Young Children With Special Needs 6th Edition Ebook PDF Version

Young Children with Special Needs 6th
Edition – Ebook PDF Version

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/young-children-with-special-needs-6th-edition-ebook-
pdf-version/
CONTENTS vii
Factors Affecting Fine-Motor Development 220

Environmental Factors 220 ● Biological Factors 222
Fine-Motor Development in Young Children with Special Needs 225
Cerebral Palsy 225 ● Down Syndrome 229 ● Autism Spectrum
Disorders 230 ● Co-Occurring Conditions 233
Specific Strategies for Assessment of Fine-Motor Functioning 233
Sensory Processing Assessment 236
Instructional Methods and Strategies for Intervention 236
Sensory Processing Intervention 237 ● Positioning the
Child 237 ● Positioning of Objects 239 ● Fine-Motor
Materials 241 ● Foundational Skills for Handwriting 241 ● Prewriting
Adaptations 243 ● Prewriting Programs 243 ● Scissors
Skills 244 ● Other Interventions 245
Technology in Assessment and Intervention 246
Summary 249
Review Questions and Discussion Points 250
Recommended Resources 250
References 252
Acknowledgments 255
CHAPTER 6 Self-Care Skills 256

Sharon G. Gartland and Jean A. Patz
Definitional Issues 258
Theoretical Models 259
Stages of Typical Self-Care Development 259
Stages of Eating Development 259 ● Stages of Self-Feeding
Development 262 ● Stages of Dressing Development 264 ● Stages of
Grooming Development 265 ● Stages of Toileting Development 265
Factors Affecting Self-Care Development 265
Environmental Factors 265 ● Biological Factors 266
Self-Care Development in Young Children with Special Needs 268
Development of Eating Skills 268 ● Development of Dressing
Skills 274 ● Development of Grooming Skills 275 ● Development
of Self-Feeding Skills 276 ● Development of Sleeping
Skills 277 ● Development of Toileting Skills 278
Specific Strategies for Assessment of Self-Care Functioning 279
Self-Care Assessment 279 ● Eating Assessment 280
Selected Strategies for Eating Intervention 283 ● Selected
Strategies for Dressing Intervention 289 ● Selected Strategies for
Grooming 291 ● Selected Strategies for Self-Feeding 293 ● Selected
Strategies for Sleeping 294 ● Selected Strategies for Toileting 295
viii CONTENTS

Summary 299
References 300
Acknowledgments 302
Ch apter 7 Cognitive Development 303

Warren Umansky
The Range of Cognitive Skills 305
The Neurobiology of Cognition 307
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 309
Organization of Cognitive Development 310
Piaget’s Stages of Development 311
Sensorimotor Period 311 ● Preoperational Period 316
Other Theories of Development 320
Vygotsky’s Theory 320 ● Behavioral Theories 321
Relationships Between Developmental and Cognitive Processing Models 324
Factors That Affect Cognitive Development 325
Cognition and the Environment 325
Cognitive Development and the Child with Special Needs 328
Intellectual Disability 329 ● Visual Impairments 330 ● Hearing
Impairments 331 ● Physical Impairments and Chronic
Illnesses 332 ● Autism Spectrum Disorders 334
Strategies for Assessment of Cognitive Development 335
Types of Cognitive Assessment 335
Facilitating Cognitive Development 337
Focusing on the Process 338 ● Skills of the
Interventionist 338 ● Structuring the Curriculum 343
Summary 345
Recommended Resource 345
References 345
APPENDIX: Sample Discovery Activities for Young and Developmentally Young
Children 349
Ch apter 8 Communication Development 366

Susan R. Easterbrooks and Stacey Tucci
Definitions 368
CO NTENTS ix
Communication 368 ● Speech 368 ● Language 368 ● Form,

Content, and Use 369 ● Phonology 371 ● Morphology 371 ●
Syntax 371 ● Semantics 371 ● Pragmatics 372
Stages of Normal Language Acquisition 373
Prelinguistic and Babbling Stage 373 ● One-Word Stage 374 ● Early
Word Combinations 375 ● Multiword Combinations 375 ● Simple
Sentence Structure 375
Theoretical Models 375
Behavioral Theory 376 ● Innatist Theory 377 ● Cognitive
Theory 377 ● Social Interaction Theory 377
Factors Affecting Communication Development 378
Hearing 378 ● Vision 379 ● Intelligence 380 ●
Memory 380 ● Attention 381 ● Children from Culturally
and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds 381
Communication Development in Young Children with Special Needs 382
Intellectual Disabilities 382 ● Learning Disabilities 382 ● Behavior
Disorders 383 ● Specific Speech Disorders 384 ● Hearing
Loss 384 ● Vision Loss 385 ● Cerebral Palsy 386 ● Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 386 ● Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder 386
Specific Strategies for Assessment of Communicative Functioning 387
Language Foundations and Parent-Implemented Language
Interventions 389 ● Language and Social Behavior 389 ● Language
and Literacy 390 ● Principles of Intervention 390
Summary 395
References 397
Chapter 9 Social and Emotional Development 402

Joan Lieber and Debra Drang
Definitional Issues 403
Emotional Development 404 ● Social Competence with
Peers 405 ● Friendship 405
Theories of Social and Emotional Development 406
Attachment Theory 406 ● Emotional Intelligence 407 ● Social
Learning Theory 408 ● A Developmental Biopsychosocial Model: The
Developmental, Individual Differences, Relationship-Based (DIR) Approach 409
Factors Affecting Social and Emotional Development 409
Temperament 410 ● Gender 410 ● Stress and
Resilience 411 ● Sibling Relationships 411 ● Parental Style 413
x CONTENTS
Social and Emotional Development in Children with Special Needs 414

Children with Autism 414 ● Children with Developmental
Delays 415 ● Children with Communication Disabilities 416 ●
Children with Sensory Impairments 417 ● Children with Challenging
Behaviors 418 ● Children with Attention Deficits 419
Specific Strategies for Assessment of Social-Emotional Functioning 420
Multimethod Assessment 421 ● What Is
Normal? 421 ● Assessments Related to
Emotional Competence 422 ● Systematic
Observation 422 ● Interviews and
Questionnaires 423 ● Rating Scales 424
Family-Focused Interventions 425 ● Skills of
the Caregiver 425 ● Skills of the Interventionist 427 ●
Family-Focused Intervention Example 428 ● Child-Focused
Interventions 428 ● The Classroom Setting 428 ● Strategies
to Improve Social Relationships 428 ● Interventions That
Include Emotional Development 431 ● Interventions for
Challenging Behaviors 432
Summary 434
References 435
Pa rt III Principles of Assessment and Intervention
Ch apter 10 Assessment of Young Children: Standards, Stages, and

