programs often prefer to
ent aspects of the sport enterprise, including inter- describe their occupation with reference to their
scholastic and intercollegiate sports, professional specialized areas of study. Thus, these profession-
sports, fitness and health clubs, community sport als refer to themselves as athletic trainers, exercise
Sport sociologists study the behavior of people in sport situations—athletes, coaches, and
fans—as well as the impact of sport on the community.
scientists, and sport managers. The new graduate boundaries that define the subdisciplines, we can
programs offered at the master’s and doctoral lev- give isolated factors greater meaning by plac-
els, such as those in exercise physiology, physical ing them in the perspective of the larger field.20
education pedagogy, sport management, and sport Lumpkin suggests that as a field “we should
psychology, reflect the increasingly sophisticated, commit to common goals, different roles, and a
complex nature of the discipline. cross-disciplinary body of knowledge.”21 We must
The disciplinary movement will continue to understand the significant contribution of each of
expand our body of knowledge. As specialization these scholarly endeavors and the important role
increases, it is important not to lose sight of the each of us plays in achieving the goal of lifespan
whole breadth of the field. Even though special- participation in physical activity for people of all
ized areas have developed significant knowledge ages. It is equally important to remember that as
bases, they are not mutually exclusive. There is an professionals working with people, we are dealing
overlap in content, ideas, and areas of inquiry, as with the whole person—his or her mind and body
we are based on a common focus, which has been in the context of society. We must be sensitive to
increasingly defined as physical activity. society’s changing needs and capitalize on them
Table 1-1 shows how professionals can use as an opportunity for growth. Charles states, “We
knowledge from each of the subdisciplines to must recognize and capitalize on indicators of cul-
enhance the effectiveness of their programs. In tural change that point toward a future society that
this era of continued growth of the whole field places a premium on health and well-being and
and increased specialization within the field, we that values personal fulfillment through physical
should strive to make connections among the sub- activity.”20 If we can do this, we can achieve our
disciplines. Charles advises that when we eschew fullest potential as a significant force in society.
ALLIED FIELDS independence of the elderly.7,11 Additionally, it

has been found that, on average, individuals who
Health, recreation and leisure, and dance are fre-
are physically active outlive individuals who are
quently referred to as allied fields. These allied
physically inactive.7,11 The strong role regular and
fields share many purposes with physical edu-
appropriate physical activity plays in the health
cation, exercise science, and sport, namely the
and well-being of individuals further confirms
development of the total individual and concern
the allied nature of health and physical education,
for quality of life. However, the content of the
exercise science, and sport.
subject matter of the allied fields and the methods
used to accomplish their goals may vary from the
subject matter and methods of physical education, Recreation and Leisure
exercise science, and sport.
Another allied field is recreation and leisure.
Recreation and leisure are generally thought of
as self-chosen activities that provide a means of
Health revitalizing and refreshing one’s body and spirit.
Health education concerns itself with the total The spectrum of activities ranges from active to
well-being of the individual, encompassing physi- passive and from group to individual in nature.
cal, mental, social, emotional, and spiritual health. Recreation is important for individuals of all ages.
Three areas within health education are health It is within recreation and leisure opportuni-
instruction, provision of health services, and envi- ties that individuals of all ages can simply play.
ronmental health. The notion of play, whether formal or informal,
Health instruction focuses on teaching the is often lost after early childhood and youth.
basics of healthy living in many areas, including Denzin suggests that “the persistent effort to seg-
disease prevention, mental health, nutrition, physi- regate work from play and leisure in modern west-
cal fitness, stress management, and dealing with ern societies may rest on the felt conception that
abuse of drugs and alcohol. Health services is con- moments of play deny the self of the seriousness it
cerned with developing and maintaining a satisfac- somehow deserves. Only children appear to think
tory level of health for all people through services otherwise.”22 Ask yourself, when was the last time
such as routine eye examinations, cholesterol and that you played? How do you feel when you sim-
blood pressure monitoring, and cancer screening. ply play? Most often, individuals have fun and feel
Environmental health focuses on the development a sense of enjoyment when they are free to play,
of healthful and safe environments where individ- create their own games and activities, and have
uals are not needlessly exposed to hazards such as the opportunity to express themselves through
toxic chemicals and infectious materials. physical movement (or other forms of play).
Americans are becoming increasingly con- Recreational opportunities abound. Schools,
scious of the instrumental role physical activ- communities, and businesses offer a wide range
ity plays in one’s health-related quality of life. of activities to meet the fitness and leisure needs
Data supporting the health benefits of participa- of individuals. Worksite fitness programs, indus-
tion in appropriate physical activity on a regu- trial sport leagues, commercial fitness programs,
lar basis continue to mount. Accrued benefits of competitive recreational leagues, instructional clin-
regular physical activity include the prevention of ics, and open facilities for drop-in recreation are
coronary heart disease, hypertension, noninsulin- increasing in number. During nonschool hours,
dependent diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, obe- school facilities are the site for various recreational
sity, and mental health problems.7,11 Other benefits offerings for people of all ages. Many individuals
may include the reduction of the incidence of and families pursue recreational activities indepen-
stroke and the maintenance of the functional dently as well.
Physical activity contributes to health and fitness throughout life. Bicycling is an excellent
activity for people of all ages.
Therapeutic recreation focuses on providing People dance for a variety of reasons. Dance is
a broad range of services for individuals of all used to communicate ideas and feelings and is con-
ages who have disabilities. Through a diversity sidered a creative art form. As with all of the arts,
of interventions, the individual’s quality of life dance should be an integral part of the educational
is enhanced, the development of leisure skills is experience. As a form of recreation, dance pro-
encouraged, and the integration of the individual vides opportunities for enjoyment, self-expression,
into community recreational opportunities and and relaxation. Dance also can be used as a form
life is emphasized. of therapy, providing opportunities for individuals
Recreation and leisure, like physical educa- to express their thoughts and feelings. It provides a
tion, exercise science, and sport, can contribute to means to cope with the various stresses placed on
the quality of an individual’s life. They provide individuals. Dance is increasingly used as a means
opportunities for individuals to engage in freely to develop fitness.
chosen activities, including physical activities that There are many forms of dance that are
will yield beneficial health outcomes, during their enjoyed by individuals—including ballet, ballroom,
leisure time. folk, clog, modern (e.g., salsa and hip-hop), square,
and tap. Cultural heritage is reflected in and passed
on through dance activities.
Dance Health, recreation and leisure, and dance
The third allied area is dance. Dance is a popu- are allied fields to physical education, exercise
lar activity for people of all ages and is both a science, and sport. The overall focus of these
physical activity and a performing art that gives fields of endeavor is the development of the total
participants an opportunity for aesthetic expres- individual and the enhancement of each person’s
sion through movement. quality of life. Attainment of these aims involves
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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