Approaches 440
Rebecca Edmondson Pretzel and Emily A. Wray
Current Standards for the Assessment Process 442
Treatment Utility 446 ● Social Validity 446 ●
Convergent Assessment 447 ● Consensual Validity 447
Stages of Assessment 447
Stage 1: Early Identification 449 ● Stage 2: Comprehensive
Evaluation 455 ● Stage 3: Program Planning and
Implementation 458 ● Stage 4: Program Evaluation 459
Team Approaches and Typologies 460
Team Models 460 ● Assessment Typologies 462
Considerations for the Assessment of Young Children 472
Selection of Assessment Measures and Methods 472 ●
Situational Considerations 473 ● Family and Parental
Involvement 474
CO NTENTS xi
Summary 475
References 476
Chapter 11 Intervention 479
Tina M. Smith-Bonahue
Defining Intervention 481
Family-Centered Intervention 482
Multiculturalism and Early Intervention 483 ● Barriers to
Effective Family Involvement 485
Program Planning 486
Special Education Eligibility Determination 488 ● Multicultural
Considerations in Assessment 489 ● Developing a Strategy 502
Summary 516
References 518
Name Index 523
Subject Index 529
Foreword
E arly childhood intervention no longer has to fight for its place in the sun. More
and more, the critical importance of early learning for children at risk and those
with special needs is understood and appreciated by parents, educators, and pol-
icy makers. In the past decade alone, evidence has accumulated that shows that
investments in young children can have a significant return on human capital
investment. Programs targeted toward the earliest years outstrip those focused on
older students many times over.
Educators have also acquired new evidence to support the position that
early interventions can make a difference that can last a lifetime. One of the best
examples of this is language learning; here the data show the dependence of lan-
guage learning on the age of the learner for first and second languages as well as
for spoken and sign languages. Those who seek to acquire language later in life
have more difficulty learning and usually demonstrate less mastery than those
who begin early. Studies also show that the older a child is, the more difficult it is
to alter that child’s behavior. Although it’s clear that development continues well
beyond the first decade of life, for those who have problems in learning, the lon-
ger we wait, the more complex and expensive will be remediation. A strong foun-
dation in the principles of child development and a keen awareness of these issues
are critical to implementing effective early intervention practices and programs.
Nevertheless, despite all we know about the importance of early interven-
tion, there is still much more to learn. As a nation, we must learn to confront
and contain the inequities that place some children at greater disadvantage than
others because of accidents of birth, socioeconomic status, or race/ethnicity. We
also need to convince policy makers and the general public that early interven-
tion does not constitute an inoculation against inadequate care, treatment, and
failing educational programs that follow in years to come. Continuity between
early and later intervention is critical. Finally, we must recognize that caring for
children with special needs involves the family, the school, and the community.
In particular, it entails changes in organizational structures that can help elimi-
nate the insularity that our various child-serving institutions operate within. This
organizational isolation and lack of communication frustrates those who work on
behalf of children with special needs and prevents children, families, and profes-
sionals from achieving their goals.
Young Children with Special Needs demonstrates that the future of early
intervention is founded on strong evidence obtained within the framework of
child development. The text has evolved over the past three decades. It not only
keeps pace with this evidence base but it also remains true to the critical impor-
tance of understanding the principles of child development for those working
with young children with special needs. In addition to providing current infor-
mation for early interventionists and other child development professionals, this
xii
FOREWORD xiii
new edition emphasizes an important evolving component of the field—namely,

placing these findings and principles within a broad social and organizational
context in order to increase their impact and their effectiveness. More than
any other area of education, special education—especially early intervention—
recognizes that the child, family, and community cannot effectively be isolated
one from another. The chapters in this text are a testament to this realization and,
more broadly, to the interdisciplinary perspective that has such great potential
for all our children.
Samuel J. Meisels
Founding Executive Director
Buffett Early Childhood Institute
University of Nebraska
Preface
W hen the first edition of Young Children with Special Needs was published,
Nancy Fallen, the first editor, had a vision for a nascent field that was laid out in
the text. However, there was little history to present about the field at that time.
In the four decades since, early childhood special education has grown in ways
few would have imagined. From the first few experimental personnel prepara-
tion programs, dozens more have developed, many aligned closely with regular
early education and child development training programs. From a few model
demonstration early intervention programs for preschoolers in each state, there
have grown thousands of programs, and early intervention is mandatory in every
state for eligible children beginning at birth. From a few experimental curricula
and homemade materials, an entire industry has advanced, geared to serving the
needs of young children with special needs and their families. And, from service
delivery models often based on geography (rural, urban, or suburban), Internet
connectivity has revolutionized access to information. Parents have access to a
wealth of information in seconds and programs can now offer real-time distance
early intervention. What a time we live in!
New to This Edition

The modifications in this sixth edition either reflect what early interventionists
and peer reviewers have said about the importance of a specific issue and their
need for more comprehensive knowledge or they reflect our own impressions of
what early interventionists need to know and be able to do. The material often
can be complex and technical; mastery of this information will lead to mastery on
the job to the great benefit of the children and families whom we serve.
Some of the content and format changes to this new edition are quite dra-
matic and many are more subtle.
● All chapters have been extensively updated to reflect current theory and prac-
tice. A developmental perspective continues to be the prevailing philosophy,
and we believe that this separates this text from those with a “disorders” focus.
● All references are 2000 or later, except for classic studies. References appear
at the end of each chapter to make it easier for the readers to locate key
references and citations in an efficient fashion.
● The Partnerships with Families chapter has been moved back to the first
part of the book. Pam Epley and Kathleen Kyzar, authoritative experts
in this area, are the new authors of this chapter. This is a move based on
reader and reviewer feedback, but it also reflects the pervasive importance
of family involvement to every aspect of early childhood—a message that is
reinforced throughout this text and an important subtle trend in the early
childhood field that indicates the ever growing significance of the family in
xiv
PREFA CE xv
serving young children with special needs. Indeed, in the fourth edition of
this text, this chapter was located in the foundation section, but for the fifth
edition, we were guided to place this chapter in the assessment and inter-
vention section—indicating the critical nature of family information and
participation in the assessment and intervention process. For this revision,
we have moved the family chapter back to the foundation section to reflect
the pervasive importance of family involvement to every aspect of early
childhood—a message that will be reinforced throughout this text.
● Fine and oral motor development were separated from self-care skills into
individual chapters. This is a more logical and manageable approach for
learning the complex material, and one that aligns with contemporary
perspectives on assessment and early intervention.
● Additional current information is included regarding other federal laws,
policies, and exciting new initiatives. One of these new initiatives, response
to intervention, may provide a strategic approach to early identification,
assessment, and early intervention, and will likely have significant applica-
bility to the field of early childhood education.
● Additional and improved graphics have been added to reinforce the written text
● An Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank now accompanies the text.
The sixth edition of Young Children with Special Needs also maintains a
developmental theoretical perspective. Successful early intervention revolves
around competent professionals who are knowledgeable about children, families,
and the tools of intervention, and apply that knowledge in a sensitive and skillful
way. We believe this formula will yield the greatest benefits to the readers, and
it should facilitate the translation of this information to practice settings where
there always will be a demand for expertise in early development.
Further, the organization of this text was thoughtfully structured to support
a logical flow of information. The division into the three parts is consistent with a
knowledge-content-application approach that guides the structure of this book as
well as the curricula and associated courses for many early childhood and child devel-
opment training programs. We have continued to put emphasis on key content areas
in early childhood special education, such as historical foundations, basic growth
and development, families, assessment and intervention, technology, and cultural
competency, with many of these topics being woven into the fabric of each chapter.
We have also maintained the changes that were made in earlier editions and
that were well received. The text has a user-friendly appearance with a number of
helpful instructional aids. Specifically, each chapter begins with an outline of the
chapter-specific topic and ends with questions and discussion points. In addition,
each chapter provides a number of recommended resources for additional read-
ing, research, and projects. All chapters have additional instructional technolo-
gies, including introductory case vignettes, key points listed in a sidebar format,
text boxes highlighting a topic directly or indirectly related to the chapter, and
boldfaced key words. It is hoped that these instructional features will facilitate the
teaching and learning of this material.
The introductory chapter in this sixth edition traces the unprecedented
evolution of early childhood special education from the seedling stage that
xvi Preface
characterized the field when this book was first published to the current stage of
emerging maturity with great emphasis on evidence-based best practices. Read-
ers benefit from having a history of the field in order to appreciate the rich heri-
tage of early childhood special education. The challenges that marked the first
few decades in the field were imposing, and, not unexpectedly, new challenges
continue to surface. It is important never to lose sight of the battles that were
fought and won in Congress, in state legislatures, in universities, and in local
communities. The need for strong advocacy continues. The first chapter will pro-
vide the foundation and tools for readers to engage successfully in these activities.
The key to successful early intervention has not changed over the years. We
place great emphasis on the readers gaining a deep and broad perspective of how
children develop as they do and what can go wrong. The early interventionist
who knows child development can feel confident and be supportive of children’s
and parents’ needs. Chapter Two is the anchor for the first part, offering funda-
mental and essential information on prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal develop-
ment. We have made a great effort to present the very latest information and to
challenge the readers to think beyond the facts. This intellectual challenge will
serve the readers well as they move through the remainder of the text and beyond
to become leaders in the field of early childhood—and we believe that this is
based on students and professionals having a strong foundation in development.
Moving the Partnerships with Families chapter to the first part of the book high-
lights the fundamental importance for readers to understand family dynamics. We
are very pleased to welcome Pam Epley and Kathleen Kyzar as authors of this chapter
and appreciate the sensitivity and expertise they communicate to the reader. We know
that the limited time an early interventionist spends with a child magnifies the impor-
tance that the family plays in the life of a young child with special needs. This chapter
encourages the reader to engage with the family and offers the tools for doing so.
Philosophically, we see development as the basis for assessment and diag-
nosis; it is the foundation on which interventions are built. To this end, Part Two
comprises the central chapters of this text. In short, these chapters provide the
information necessary to make the readers comfortable and confident in their
knowledge of how children develop. Any redundancy in information among
chapters is intentional, because it reflects the natural overlap in material from
one developmental area to another, and such repetition will facilitate learning.
The chapters in Part Two are written by specialists in the area. They intro-
duce the readers to new ways of thinking about children and about terminology
that is often unique to that area. These are necessary tools for the competent
early interventionist in order to be able to communicate with other professionals
and to interpret specialized information for parents. This is most notable in the
chapters on motor development. Because of the nature of the population, young
children with special needs often are challenged in their ability to move around
and to maintain a posture that supports learning and development. It is only by
immersing oneself in the material in each chapter and then applying the informa-
tion to real children and families that the readers will realize the true benefits of
this text. The division of self-care development and adaptive behavior into their
own chapter also aims toward a more logical approach that not only will facilitate
learning this key information but will also highlight the critical importance of
these skills for the child, family, and early interventionist.
PREFA CE xvii
Readers will notice an interesting balance in the discussion of assessment and

technology in the chapters of Part Two. Authors were cautious about making refer-
ence to specific products due to the rapid changes and introduction of new assess-
ment instruments and technology to the market. However, they most often address
the application of assessment and technology concepts by using available products
only as examples. It is the responsibility of the professionals, the early interventionists,
to be ever aware of changes in the field and of new approaches and materials that will
make their work more productive and successful. Again, with a strong knowledge
base in child development, we are confident that the readers will be able to evaluate
such tasks and procedures from an evidence-based developmental perspective.
The third part of the book addresses assessment and intervention. The
emphasis of the assessment chapter is on the array of assessment approaches
and the process of assessment rather than on specific instruments. This gives
the student much more flexibility to apply knowledge in a multitude of settings.
The intervention chapter also utilizes this approach. Although there are dozens
of curricula and intervention models available, the core attributes of successful
intervention are emphasized in the chapter. Finally, both of these chapters high-
light the critical importance of assessment-treatment linkages to an efficient,
programmatic approach to young children with special needs and their families.
Six editions and four decades later, the readers of this edition are very dif-
ferent from the readers of earlier editions from the 1970s and 1980s. We believe
the content of the book reflects well where we are today and where the field is
headed. Growth of the field will continue—even in the face of competing political
and economic priorities. There has been a true commitment to early childhood
special education on the part of state and federal governments, university train-
ing programs, and local communities. This commitment likely will be rewarded
with better, cost-effective services, an increased number of readily available
evidence-based interventions for young children with special needs, better
trained personnel, more informed and more involved families and communities,
and increasingly more child-friendly public policies. In turn, we already have
gained increased respect for young children with special needs and their families
and appreciate the valuable contributions to our society this population makes.
We trust that the readers of the sixth edition of this text will show the same com-
mitment to early intervention as those who have been the pioneers in the field.
We are indebted to our contributors, whose expertise, sound judgment,
and attention to details have resulted in a comprehensive, contemporary, and
clinically useful text. We also would like to express appreciation to the profes-
sionals who reviewed our manuscript: Laura Boswell, Marshall University;
Megan Purcell, Eastern Kentucky University; and Gene Schwarting, Fontbonne
University. Thanks to the staff at Pearson for their guidance in completing this
revision. We are confident you will find this book both intellectually stimulating
and practical. Your comments and anecdotes are welcome.
Stephen R. Hooper, Ph.D.

Chapel Hill, NC
Warren Umansky, Ph.D.

Augusta, GA
About the Authors
Stephen R. Hooper, Ph.D. is a tenured professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the
University of North Carolina School of Medicine, and he holds additional appointments in
the UNC Department of Pediatrics, School of Education, Department of Psychology, Frank
Porter Graham Child Development Institute, and the Department of Psychiatry and Behav-
ioral Sciences at Duke University Medical Center. He also is the Associate Director of the
Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, an interdisciplinary program dedicated to
clinical training and service, professional development, research, community outreach, and
policy development. Dr. Hooper obtained his doctoral degree at the University of Georgia,
and completed clinical internship training in the Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics
at Vanderbilt School of Medicine, and Postdoctoral Fellowship training in Pediatric Neuro-
psychology at Brown University School of Medicine. He is a member of numerous journal
editorial advisory boards, and he reviews regularly for other major journals in the fields of
child neuropsychology, school psychology, clinical psychology, developmental disabilities,
pediatrics, child psychiatry, and early childhood. Dr. Hooper is widely published in the area
of child neuropsychology, with a focus on brain functioning in young children with spe-
cial needs and associated neurodevelopmental outcomes. He is the author of 11 books, with
Young Children with Special Needs now reaching its sixth edition. Dr. Hooper is the director
of a large leadership training program in the area of neurodevelopmental disabilities, Leader-
ship Education in Neurodevelopmental Disabilities, and regularly teaches graduate students at
UNC and post-professionals via national and international workshops on the broad topic of
childhood neurodevelopmental disorders. Clinically, he has a long-standing history of serv-
ing children with special needs in his Child Neuropsychology Consultation Program at the
Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities and through statewide clinical consultation
to the North Carolina schools, particularly for children with special needs. The publication
of the sixth edition of Young Children with Special Needs is a proud achievement in his career.
Warren Umansky is a Pas-President of the Division for Early Childhood of the Coun-
cil for Exceptional Children. He received his Ph.D. at Indiana University and completed a
postdoctoral fellowship in Pediatric Neuropsychology at Tufts–New England Medical Center.
He established one of the earliest graduate training programs in the country in Early Child-
hood Special Education at the University of Georgia and directed a federal project on teen-
age parents. Following his faculty position, he was Director of Maternal and Child Health
for the Northeast Health District in Georgia, before entering private practice. Dr. Umansky
has been a consultant to preschool programs, universities, school systems, and hospitals and
was a speaker for pharmaceutical companies Eli Lilly and McNeil. He has led international
study tours and has made presentations throughout the United States and in other countries.
His many published books, chapters, articles, continuing education courses, and multimedia
materials encompass a range of child development issues. He currently is working on a revi-
sion of his book on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and on a continuing education
course on ethics and the law in working with children.
xviii
Contributors
Carole W. Dennis, Sc.D., OTR/L, BCP Dailyn Martinez, M.A.
Assistant Professor Psychology Intern
Occupational Therapy Department University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
Ithaca College Dallas, Texas
Ithaca, New York
Jean A. Patz, MS, OTR/L
Debra Drang, Ph.D. Instructor, Instructional Specialist, and Research Assistant
Faculty Research Assistant Occupational Therapy Program
Special Education Program The Waisman Center
University of Maryland University of Wisconsin–Madison
College Park, Maryland Madison, Wisconsin
Susan R. Easterbrooks, Ed.D. Rebecca Edmondson Pretzel, Ph.D.

Professor Associate Professor
Department of Educational Psychology Department of Psychiatry
and Special Education Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities
College of Education University of North Carolina School of Medicine
Georgia State University Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Atlanta, Georgia
Tina M. Smith-Bonahue, Ph.D.
Pamela Epley, Ph.D. Professor
Assistant Professor School of Special Education, School Psychology, and
Graduate School in Child Development Early Childhood Studies
Erikson Institute University of Florida
Chicago, Illinois Gainesville, Florida
Sharon G. Gartland, MA, OTR/L Stacey Tucci

Clinical Instructor Research Teacher
The Waisman Center Department of Educational Psychology and Special
University of Wisconsin–Madison Education
Madison, Wisconsin College of Education
Georgia State University
Stephen R. Hooper, Ph.D. Atlanta, Georgia
Professor
Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics Warren Umansky, Ph.D.
Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities Director
University of North Carolina School of Medicine Children’s Clinic
Chapel Hill, North Carolina Augusta, Georgia
Kathleen Kyzar, Ph.D. Crista Wetherington Donewar, Ph.D.

Research Associate Assistant Professor
Beach Center on Disability Department of Psychiatry
University of Kansas University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
Lawrence, Kansas Training Director
Children’s Medical Center Dallas
Joan Lieber, Ph.D. Dallas, Texas
Professor
Department of Special Education Emily A. Wray, Ph.D.
University of Maryland Postdoctoral Fellow in Psychology
College Park, Maryland Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities
University of North Carolina School of Medicine
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
chaptEr 1
Introduction to Young
Children with Special Needs
Warren Umansky
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Young Children with Special Needs 3
C hapter Outline
● A Rationale for Early Childhood Special Education
● The Early Interventionist
● Young Children with Special Needs and Their Families
● The Family and the Community
Alex and Margie

Alex and Margie got married in their mid-30s. Soon afterward, they tried to satisfy one of
their mutual goals in life—that of having a child. After several years of marriage, Margie finally
became pregnant. Joy was mixed with apprehension. Had they waited too long? They had heard
that the chances of problems occurring increased with the age of the parents. Did their family
history doom their chances of having a typical child? After all, Margie’s older brother had Down
syndrome, two of her nephews were being treated for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and
an elderly uncle had what probably was a mild case of cerebral palsy. Alex’s family also had its
share of problems, from autism in his sister’s youngest son to his father’s congenital deafness in one
ear. Maybe they shouldn’t have tried to have kids after all, Margie and Alex thought to themselves.
Margie was in good health and she was committed to taking excellent care of herself dur-
ing pregnancy. The couple also planned to have prenatal testing done that would alert them to
any suspected problems. Although Margie and Alex wanted desperately to envision a healthy and
perfect baby, they knew there were no guarantees. They looked forward to the first sonogram that
would allow them to see the fetus in the uterus. They also eagerly anticipated the quickening, when
Margie would begin to feel their baby moving. The couple would be more comfortable when they
saw a healthy-looking image on the sonogram and felt the baby’s movements. They tried hard to
concentrate on positive thoughts of a wonderful baby and happy family experiences, but they were
aware that resources in their community provided early intervention services to their nephew with
autism and would be available to them if the need arose. They hoped this would not be the case.
T here is mounting evidence that early intervention can have a markedly posi-
tive effect on the development of infants and preschoolers with some types of One goal of early intervention
disabilities. Partly because of the influence of professional and advocacy orga- is to prevent or reduce
nizations, such as the Council for Exceptional Children, Children and Adults negative environmental and
with Attention Deficit Disorders, United Cerebral Palsy, the Autism Society of biological influences on the
child.
America, the National Brain Injury Association, and the Epilepsy Foundation
of America, decision makers have become more responsive to the needs of chil-
dren with disabilities and children who are at risk for disabilities. In addition, the
experiences of agencies that offer early intervention programs, such as the com-
munity resources referred to in the vignette, have contributed to an atmosphere
of urgency. These experiences have revealed such benefits of early intervention as
long-term savings in program costs as children’s needs for complex and expensive
services decrease with time.
4 part I Foundations
Not everyone is convinced that early education is successful or necessary,

however. Certainly the goal of early childhood special education is an ambitious
one: to intervene during the early years to prevent or lessen the effects of harmful
biological or environmental influences and to maximize a child’s development
and learning. It is the broad scope of early education efforts that has provided fuel
for the fires of both proponents and skeptics.
The idea of early education did not develop overnight; rather, it evolved slowly
One basis for early childhood and on many fronts simultaneously. For example, classic animal research conducted
special education is found in with monkeys and with rats and rabbits related characteristics of early experience
animal research. to the animals’ subsequent behavior and development. Rats that are raised in a
complex environment have brains that are different from those of rats raised in a
nonstimulating environment. The preponderance of evidence from p sychological
research supports the significant impact of early experience on development.
Enriched experiences can maintain or accelerate development, and deprivation
and abusive experiences can contribute to retarded or deviant development.
Medical and sociological research has contributed further evidence of the
Children who are effects of early experiences on development. The generalized influence of pov-
malnourished may achieve erty on development is profound, but can be mitigated by early intervention.
typical ranges of development The specific effects of nutrition on brain growth and mental development have
with comprehensive early been found to be significant, as well. Malnourished children tend to develop
intervention.
at a retarded rate and exhibit learning and behavioral deficits as they get older.
Prenatal malnutrition may have a particularly negative impact on the later devel-
opment of children; however, many of the adverse effects of malnutrition may be
overcome by sensory stimulation. Early intervention also benefits young children
prenatally exposed to cocaine and other illicit substances.
In theory, as in practice, attention has focused on early experiences. The
works of Freud (1965), Erikson (1963), and Piaget and Inhelder (1969) portray a
building-block concept in which development is viewed as a structure made up
of different levels. The strength and integrity of the lower levels of the structure—
the early years—are necessary for stability as more levels are added. Similarly,
this chapter lays the foundation for a logical and supportable approach to the
education of young children with special needs. Subsequent chapters focus on
characteristics of these children and the process of providing high-quality ser-
vices to them and their families to maximize their development, independence,
and, ultimately, their quality of life.
A Rationale for Early Childhood Special

Garnering support for early
Education
childhood special education
programs requires that Particularly during times of economic hardship and competition for limited
the professional be able to resources, programs that remain and grow are often those with advocates who
make clear and compelling present the most logical and compelling arguments. Many arguments can be
arguments that justify their made for committing resources to the education of young children with special
benefits. needs. Programs throughout the country that have served these children provide
firsthand evidence of the benefits of doing so.
Legislation
Most early intervention efforts began under the umbrella of Maternal and Child
Health (MCH). The Title V Maternal and Child Health program was enacted
in 1935 under the Social Security Act. It is the country’s oldest federal–state
partnership, wherein each state had to provide local funds to match federal funds
given it for programs to help mothers, women, infants, and children, includ-
ing young children with special needs. In 1981, Title V became a Block Grant
Program. States have been given money annually to support and expand pro-
grams for identified high-risk populations. (The current funding levels for each
state can be found at the link at the end of the chapter under “Recommended
Resources,” Maternal and Child Health Bureau.) Maternal and Child Health pro-
grams have supported an expansive array of services at the state and local levels.
In 2012, for example, two new programs were initiated with the support of the
Affordable Care Act that continue the federal priority of focusing on prevention
of disabilities and caring for children with disabilities. The first program sup-
ports Family-to-Family Health Information Centers in each state. As the Secre-
tary of Health and Human Services said, these programs “are a good investment
and have a measurable and positive impact on families and communities” (press
release, May 23, 2012). The second program is called the Maternal, Infant and
Early Childhood Home Visiting Program. Among families that are highest prior-
ity to receive services under this program are those with children with develop-
mental delays or disabilities, those with a history of substance abuse and tobacco
use, and families who have children with low achievement. Additional MCH pro-
grams about which early intervention professionals should be aware and which
focus on health and safety of young children are presented in Box 1.1.
Compared to health-related programs, education for children with disabili-
ties was primarily a local and state concern well into the twentieth century. The
federal government made few specific commitments to children with special
needs. Its first commitment to special education was the establishment in 1864
of Gallaudet College for the Deaf in Washington, DC. It was not until 1930, how-
ever, that the federal government directly addressed the issue of special educa-
tion and established a section on Exceptional Children and Youth in the Office
of Education of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The needs of
young children were also addressed through the Children’s Bureau of the same
department.
The federal government’s role in special education remained limited, how-
ever, until the 1960s. It did support programs for children with special needs by
(1) supplying matching funds to state and local agencies, (2) granting funds for
research in all areas of exceptionality, (3) disseminating information, (4) provid-
ing consultative services to state and local groups, and (5) distributing fellow-
ships for the training of professionals in all areas related to special education. A
major turning point for federal support of education came in 1965, when Con-
gress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). This act and
its subsequent amendments made available to schools large amounts of money
with which to serve children from 3 to 21 years of age who were educationally
disadvantaged and who were disabled, created the Bureau of Education for the
Handicapped, and provided funds for research and demonstration projects to
box 1.1 Additional MCH Programs about Which Early Intervention Professionals

Should Be Aware
Healthy Child Care America Program This program Carolina, this program has developed quality training for
works toward goals of quality assurance, child care health professionals on the specifics of child care health
health consultant infrastructure building, and access to consultation. Over 400 consultants have been trained
medical homes/insurance for children in early care and and provide direct consultative services that improve
education programs. In partnership with national experts health practices and policies in early childhood programs
(in particular the American Academy of Pediatrics and the throughout the nation.
American Public Health Association), voluntary national
health and safety standards for child care programs— Child Care and Health Partnership This program
commonly referred to as Caring for Our Children is located at the American Academy of Pediatrics. In
(CFOC)—have been developed and continuously collaboration with health professionals, it has sought
improved with new scientific evidence and best practice. to improve children’s health and safety in child care
States use these standards as guidelines to improve their settings in such ways as better and earlier developmental
child care state regulations. Caregivers and families use screenings, increased awareness and access to a medical
them to evaluate their programs and make improvements home, and access to health insurance.
to protect children from harm and improve their healthy
development and be ready to enter school. Early Childhood Comprehensive Systems Program
(ECCS) This program has successfully built an
National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child infrastructure within states that supports families
Care and Early Education This program, housed at the and communities in their development of children
University of Colorado, Denver, coordinates the continual who are healthy and ready to learn at school entry.
improvement of CFOC and has developed consumer- The program has a broader scope than most other
friendly resources such as specific nutrition, physical activity, systems’ development efforts in that it focuses on
and screen time standards to help set the path for the five different areas of early childhood needs: (1) early
prevention of childhood obesity in the youngest children. care and education, (2) access to health insurance
and medical homes, (3) social-emotional health and
National Training Institute for Child Care Health mental-development health, (4) family support, and
Consultants Housed at the University of North (5) parenting education.
improve special education services. Many parallel legislative efforts began during
these times, as well.
In 1974, amendments to the Education of the Handicapped Act required
The federal government states without conflicting laws to establish a plan to identify and serve all children
has played a growing role in with disabilities from birth to 21 years of age. The same philosophy and a simi-
supporting and encouraging lar age range were included in Public Law (P.L.) 94–142, the Education for All
the growth of early Handicapped Children Act of 1975. (Unfortunately, few states fell within this
intervention programs.
act’s mandate because of state laws that defined an older mandatory school age.)
In addition, priorities for serving children were established such that states first
had to serve school-aged children who were receiving no education, then chil-
dren with severe disabilities who were in inappropriate placement, and, finally,
preschool children. Nevertheless, several states passed local legislation to serve
young children with special needs. Texas, for example, made programs avail-
able from birth to children who needed special services. California offered state
funds to any school system that served preschool-aged children with disabilities.
Virginia maintained a statewide technical assistance system for preschool teach-
ers of children with disabilities and reimbursed the school system for a large por-
tion of the teachers’ salaries. Public Law 94–142 is viewed by some as one of the
major pieces of legislation ever passed that has motivated states to provide high-
quality education to children with special needs. Amendments to the original law
have further expanded and refined services.
Public Law 94–142 contained numerous provisions that apply to children with
disabilities of all ages and some that apply to preschool-aged children specifically.
Some of the requirements of the original law follow:
1. Public education agencies must ensure that all children who need special
education and related services are identified and evaluated.
2. Parents have numerous procedural safeguards that protect the rights of
each child with a disability to receive a free and appropriate education.
These safeguards include the rights of parents to do the following:
a. Review the child’s educational records.
b. Obtain an independent evaluation of the child.
c. Receive written notice before the school begins the special education
placement process.
d. Request a hearing before an impartial hearing officer to challenge place-
ment or program decisions.
3. The child must receive a comprehensive multidisciplinary educational
assessment. Various types of intellectual, social, and cultural information
must be considered in the assessment. The process must be repeated at
least every three years.
4. An individualized education plan (IEP) must be written for every child in
special education. Development of the document is a joint effort of school
personnel and the parent. The IEP must be reviewed at least annually.
5. To the maximum extent possible, children with disabilities must be edu-
cated with their nondisabled peers. Special classes and separate schools can
be used only when the nature or severity of the child’s disability prohibits
education in a more typical setting.
To motivate states to move forward with early intervention programs,

P.L. 94–142 also provided Preschool Incentive Grants to states that identified
preschool children in need of special education services. The act allowed states to
receive up to $300 for each 3- to 5-year-old child in addition to the funds the act
already made available to all children with disabilities. In actuality, considerably
less than that amount was available for each child with disabilities when the law
was first implemented; initially, only about an additional $100 was provided by
the federal government to states for each identified 3- to 5-year-old in need of
special education services. Public Law 99–457 was a major
Much has occurred since the passage of P.L. 94-142. Legislative action dur- turning point for services
ing the past almost 40 years has left little doubt about the federal commitment to infants, toddlers, and
to young children with special needs. Congress took a major step in 1986 with preschoolers with disabilities.
the passage of P.L. 99–457. In addition to continuing authorization for services
to preschool children with disabilities from age 3 under Section 619 of Title B of
the law (the Preschool Grants Program), Title H of the law provided incentives to
states to serve children from birth who had special needs or were at risk for later
problems. The law specified an increased role for families in services to children
from birth through 2 years of age and introduced the individualized family ser-
vice plan (IFSP), which is the equivalent of the IEP but must consider the needs
of the whole family relative to the child. States had five years to implement a com-
prehensive, coordinated interagency system of services and resources, including
an emphasis on serving infants and toddlers. States that adopted this initiative
were required to have 14 components in place based on a timeline specified by
the law wherein states had to be prepared to provide full services to infants and
toddlers by the fifth year of funding. By the 1993–1994 school year, all states were
required to ensure full implementation.
In 1991, Congress reauthorized funds for special education programs as the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This revision of the origi-
nal law made services for the 3- to 5-year-old population mandatory for states
rather than optional. A subsequent authorization changed the funding formula
to increase the amount of money that states received for each identified child.
The 1997 Amendments to IDEA (P.L. 105–17) and IDEA 2004 (P.L. 108–446)
further solidified the funding of services. Figure 1.1 presents funding levels from
1977 through 2012 and the number of children served under Part B of IDEA
through 2010. The law also moved provisions for services to infants and toddlers
from Part H to Part C and increased to 16 the number of components states were
required to have in place for early intervention services for infants and toddlers.
These components are presented in Box 1.2. In the latter part of 2011, new regu-
lations went into effect that complemented the 2004 reauthorization and made
several technical changes.
The specific wording of IDEA formalized a philosophy of inclusiveness
Inclusiveness is the promoted by early intervention professionals for many years. The purpose of
participation of children with inclusion is to expose children with disabilities to typical settings, activities, and
disabilities in settings with peers, allowing typically developing children to interact with their peers with dis-
typically developing children. abilities. Also, IDEA promoted the principle of natural environments, which
means that the child should receive early intervention services where the child
naturally would be—in the home or at a child care center, for example. With
increasing numbers of children receiving early intervention, today’s programs are
being challenged to develop new service delivery models. A significant change in
procedures for reassessment of children was made in the reauthorized IDEA of
2004. The original law required that a comprehensive multidisciplinary educa-
tional assessment be performed at least every three years. This was changed such
that assessments can be performed no more frequently than annually if the needs
of the child warrant and at least every three years unless the parent and local edu-
cation agency agree that reassessment is not necessary.
Natural environments enable The number of children served by early intervention programs and the
delivery of services to young amount of money spent for services are significant. Table 1.1 shows the number
children with special needs of infants and toddlers through age 2 served from 1991 to 2011 under Part C of
in settings that are typical for IDEA and the amount of money appropriated through 2012. In 2011, 343,000
other children of that age. infants and toddlers and their families received early intervention services. This
represents an increase of almost 50,000 children served since the last edition
F i gu r e 1 . 1 Number of children served, total appropriations, and allocation per child from 1977 to
2012, Section 619 (Preschool Programs)
Key:
Dollars (Millions) appropriated for distribution to states
Children (Thousands) receiving FAPE in the Fall of each federal fiscal year, U.S. & Outlying Areas.
Dollars Per Child allocation of Section 619 dollars
FFY (Federal Fiscal Year): For example, in FFY 1986, 261,000 children were reported to be receiving
services as of December 1, 1985.
FFY ’77 ’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03 ’04 ’05 ’06 ’07 ’08 ’09 ’10 ’11 ’12
Dollars
(Millions) 12 28 180 201 247 251 292 320 326 339 360 360 360 374 374 390 390 390 387 388 385 381 381 374 374 374 373 374
Children
(Thousands) 197 261 265 288 323 352 369 398 430 479 528 549 562 572 574 589 601 620 648 681 703 706 712 710 709 732 N/A N/A
Dollar
Per Child 63 110 679 697 769 713 797 803 750 707 683 656 641 654 653 664 650 630 599 570 548 540 535 527 528 511 N/A N/A
900
Dollars (Millions) Children (Thousands) Dollars per Child
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
’77 ’86 ’87 ’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03 ’04 ’05 ’06 ’07 ’08 ’09 ’10 ’11 ’12
Note: The number of children represents the United States and outlying areas.
Sources: http:/www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/statetables/12stbyprogrm.pdf (downloaded September 1, 2012) and https://www
.ideadata.org/PartBChildCount.asp (downloaded September 1, 2011). Compiled by Lazara, A., Danaher, J., & Goode, S. (2012). Chapel
Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute, National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center. The
document is maintained online at http://www.nectac.org/~pdfs/growthcomp.pdf.
of this book was published in 2009. These children are served in many differ-
ent settings. The trend over the years has been for more infants and toddlers to
receive services in the home rather than in other settings (see Table 1.2) and is
consistent with the principle of natural environments. About 735,000 children
with disabilities aged 3 through 5 were served by preschool programs supported
box 1.2 Minimum Components Under Idea for a Statewide, Comprehensive

System of Early Intervention Services to Infants and Toddlers with
Special Needs (Including American Indian and Homeless Infants and
Toddlers)
1. A rigorous definition of the term developmental 10. Single line of authority in a lead agency designated
delay or established by the governor for carrying out:
2. Available and appropriate early intervention a. General administration and supervision
services based on scientific research, to the extent b. Identification and coordination of all available
practicable, for all infants and toddlers with resources
disabilities and their families, including American c. Assignment of financial responsibility to the
Indian and homeless infants and toddlers appropriate agencies
3. Timely and comprehensive multidisciplinary d. Development of procedures to ensure that
evaluation of needs of children and family-directed services are provided in a timely manner
identification of the needs of each family pending resolution of any disputes
4. Individualized family service plan and service e. Resolution of intra- and interagency disputes
coordination f. Development of formal interagency agreements
5. Comprehensive child find and referral system 11. Policy pertaining to contracting or otherwise
6. Public awareness program including the prepara- arranging for services
tion and dissemination of information to be given 12. Procedure for securing timely reimbursement of
to parents, and disseminating such information to funds
parents 13. Procedural safeguards
7. Central directory of services, resources, and research 14. System for compiling data on the early intervention
and demonstration projects system
8. Comprehensive system of personnel development, 15. State interagency coordinating council
including the training of paraprofessionals and the 16. Policies and procedures ensure that, to the maxi-
training of primary referral sources mum extent appropriate, early intervention services
9. Policies and procedures to ensure that personnel are provided in natural environments except when
are appropriately and adequately prepared and early intervention cannot be achieved satisfactorily
trained in a natural environment
Source: Adapted from 20 U.S.C. §1435(a).
by IDEA (Part B, Section 619) during the 2009–2010 school year. About 30 per-
cent of them were served exclusively in regular early childhood settings, whereas
about 23 percent were served exclusively in early childhood special education
settings. The remainder of the children were served in home, clinical, or a com-
bination of early childhood settings.
The quality of early intervention programs has evolved over the years through a
well-orchestrated plan. The Handicapped Children’s Early Education Assistance Act
of 1968 represented the first major federal recognition of the specific importance of
early education for young children with special needs. (Earlier laws focused primar-
ily on school-aged children.) The purpose of this legislation was to support model
programs for young children with special needs throughout the nation that would
demonstrate exemplary practices and share information with others. The act estab-
lished the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Program (HCEEP) to administer
Ta bl e 1 . 1 Summary of the Infant and Toddler Program (Part C) of

the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Annual appropriations
and number of children served under Part C of IDEA Federal Fiscal Years
1987–2012.
Appropriations Number of Children
FFY (Millions $) (thousands)
1987 50 N/A
1988 67 N/A
1989 69 N/A
1990 79 N/A
1991 117 194
1992 175 167
1993 213 143
1994 253 154
1995 316 165
1996 316 178
1997 316 187
1998 350 197
1999 370 189
2000 375 206
2001 384 233
2002 417 246
2003 434 269
2004 444 275
2005 441 285
2006 436 299
2007 436 305
2008 436 322
2009 439 343
2010 439 349
2011 439 343
2012 489 N/A
Source: Reproduced with permission of the National Early Childhood Technical Assistance
Center. Adapted from Danaher, J., Good, S., & Lazara, A. (Eds.) (2012). Part C updates
(12th edition). Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development
Institute, National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center.
and provide technical support for three-year demonstration programs called First
Chance projects. Initially, 24 demonstration projects were funded. The program
continued to evolve over the next several decades. In 1972, the program began sup-
porting outreach projects, whose job it was to share and disseminate proven models.
In 1977, research institutes were funded to explore new approaches and new meth-
ods for early intervention. Other components were added during the 1980s, which
included information management projects, in-service training projects, experi-
mental projects, and research projects on specific features of early intervention.
Ta bl e 1 . 2 Number of infants and toddlers ages birth through 2 years served under Part C of IDEA
by early intervention setting U.S. and outlying areas 2004–2011
Primary Early Intervention
Setting 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Home 235,190 248,035 260,186 275,272 295,387 302,311 299,704 291,747

Community-Based Settings1 - - 16,207 17,549 19,677 22,926 22,857 25,042
Other Setting2 - - 28,987 29,104 27,921 23,367 20,260 20,106
Total Settings 284,170 299,051 305,380 321,925 342,985 348,604 342,821 336,895
1
Community-based Setting. Unduplicated count of children whose early intervention services are provided primarily in a setting where
children whithout disabilities typically are found. These settings include but are not limited to child care centers (including family day
care), preschools, regular nursery schools, early childhood centers, libraries, grocery stores, parks, restaurants, and community centers
(e.g., YMCA, Boys and Girls Clubs).
2
Other Setting. Unduplicated count of children whose early intervention services are provided primarily in a setting that is not home
or community-based. These settings include, but are not limited to, services provided in a hospital, residential facility, clinic, and EI
center/class for children with disabilities.
Source for 2004–2009: Analytic Tool at https://www.ideadata.org/DACAnalyticTool/Intro_2.asp (retrieved August 15, 2011).
Source for 2011: https://www.ideadata.org/PartCSettings.asp (retrieved July 2, 2013).
An important component that has contributed to the historical success of

early intervention projects was technical assistance, which was funded begin-
ning in 1971. The Technical Assistance and Development System (TADS) at
the University of North Carolina provided assistance to projects in the eastern
states, and the Western States Technical Assistance Resource (WESTAR) at the
University of Oregon was given responsibility for projects in the western states. In
1987, TADS was re-funded as the National Early Childhood Technical Assistance
System (NECTAS) and currently as the Early Childhood Technical Assistance
Center (ECTAC) with responsibility for all Office of Special Education (OSEP)-
funded early intervention programs in the United States. It was re-funded and
renamed again as a National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center
(NECTAC) in 2001. The Center still is engaged in technical assistance, publica-
tion, and other support activities and continues to be located at the University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Several hundred demonstration programs have been funded under HCEEP
The Early Childhood Technical since 1968. Many former demonstration programs continued to receive funds
Assistance Center provides after the initial funding cycle to help other agencies adopt their documented
a wealth of resources for models for delivering services to young children with special needs in other geo-
the early childhood special
graphical areas. Outreach programs now are encouraged to work closely with
education community.
state agencies rather than with individual programs and agencies to replicate
Visit their website at
their exemplary service models with young children and their families.
www.ectacenter.org.
During the early years of demonstration projects, two large studies were
funded by the federal government to evaluate the projects’ efforts in meeting their
goals. A Battelle Institute report (1976), although criticized for lack of stringent
research procedures, cited developmental gains in children beyond those that
would have been expected had intervention not been provided. Subsequent to
that study, Littlejohn & Associates (1982) followed up on programs and children
who once had been part of the First Chance network and found that 84 percent
of the programs continued to serve children when eligibility for federal funding
expired. The outcomes for the children who had been served in the programs
also appeared to be favorable. The legislative incentive offered in 1968, then,
recognized the importance of the early years; it appears that mandate has been
exercised prudently and effectively.
Early intervention programs have evolved dramatically in the decades since
the Littlejohn report. This evolution was reflected in the renaming of HCEEP to
the Early Education Program for Children with Disabilities (EEPCD) in 1990 and
more substantial changes brought about in the Amendments to IDEA in 1997.
The EEPCD is no longer a separate program; rather, early childhood initiatives
are now included in many parts of IDEA. The emphasis of the early childhood
initiatives of the U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education
Programs (OSEP) has increasingly focused on providing support to states to help
them develop and refine the full array of services to young children with s pecial
needs and their families. For example, the law provides continued funding for
demonstration service projects (formerly First Chance projects), for replica-
tion of successful demonstration projects (called outreach), for research projects
and demonstration personnel training projects, for research institutes and other
research activities, and for technical assistance.
In FY2010 (2009–2010), OSEP funded 14 Technical Assistance and
Dissemination Projects, 6 Regional Resource Centers, 16 Technology and

Media Projects, 4 Model Demonstration Projects, and 7 Parent Center T echnical
Assistance Projects. In addition, IDEA provided funds to states for personnel
training programs and specified that each state must have a Comprehensive
System of Personnel Development (CSPD) plan to prepare its personnel.

The Office of Special Education Programs funded 104 personnel preparation
projects in FY2010. Recipients of funds for these various projects, including
demonstration and outreach grants, are encouraged to coordinate activities with
the state agency responsible for administering early intervention programs. The
IDEA gave the governor of each state authority to appoint the state agency to
oversee the infant and toddler (Part C) program in the state. The responsible
agencies in each state are listed in Table 1.3. Each state’s department of edu-
cation has responsibility for services to children with special needs once they
reach 3 years of age.
While research on individual early intervention programs has been sub-
stantial during the 1990s and will be discussed later in this chapter, the 1997
Amendments to IDEA also authorized funding for two national early interven-
tion studies. The National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study (NEILS) was a
descriptive study that examined a nationally representative sample of more than
3,300 infants and toddlers with disabilities, or who were at risk for d
isabilities,
and their families. The study period lasted from 1997 to 2001. The study was
not intended to assess the effectiveness of early intervention and did not uti-
lize a control or comparison group. Five questions were examined: (1) Who are
the children and families receiving EI (early intervention) services? (2) What
EI services do participating children and families receive? (3) What are the
costs of EI services? (4) What outcomes do participating children and families
experience? (5) How do outcomes relate to variations in children’s and f amilies’
characteristics and services received? The results provided some illuminating
and intuitive results—such as children with the greatest disabilities face the
Ta ble 1.3 List of Part C Lead Agencies

State/Jurisdiction [1,2] Lead Agency
Alabama Rehabilitation Services

Alaska Health and Social Services
American Samoa Health
Arizona Economic Security
Arkansas Human Services/Developmental Disabilities
California Developmental Services
Colorado Human Services/Developmental Disabilities
Connecticut Developmental Services
Delaware Health and Social Services
District of Columbia Education
Florida Health
Georgia Maternal and Child Health/Public Health
Guam Education
Hawaii Health
Idaho Health and Welfare
Illinois Human Services
Indiana Family and Social Services
Iowa Education
Kansas Health and Environment
Kentucky Health and Family Services/Public Health
Louisiana Health and Hospitals/Developmental Disabilities
Maine Education
Maryland Education
Massachusetts Public Health
Michigan Education
Minnesota Education
Mississippi Health
Missouri Education
Montana Public Health and Human Services
Nebraska Education and Health and Human Services (Co-Lead)
Nevada Health and Human Services
New Hampshire Health and Human Services
New Jersey Health and Senior Services
New Mexico Health/Developmental Disabilities Support Division
New York Health
North Carolina Health and Human Services
North Dakota Human Services
TABLE 1 . 3 continued
State/Jurisdiction [1,2] Lead Agency
Northern Mariana Islands Education

Ohio Health
Oklahoma Education
Oregon Education
Pennsylvania Public Welfare
Puerto Rico Health
Rhode Island Executive Office of Health and Human Services
South Carolina First Steps to School Readiness
South Dakota Education
Tennessee Education
Texas Assistive and Rehabilitative Services
Utah Health
Vermont Education and Human Services (Co-Lead)
Virgin Islands Health
Virginia Behavioral Health and Developmental Services
Washington Early Learning
West Virginia Health and Human Resources
Wisconsin Health Services
Wyoming Health
1
ederated States of Micronesia, Republic of Marshall Islands, and Republic of Palau are not
F
currently eligible for this federal program.
2
The Department of the Interior (DOI) receives allocation from the U.S. Department of Educa-
tion, which then is distributed by DOI to tribes.
Source: National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (NECTAC). Chapel Hill: The
University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute. Retrieved from http://www
.nectac.org/partc/ptclead.asp
greatest challenges and are likely to show the least developmental progress. In
addition, these children require the highest program expenses. N evertheless,
parents who were most involved in their children’s program learned valuable
advocacy and improved parenting skills regarding their own children. See
“Recommended Resources” at the end of this chapter for access to additional
information regarding NEILS.
The second early intervention study authorized by the 1997 Amend-
ments to IDEA was the six-year Pre-Elementary Education Longitudinal
Study (PEELS). This descriptive study followed a nationally representative
sample of more than 3,000 children aged 3 to 5 who received special educa-
tion services through the year 2009. The questions that were posed for exami-
nation were (1) What are the characteristics of children receiving preschool
special education? (2) What preschool program and services do they receive?
(3) What are their transitions like—between early intervention and preschool
and between preschool and elementary school? (4) How do these children
function and perform in preschool, kindergarten, and early elementary school?
(5) Which child, service, and program characteristics are associated with
children’s performance over time on assessments of academic and adaptive
skills? See “Recommended Resources” at the end of this chapter for access to
additional information regarding PEELS.
Both NEILS and PEELS had substantial limitations in that they were descrip-
tive and did not reflect the great variations in characteristics or quality of services
at the local level. It is likely that the results of these studies, however, will provide
a model for state and local programs to evaluate the effectiveness of their early
intervention efforts.
Emphasis on what was happening at the state level generated changes
in ESEA, as well. In 1994, ESEA was significantly revised by the Improving
America’s School Act. The most significant impact of this act was to better
coordinate federal resources and programs with those provided at the state
and local levels for the benefit of all students. It also gave states more control
over their programs and had provisions for states to request waivers of federal
requirements that interfered with local school improvement. The reauthoriza-
tion of the Act in 2001 changed the name again to the No Child Left Behind
Act (NCLB). This act increased accountability by schools to meet certain
achievement levels. However, the levels states had to meet were considered
unrealistic such that the U.S. Secretary of Education in 2011, in the absence
of congressional action to revise the law, allowed states to ask for waivers for
meeting the prescribed achievement levels. The reauthorization of IDEA in
2004 called for states to establish goals for students with disabilities that were
aligned with NCLB. The No Child Left Behind Act had as its primary goal that
every child would be reading at grade level by third grade. The law also focused
on the application of evidence-based strategies (i.e., using approaches that have
research support). The movement toward using documented approaches has
been at the foundation of early childhood programs and has been addressed
with respect to special needs populations. Whereas IDEA emphasizes indi-
vidual student progress and NCLB emphasizes school accountability through
measurement of a school’s adequate yearly progress (AYP), both laws focus
on improving academic achievement through high-quality programs and high
expectations.
In order for young children to meet the goals of NCLB, especially those
children with special needs, it was understood that high-quality programs

must begin before kindergarten. Consequently, the Good Start, Grow Smart
initiative was enacted in 2002 as an offshoot of NCLB. This program had three
components: strengthening Head Start, promoting a federal–state partnership to
improve early childhood programs, and improving dissemination of information
on current practices and research to early childhood personnel. The Elementary
and Secondary Education Act contained authorization for some programs that
targeted subgroups of young children, as well. For example, the Even Start
Family Literacy Program offers services to low-income families with children
birth through age 7 by integrating early childhood education, adult education,
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

Young Children With Special Needs 6th Edition Ebook PDF Version

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Young Children With Special Needs 6th Edition Ebook PDF Version

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Young Children with Special Needs 6th

Edition – Ebook PDF Version

Factors Affecting Fine-Motor Development 220

CHAPTER 6 Self-Care Skills 256

Technology in Assessment and Intervention 297

Ch apter 7 Cognitive Development 303

Ch apter 8 Communication Development 366

Communication 368 ● Speech 368 ● Language 368 ● Form,

Chapter 9 Social and Emotional Development 402

Social and Emotional Development in Children with Special Needs 414

Pa rt III Principles of Assessment and Intervention

Ch apter 10 Assessment of Young Children: Standards, Stages, and

new edition emphasizes an important evolving component of the field—namely,

New to This Edition

Readers will notice an interesting balance in the discussion of assessment and

Stephen R. Hooper, Ph.D.

Warren Umansky, Ph.D.

Susan R. Easterbrooks, Ed.D. Rebecca Edmondson Pretzel, Ph.D.

Sharon G. Gartland, MA, OTR/L Stacey Tucci

Kathleen Kyzar, Ph.D. Crista Wetherington Donewar, Ph.D.

Alex and Margie

Not everyone is convinced that early education is successful or necessary,

A Rationale for Early Childhood Special

box 1.1 Additional MCH Programs about Which Early Intervention Professionals

To motivate states to move forward with early intervention programs,

Dollars (Millions) appropriated for distribution to states

Dollars Per Child allocation of Section 619 dollars

box 1.2 Minimum Components Under Idea for a Statewide, Comprehensive

Source: Adapted from 20 U.S.C. §1435(a).

Ta bl e 1 . 1 Summary of the Infant and Toddler Program (Part C) of

Home 235,190 248,035 260,186 275,272 295,387 302,311 299,704 291,747

An important component that has contributed to the historical success of

Ta ble 1.3 List of Part C Lead Agencies

Alabama Rehabilitation Services

Northern Mariana Islands Education

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

You might also like

box 1.1 Additional MCH Programs about Which Early Intervention Professionals

box 1.2 Minimum Components Under Idea for a Statewide, Comprehensive